What is SQL :

SQL stands for Structured Query Language

It is programming Language used to communicate with our database.
SQL cheat sheet
Comprehensive

Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

SELECT The SELECT command retrieves SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
data from a database. table_name; FROM customers;

INSERT The INSERT command adds new INSERT INTO table_name INSERT INTO customers
records to a table. (column1, column2) VALUES (first_name, last_name)
(value1, value2); VALUES ('Mary', 'Doe');

UPDATE The UPDATE command is used UPDATE table_name SET column1 UPDATE employees SET
to modify existing records in a = value1, column2 = value2 employee_name = ‘John Doe’,
table. WHERE condition; department = ‘Marketing’;

DELETE The DELETE command removes DELETE FROM table_name WHERE DELETE FROM employees WHERE
records from a table. condition; employee_name = ‘John Doe’;

Data Definition Language (DDL) Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

CREATE The CREATE command creates a CREATE TABLE table_name CREATE TABLE employees (
new database and objects, such (column1 datatype1, employee_id INT
as a table, index, view, or stored column2 datatype2, …); PRIMARY KEY,
procedure. first_name
VARCHAR(50),
last_name
VARCHAR(50),
age INT
);
ALTER The ALTER command adds, ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER TABLE customers ADD
deletes, or modifies columns in ADD column_name datatype; email VARCHAR(100);
an existing table.

DROP The DROP command is used to DROP TABLE table_name; DROP TABLE customers;
drop an existing table in a
database.

TRUNCATE The TRUNCATE command is TRUNCATE TABLE TRUNCATE TABLE customers;

used to delete the data inside a table_name;
table, but not the table itself.

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Data Control Language (DCL) Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

GRANT The GRANT command is used to GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON
give specific privileges to users table_name TO user_name; employees TO ‘John Doe’;
or roles.

REVOKE The REVOKE command is used REVOKE SELECT, INSERT ON REVOKE SELECT, INSERT ON
to take away privileges table_name FROM employees FROM ‘John
previously granted to users or user_name; Doe’;
roles.

Querying Data Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

SELECT Statement The SELECT statement is the SELECT column1, column2 SELECT first_name,
primary command used to FROM table_name; last_name FROM customers;
retrieve data from a database

WHERE Clause The WHERE clause is used to SELECT * FROM table_name SELECT * FROM customers
filter rows based on a specified WHERE condition; WHERE age > 30;
condition.

ORDER BY Clause The ORDER BY clause is used to SELECT * FROM table_name SELECT * FROM products
sort the result set in ascending ORDER BY column_name ORDER BY price DESC;
or descending order based on a ASC|DESC;
specified column.

GROUP BY Clause The GROUP BY clause groups SELECT column_name, SELECT category, COUNT(*)
rows based on the values in a COUNT(*) FROM table_name FROM products GROUP BY
specified column. It is often GROUP BY column_name; category;
used with aggregate functions
like COUNT, SUM, AVG, etc.

HAVING Clause The HAVING clause filters SELECT column_name, SELECT category, COUNT(*)
grouped results based on a COUNT(*) FROM table_name FROM products GROUP BY
specified condition. GROUP BY column_name category HAVING COUNT(*)
HAVING condition; > 5;
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Joining Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

INNER JOIN The INNER JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 SELECT * FROM employees
returns rows with matching INNER JOIN table2 ON INNER JOIN departments ON
values in both tables. table1.column = employees.department_id =
table2.column; departments.id;

LEFT JOIN/LEFT OUTER JOIN The LEFT JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 LEFT SELECT * FROM employees LEFT
returns all rows from the left JOIN table2 ON JOIN departments ON
table (first table) and the table1.column = employees.department_id =
matching rows from the right table2.column; departments.id;
table (second table).

RIGHT JOIN/RIGHT OUTER The RIGHT JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 SELECT *
JOIN returns all rows from the right RIGHT JOIN table2 ON FROM employees
table (second table) and the table1.column = RIGHT JOIN departments
matching rows from the left table2.column; ON employees.department_id =
table (first table).
departments.department_id;

FULL JOIN/FULL OUTER JOIN The FULL JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 FULL SELECT *
returns all rows when there is a JOIN table2 ON FROM employees
match in either the left table or table1.column = LEFT JOIN departments ON
the right table. table2.column; employees.employee_id =
departments.employee_id
UNION
SELECT *
FROM employees
RIGHT JOIN departments ON
employees.employee_id =
departments.employee_id;

CROSS JOIN The CROSS JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 SELECT * FROM employees
combines every row from the CROSS JOIN table2; CROSS JOIN departments;
first table with every row from
the second table, creating a
Cartesian product.

SELF JOIN The SELF JOIN command joins SELECT * FROM table1 t1, SELECT * FROM employees t1,
a table with itself. table1 t2 WHERE t1.column employees t2
= t2.column; WHERE t1.employee_id =
t2.employee_id;

NATURAL JOIN The NATURAL JOIN command SELECT * FROM table1 SELECT * FROM employees
matches columns with the NATURAL JOIN table2; NATURAL JOIN departments;
same name in both tables.

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Subqueries in SQL

Command Description Syntax Example

IN The IN command is used to SELECT column(s) FROM SELECT * FROM customers

determine whether a value table WHERE value IN WHERE city IN (SELECT
matches any value in a subquery (subquery); city FROM suppliers);
result. It is often used in the
WHERE clause.

ANY The ANY command is used to SELECT column(s) FROM SELECT * FROM products
compare a value to any value table WHERE value < ANY WHERE price < ANY (SELECT
returned by a subquery. It can (subquery); unit_price FROM
be used with comparison supplier_products);
operators like =, >, <, etc.

ALL The ALL command is used to SELECT column(s) FROM SELECT * FROM orders
compare a value to all values table WHERE value > ALL WHERE order_amount > ALL
returned by a subquery. It can (subquery); (SELECT total_amount FROM
be used with comparison previous_orders);
operators like =, >, <, etc.

Aggregate Functions Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

COUNT() The COUNT command counts SELECT COUNT(column_name) SELECT COUNT(age) FROM
the number of rows or non-null FROM table_name; employees;
values in a specified column.

SUM() The SUM command is used to SELECT SUM(column_name) SELECT SUM(revenue) FROM
calculate the sum of all values in FROM table_name; sales;
a specified column.

AVG() The AVG command is used to SELECT AVG(column_name) SELECT AVG(price) FROM
calculate the average (mean) of FROM table_name; products;
all values in a specified column.

MIN() The MIN command returns the SELECT MIN(column_name) SELECT MIN(price) FROM
minimum (lowest) value in a FROM table_name; products;
specified column.

MAX() The MAX command returns the SELECT MAX(column_name) SELECT MAX(price) FROM
maximum (highest) value in a FROM table_name; products;
specified column.

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String Functions in SQL

Command Description Syntax Example

CONCAT() The CONCAT command SELECT CONCAT(string1, SELECT CONCAT(first_name,

concatenates two or more string2, …) AS ' ', last_name) AS
strings into a single string. concatenated_string FROM full_name FROM employees;
table_name;

SUBSTRING()/SUBSTR() The SUBSTRING command SELECT SUBSTRING(string SELECT

extracts a substring from a FROM start_position [FOR SUBSTRING(product_name
string. length]) AS substring FROM 1 FOR 5) AS
FROM table_name; substring FROM products;

CHAR_LENGTH()/LENGTH() The LENGTH command returns SELECT SELECT

the length (number of CHAR_LENGTH(string) AS CHAR_LENGTH(product_name)
characters) of a string. length FROM table_name; AS length FROM products;

UPPER() The UPPER command converts SELECT UPPER(string) AS SELECT UPPER(first_name)

all characters in a string to uppercase_string FROM AS uppercase_first_name
uppercase. table_name; FROM employees;

LOWER() The LOWER command converts SELECT LOWER(string) AS SELECT LOWER(last_name)

all characters in a string to lowercase_string FROM AS lowercase_last_name
lowercase. table_name; FROM employees;

TRIM() The TRIM command removes SELECT TRIM([LEADING | SELECT TRIM(TRAILING ' '
specified prefixes or suffixes (or TRAILING | BOTH] FROM full_name) AS
whitespace by default) from a characters FROM string) trimmed_full_name FROM
string. AS trimmed_string FROM customers;
table_name;

LEFT() The LEFT command returns a SELECT LEFT(string, SELECT

specified number of characters num_characters) AS LEFT(product_name, 5)
from the left of a string. left_string FROM AS left_product_name
table_name;
FROM products;

RIGHT() The RIGHT command returns a SELECT RIGHT(string, SELECT

specified number of characters num_characters) AS RIGHT(order_number, 4) AS
from the right of a string. right_string FROM right_order_number FROM
table_name; orders;

REPLACE() The REPLACE command SELECT REPLACE(string, SELECT

replaces occurrences of a old_substring, REPLACE(description,
substring within a string. new_substring) AS 'old_string',
replaced_string FROM 'new_string') AS
table_name; replaced_description FROM
product_descriptions;

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Date and Time SQL Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

CURRENT_DATE() The CURRENT_DATE command SELECT CURRENT_DATE() AS *

returns the current date. current_date;

CURRENT_TIME() The CURRENT_TIME command SELECT CURRENT_TIME() AS *

returns the current time. current_time;

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() The CURRENT_TIMESTAMP SELECT *

command returns the current CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() AS
date and time. current_timestamp;

DATE_PART() The DATE_PART command SELECT DATE_PART('part', SELECT DATE_PART('year',

extracts a specific part (e.g., date_expression) AS '2024-04-11') AS
year, month, day) from a date or extracted_part; extracted_part;
time.

DATE_ADD()/DATE_SUB() The DATE_ADD command adds SELECT = DATE_ADD Example

or subtracts a specified number DATE_ADD(date_expression, SELECT
of days, months, or years INTERVAL value unit) AS DATE_ADD('2024-04-11',
to/from a date. new_date; INTERVAL 1 DAY) AS
new_date;

= DATE_SUB Example
SELECT
DATE_SUB('2024-04-11',
INTERVAL 1 DAY) AS
new_date;

EXTRACT() The EXTRACT command SELECT EXTRACT(part FROM SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM
extracts a specific part (e.g., date_expression) AS '2024-04-11') AS
year, month, day) from a date or extracted_part; extracted_part;
time.

TO_CHAR() The TO_CHAR command SELECT SELECT

converts a date or time to a TO_CHAR(date_expression, TO_CHAR('2024-04-11',
specified format. 'format') AS 'YYYY-MM-DD') AS
formatted_date; formatted_date;

TIMESTAMPDIFF() The TIMESTAMPDIFF command SELECT SELECT TIMESTAMPDIFF(DAY,

calculates the difference TIMESTAMPDIFF(unit, '2024-04-10',
between two timestamps in a timestamp1, timestamp2) '2024-04-11') AS
specified unit (e.g., days, hours, AS difference; difference;
minutes).

DATEDIFF() The DATEDIFF command SELECT DATEDIFF(date1, SELECT

calculates the difference in days date2) AS DATEDIFF('2024-04-11',
between two dates. difference_in_days; '2024-04-10') AS
difference_in_days;

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Conditional Expressions

Command Description Syntax Example

CASE Statement The CASE statement allows you SELECT SELECT

to perform conditional logic column1, order_id,
within a query. column2, total_amount,
CASE CASE
WHEN condition1 WHEN total_amount
THEN result1 > 1000 THEN 'High Value
WHEN condition2 Order'
THEN result2 WHEN total_amount
ELSE > 500 THEN 'Medium Value
default_result Order'
END AS alias ELSE 'Low Value
FROM table_name; Order'
END AS order_status
FROM orders;

IF() Function The IF() function evaluates a SELECT IF(condition, SELECT

condition and returns a value true_value, false_value) name,
based on the evaluation. AS alias FROM table_name; age,
IF(age > 50,
'Senior', 'Junior') AS
employee_category
FROM employees;

COALESCE() Function The COALESCE() function SELECT COALESCE(value1, SELECT

returns the first non-null value value2, …) AS alias COALESCE(first_name,
from a list of values. FROM table_name; middle_name) AS
preferred_name
FROM employees;

NULLIF() Function The NULLIF() function returns SELECT SELECT

null if two specified expressions NULLIF(expression1, NULLIF(total_amount,
are equal. expression2) AS alias discounted_amount) AS
FROM table_name; diff_amount FROM orders;

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Set Operations

Command Description Syntax Example

UNION The UNION operator SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
combines the result sets of table1 FROM customers
two or more SELECT UNION UNION
statements into a single SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
result set.
table2; FROM employees;

INTERSECT The INTERSECT operator SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
returns the common rows table1 FROM customers
that appear in both result INTERSECT INTERSECT
sets. SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
table2; FROM employees;

EXCEPT The EXCEPT operator SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
returns the distinct rows table1 FROM customers
from the left result set that EXCEPT EXCEPT
are not present in the right SELECT column1, column2 FROM SELECT first_name, last_name
result set.
table2; FROM employees;

Transaction Control Commands

Command Description Syntax Example

COMMIT The COMMIT command is COMMIT; BEGIN TRANSACTION;

used to save all the changes
made during the current = SQL statements and changes within the transaction
transaction and make them
permanent.
INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('Alice',
30);
UPDATE products SET price = 25.00 WHERE category =
'Electronics';

COMMIT;

ROLLBACK The ROLLBACK command is ROLLBACK; BEGIN TRANSACTION;

used to undo all the
changes made during the = SQL statements and changes within the transaction
current transaction and
discard them.
INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('Bob', 35);
UPDATE products SET price = 30.00 WHERE category =
'Electronics';

ROLLBACK;

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SAVEPOINT The SAVEPOINT command SAVEPOINT BEGIN TRANSACTION;
is used to set a point within savepoint_n
a transaction to which you ame; INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('Carol',
can later roll back. 28);

SAVEPOINT before_update;

UPDATE products SET price = 40.00 WHERE category =

'Electronics';

SAVEPOINT after_update;

DELETE FROM customers WHERE age > 60;

ROLLBACK TO before_update;

= At this point, the DELETE is rolled back, but the

UPDATE remains.

COMMIT;

ROLLBACK TO The ROLLBACK TO ROLLBACK TO BEGIN TRANSACTION;

SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT command is SAVEPOINT
used to roll back to a savepoint_n INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('David',
specific savepoint within a ame; 42);
transaction.
SAVEPOINT before_update;

UPDATE products SET price = 50.00 WHERE category =

'Electronics';

SAVEPOINT after_update;

DELETE FROM customers WHERE age > 60;

= Rollback to the savepoint before the update

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT before_update;

= At this point, the UPDATE is rolled back, but the

INSERT remains.

COMMIT;

SET TRANSACTION The SET TRANSACTION SET BEGIN TRANSACTION;

command is used to TRANSACTION
configure properties for the [ISOLATION = Set the isolation level to READ COMMITTED
current transaction, such as LEVEL { SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED;
isolation level and
READ
transaction mode.
COMMITTED | = SQL statements and changes within the transaction
SERIALIZABL
E }] INSERT INTO employees (name, age) VALUES ('Emily',
35);
UPDATE products SET price = 60.00 WHERE category =
'Electronics';

COMMIT;
Python

Python is a high-level, interpreted,programming language.

An Interpreted language executes its statements line by line.

what is difference between list and tuples in python ?

1. Mutability:
• List: Mutable (you can modify the elements, such as adding, removing, or changing items).
• Tuple: Immutable (once created, the elements cannot be modified)
2. Syntax:
• List: Created using square brackets [].
• Tuple: Created using parentheses ()
3. Performance:
• List: Slightly slower than tuples because of the overhead of mutability.
• Tuple: Faster due to immutability, which can be an advantage in large datasets.

• List: Has more built-in methods like .append(), .remove(), .sort(), etc., to modify the list.
• Tuple: Has fewer methods because it is immutable (e.g., only .count() and .index()).
4. Hashability:
• List: Unhashable (cannot be used as a dictionary key or set element).
• Tuple: Hashable (can be used as a dictionary key or set element, as long as all the elements inside the
tuple are also hashable).

What is Mutable and Immutable ?

1. Mutable:
A mutable object can be changed after it is created. This means you can modify, add, or remove elements from
the object.
Examples of mutable objects:
• Lists: You can change elements, add new ones, or remove them.
• Dictionaries: You can modify key-value pairs.
• Sets: You can add or remove items from a se

2. Immutable:

An immutable object cannot be changed after it is created. If you need to make a change, you must create a new
object rather than modifying the existing one.

Examples of immutable objects:

Tuples , Strings
what is difference between get method and normal method for extracting object from dict

two ways to retrieve a value from a dictionary by its key:

1. Using the square bracket ([]) syntax (normal method).

1. • If the key exists, it will return the corresponding value.
2. • If the key does not exist, it raises a KeyError
2. Using the get() method.
1. If the key exists, it returns the corresponding value.
2. If the key does not exist, it does not raise an error. Instead, it returns None

how to read a excel file sheet no 2 in python ?

by using pandas
df = pd.read_excel('your_file.xlsx', sheet_name=1)
df = pd.read_CSV(_)

Modules, Python files with a .py extension

Global variables are public variables that are defined in the global scope.

Protected attributes are attributes defined with an underscore prefixed to their identifier eg. _sara.

Private attributes are attributes with double underscore prefixed to their identifier eg. __ansh.

dictionary (commonly referred to as a dict) is a collection of key-value pairs.it is mutable . and two key
cannot be same but two value can be same.

Self is used to represent the instance of the class. With this keyword, you can access the attributes and methods of the
class in python.

__init__ is a contructor method in Python and is automatically called to allocate memory when a new object/instance
is created.

Eg -
What is Slicing ?

slicing is [start : stop : step]

start is the starting index from where to slice a list or tuple stop is the ending index or where to sop.
step is the number of steps to jump.
Default value for start is 0, stop is number of items, step is 1. Slicing can be done on strings, arrays, lists, and
tuples.

What Is Difference btw python Array or list ?

Arrays in python can only contain elements of same data types i.e., data type of array should be homogeneous.

Lists in python can contain elements of different data types i.e., data type of lists can be heterogeneous.

Lambda is an anonymous function in Python, that, only have a single expression.

What is difference btw normal copy and deep copy?

In Python, deep copy and shallow copy refer to how an object is copied.

1. Shallow Copy (Normal Copy)

A shallow copy creates a new object , changes made to the inner objects will be reflected in both the
original and the shallow copied object
Deep Copy - recursively copies , Changes to the deep copy do not affect the original.

xrange() and range()-- They both generate a sequence of integers, with the only difference that range()
returns a Python list, whereas, xrange() returns an xrange object.

print(range(5)) # Output: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

print(xrange(5)) # Output: xrange(0, 5)

Pickling (Serialization): pickle.dump() is used to serialize the data and store it in the data.pkl file.

Unpickling (Deserialization): pickle.load() is used to deserialize data.pkl and convert it back into a Python
object (loaded_data).

Split - convert str into list and join -- convert back list to str ..

Inheritance gives the power to a class to access all attributes and methods of another class.

LLM (Large Language Model): A type of artificial intelligence model that uses deep learning techniques to
understand and generate human-like text. LLMs are trained on vast amounts of text data, enabling them to
perform various tasks such as translation, summarization, question answering, and conversation. Eg-

Gemini (Google) , Bert , LLaMA, GPT-3 and GPT-4 (OpenAI)

Tableau – Start page , data source page (connecting data ) , worksheet .

Dashboard – we combine all worksheet in one place , put all chart , which can tells
about data or narrates data .

Data modelling - is a process of organizing and representing data in a clear and

understandable way.
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