BEE4102 TELEPHONE SYSTEMS CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER I: TELECOMMUNICATION SWITCHING SYSTEM

AND NETWORK
A. INTRODUCTION
The world has undergone many changes since the evolution of man. For instance, the exchange of
information was initially in the form of signs and sounds. This transitioned to the language and
script form with advanced inventions. The communication from one place to another which called
for distance between individuals was carried through letters; sent by pigeons and between two
groups through drum beats or semaphores. Men used to travel long distances to pass on messages.
Today’s world is more of an age of communication. The advancement of communication
techniques has increased the speed with which the transfer of information takes place. This
development has not been an easy process. At the onset of the invention of communication
systems, the invention and usage of telephony was the most important one. The way the telephone
systems evolved from a basic system into an essential multi-purpose friendly gadget today leaves
everyone astonished knowing the innovations made out of the meagre resources available in those
days.

Telecommunications
The exchange of information between two or many individuals is called Communication. The
word ‘tele’ is a Greek word which means distance. Hence, Telecommunication means the
exchange of information between two distant places.
Telecommunications represent the transfer of information from an entity at one place to an entity
at another place.
Whereas the information can be in the form of data, voice, or symbol, the entities can be human
beings, computers, facsimile machines, telegraphy machines, phones or so on.
In a telephone conversation, the one who initiates the call is referred to as the Calling Subscriber
and the one for whom the call is destined is the Called Subscriber. In other cases of information
transfer, the communicating entities are known as Source and Destination, respectively.
In March 1876, Alexander Graham Bell invented and demonstrated his telephone set and the
possibility of long-distance voice communication.
He demonstrated the point-to-point communication, in which a calling subscriber chooses the
appropriate link to establish a connection with the called subscriber.
This system also requires some mode of Signaling to alert the called subscriber about the incoming
call and a signal to indicate the calling subscriber when the called subscriber is busy on another
call.

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Need for Switching Exchanges

The point-to-point connection for establishing communication requires the telephone sets to be
linked using wires. If the number of telephone sets or the subscribers present is low in number, the
type of connection will be a little complex. However, if this number is high or moderate, then the
connections will lead to a mess. To understand the complication, let us consider a network of 5
subscribers.
Fig. 1.1 shows a point-to-point connection for five subscribers (telephone sets):

Figure 1.1

In the point-to-point connection, for 𝒏 entities, we need 𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)/𝟐 links. All these links form a
network. Networks with point-to-point links among all the entities are known as Fully Connected
Networks. The number of links required in a fully connected network becomes very large even
with moderate values of 𝒏.
Hence, a system of switching the networks is needed in-between these subscribers. Alexander
Graham Bell recommended ‘switching between subscribers’ using a switching office that
maintains the telephone connections.

Switching Systems
This network connection cannot be simply made with telephone sets and bunch of wires, but a
good system is required to make or break a connection. This system is known as the Switching
System or the Switching Office or the Exchange. With the introduction of the switching system,
the subscribers instead of getting connected directly to one another, are connected to a switching
office and then to the required subscriber.
Fig 1.2 illustrates the switching system:

Figure 1.2

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With the introduction of switching systems, the need for traditional connections between the
subscribers reduced. All subscribers need to have a connection with the switching system which
makes or breaks any connection requested by the calling subscriber.
The switching system, which is also called the Telephone Exchange, takes care of establishing
the calls. Hence, the total number of such links is equal to the number of subscribers connected to
the system.
Signaling is required for the switching system to establish or release a connection. It should also
enable the switching system to detect whether a called subscriber is busy and if so, indicate the
same to the called subscriber.
The functions performed by a switching system in establishing and releasing connections are
known as Control Functions.
The early systems required manual operations to establish telephone calls. An operator used to
receive a call from the calling subscriber and then connect the call to the called subscriber. Later
on, the system was automated.

Telephone Model
Fig 1.3 shows the model of telephones in the early stage of its invention.

Figure 1.3
In fig 1.3, the dialer part and the microphone are connected to a stationary wooden plank; and the
speaker to listen, is connected by a wire at the side. The top portion of the telephone has two bells
connected - these bells ring when there is an incoming call. This is one of the earlier models of the
telephone.

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The telephone sets of the calling subscriber and the called subscriber are connected through a
switching system or a telephone exchange in order to establish the calls requested.
A Switching system can be understood as a collection of switching elements arranged and
controlled in such a way as to set up a common path between any two distant points. The
introduction of switching systems reduced the complexity of wiring and made the telephony
hassle-free.

Classification of Switching Systems

In the early stages of telecommunication systems, the process and stages of switching played an
important role – to make or break connections. The following flowchart shows how the switching
systems were classified.

Figure 1.4
The switching systems in the early stages were operated manually. The connections were made
by the operators at the telephone exchanges in order to establish a connection. To minimize the
disadvantages of manual operation, automatic switching systems were introduced.
The Automatic switching systems are classified as the following:

• Electromechanical Switching Systems – Here, mechanical switches are electrically

operated.

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• Electronic Switching Systems – Here, the usage of electronic components such as diodes,
transistors and ICs are used for the switching purposes.

Electromechanical Switching Systems

The Electromechanical switching systems are a combination of mechanical and electrical
switching types. The electrical circuits and the mechanical relays are deployed in them. The
Electromechanical switching systems are further classified into the following:
a) Step-by-step
The Step-by-step switching system is also called the Strowger switching system after its inventor
A.B. Strowger. The control functions in a Strowger system are performed by circuits associated
with the switching elements in the system.
b) Crossbar
The Crossbar switching systems have hard-wired control subsystems which use relays and
latches. These subsystems have limited capability and it is virtually impossible to modify them to
provide additional functionalities.

B. ELECTRONIC SPACE DIVISION SWITCHING

The Electronic Switching systems are operated with the help of a processor or a computer which
controls the switching timings. The instructions are programmed and stored on a processor or
computer that controls the operations. This method of storing the programs on a processor or
computer is called the Stored Program Control (SPC) technology. New facilities can be added
to a SPC system by changing the control program.
The switching scheme used by the electronic switching systems may be either Space Division
Switching or Time Division Switching. In space division switching, a dedicated path is
established between the calling and the called subscribers for the entire duration of the call. In time
division switching, sampled values of speech signals are transferred at fixed intervals.
The time division switching may be analog or digital. In analog switching, the sampled voltage
levels are transmitted as they are. However, in binary switching, they are binary coded and
transmitted. If the coded values are transferred during the same time interval from input to output,
the technique is called Space Switching. If the values are stored and transferred to the output at a
time interval, the technique is called Time Switching. A time division digital switch may also be
designed by using a combination of space and time switching techniques.

Telecommunication Network
A Telecommunication network is a group of systems that establishes a distant call. The switching
systems are part of a telecommunication network.

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The switching stations provide connections between different subscribers. Such switching systems
can be grouped to form a telecommunication network. The switching systems are connected using
lines called the Trunks. The lines that run to the Subscriber premises are called the Subscriber
Lines.

Figure 1.5
From the early to the later stages of the 20th Century (1900-80), when a person needed to make a
distant call, the call was first routed to the operator at the nearest switching center and then the
number and location of the called subscriber was noted down. Here, the job of the operator was to
establish a call to the remote switching center and then recall the calling subscriber to establish the
connection. This system of making calls was called the Trunk call system.
For example, a person in Mbarara could book a trunk call to Kabale and wait for the operator to
call back when the operator established a connection through the trunk lines and the switching
systems.

Communication Links
A telephone switching network is made up of switching systems, trunks, subscriber lines, and
telephone instruments. Trunks and subscriber lines are essentially communication links which
carry information signals from one point to another. There are basically only two forms of
communication links: electrical and optical. In the former, information is conveyed by means of
electrical energy and in the latter by means of light energy.
The information to be conveyed is not always in the form of electrical or optical signals. For
example, human speech signals are essentially sound waves. As a consequence, conversion from
one form of energy to another may be required before information signals can be carried by
communication links.

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Transducers perform this energy conversion. They are available for converting sound, light or
heat energy to electrical energy and vice versa. The typical process involves converting sound
energy into electrical signals using a microphone or a piezoelectric sensor, and then those electrical
signals are used to modulate light emission in devices like LEDs or lasers. Hence, sound energy is
converted into electrical energy first, and then into optical energy to be able to use the optical
communication links.

EOC OEC

Figure 1.6
In other words, today’s optical sources accept only electrical signals as input, and the optical
detectors produce only electrical signals as output. Hence, at the transmitting end, the original
signals are first converted into electrical signals by using known transducers, then electrical to
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optical converters (EOC), i.e. optical sources, are used to obtain optical signals. At the receiving
end, optical to electrical converters (OEC), i.e. optical detectors, are used first and then the
transducer to reproduce the original signal. This two-step process is common and widely used in
applications such as audio visualization systems or in telecommunications.
However, at the present state of technological development, optoacoustic transducers directly
convert sound waves into light without the intermediary step of converting to electrical signals.
These transducers work based on the optoacoustic effect, where sound waves generate variations
in optical properties such as light absorption or refractive index. These types of transducers are
less common and often used in specialized applications such as biomedical imaging, where they
convert ultrasound signals into detectable light signals for imaging purposes.

Service Specific Networks

With the concept of switched connections for telephony firmly taking root, the idea of offering
non-voice services using switches and switched networks caught the attention of
telecommunication specialists in the first half of the 20th century.
Different services necessitate different types of end equipment at the customer premises, such as
telex, teleprinter, and facsimile machines. The signal characteristics of such end equipment vary
widely, including electrical characteristics like voltage, current, power levels, and bandwidth of
the signal. For example, the electrical characteristics of a teleprinter are completely different from
those of a telephone.
Additionally, signaling requirements for different types of end equipment also differ significantly.
Such wide variations in electrical characteristics and signaling requirements have led to the
development of different service-specific telecommunication networks that operate independently.
Examples include:
1. Telegraph networks
2. Telex networks
3. Telephone networks
4. Data networks
Of the service-specific networks mentioned above, telephone networks and data networks form
the focus of this course unit. The most extensive telecommunications network in existence today
is the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), sometimes known as the Plain Old Telephone
System (POTS). In standards documents, PSTN is often referred to as the General Switched
Telephone Network (GSTN). In this course unit, the popular nomenclature ‘PSTN’ is used. PSTN
has evolved over a period of 120 years since the beginning of telephony in 1879. There are over a
billion telephones in the world connected via landlines (copper cables) to the network. PSTN is
highly demanding in its requirements for reliability and availability.

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C. SIMPLE TELEPHONE COMMUNICATION

In the simplest form of a telephone circuit, there is one-way communication involving two entities,
one receiving (listening) and the other transmitting (talking). This form of one-way communication
is shown as simplex communication.

Figure 1.7: A simplex telephone circuit

The microphone and the earphone are the transducer elements of the telephone communication
system. The microphone converts speech signals into electrical signals, and the earphone converts
electrical signals into audio signals. The most commonly used microphone is a carbon microphone,
which may not produce high-fidelity signals but provides strong electrical signals at acceptable
quality levels for telephone conversations.
In a normal telephone communication system, information is transferred both ways. An entity is
capable of both receiving and sending, although these activities do not occur simultaneously. At
any given instant, an entity is either receiving or sending. When one entity is transmitting, the other
is receiving, and vice versa. Such a form of communication, where information transfer occurs
both ways but not simultaneously, is known as half-duplex communication. If information
transfer occurs in both directions simultaneously, it is called full-duplex communication. Half-
duplex communication may be modified to achieve by introducing a transmitter and receiver at
both ends of the circuit, as shown in fig. 1.8. In this circuit, the speech of A is heard by B as well
as in A’s own earphone. This audio signal, heard at the generating end, is called side tone. A certain
amount of side tone is useful or even essential. The human speech and hearing system is a feedback
system in which the volume of speech is automatically adjusted based on the side tone heard by
the ear. If no side tone is present, a person tends to shout, and if too much side tone is present,
there is a tendency to reduce the speech to a very low level. In the circuit of fig. 1.8, the entire
speech intensity is heard as side tone, which is not desirable.

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Figure 1.8

Basics of a Switching System

Below are the different components and terms used in switching systems:

• Inlets and Outlets

The set of input circuits of an exchange are called Inlets and the set of output circuits are called
the Outlets. The primary function of a switching system is to establish an electrical path between
a given inlet-outlet pair. Usually, N indicates the inlets and the outlets are indicated by M. So, a
switching network has N inlets and M outlets.

• Switching Matrix
The hardware used to establish connections between inlets and outlets is called the Switching
Matrix or the Switching Network. This switching network is the group of connections formed in
the process of connecting inlets and outlets. Hence, it is different from the telecommunication
network mentioned above.

• Types of Connections
There are four types of connections that can be established in a telecommunication network. The
connections are as follows:
1. Local call connection between two subscribers in the system.
2. Outgoing call connection between a subscriber and an outgoing trunk.
3. Incoming call connection between an incoming trunk and a local subscriber.
4. Transit call connection between an incoming trunk and an outgoing trunk.

• Folded Network
When the number of inlets is equal to the number of outlets for a switching network, such a
network is called a Symmetric Network, which means 𝑁 = 𝑀. A network where the outlets are
connected to the inlets, is called the Folded Network.
In a Folded Network, the N number of inlets that come as outlets are again folded back to the inlets.
Nevertheless, the switching network provides connections to the inlets and outlets as per the
requirement. Fig 1.9 shows how the Switching Network works.

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Figure 1.9

As one connection can be given to one line per time, only 𝑁/2 connections are established for N
inlets of a folded network. Such a network can be called as non-blocking network.
In a non-blocking network, as long as the called subscriber is free, a calling subscriber will be able
to establish a connection to the called subscriber.
In fig 1.9, only 4 subscribers were considered - where line 1 is busy with line 2 and line 3 is busy
with line 4. While the call is in progress, there used to be no chance for making another call, and
hence, only a single connection was made. Hence for N inlets, only 𝑁/2 lines are connected.
At times, it might happen that the inlet and outlet connections are continuously used to make transit
calls through trunk lines only, but not among the local subscribers. If the inlet and outlet
connections are used in an Inter-exchange transmission, such that the exchange does not support
connection between local subscribers, then it is called the Transit Exchange. A switching network
of such kind is called a non-folded network. This is shown in the following figure:

Figure 1.10
• Blocking Network
If there are no available switching paths in the network, the requested call will be denied, and the
subscriber is said to be blocked. The network is then termed a Blocking Network. In a blocking
network, the number of simultaneous switching paths is less than the maximum number of
simultaneous conversations that can take place. The probability that a user may encounter blocking
is called the Blocking Probability. A well-designed network should aim for a low blocking
probability.

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• Traffic Intensity
The product of the calling rate and the average holding time is defined as the Traffic Intensity.
The continuous sixty-minute period during which the traffic intensity is high is termed the Busy
Hour. When the traffic exceeds the capacity for which the switching system is designed,
subscribers may experience blocking.

• Erlang
The traffic in a telecommunication network is measured by an internationally accepted unit of
traffic intensity known as Erlang (E). A switching resource is said to carry one Erlang of traffic if
it is continuously occupied over a given period of observation.

D. ELEMENTS OF A SWITCHING SYSTEM

While there are different types of switching systems ranging from manual to automatic, a few basic
elements play an essential role in the functioning of any switching system. Along with the
switching network, there are various subsystems such as the control subsystem, signaling system,
trunk and subscriber line interfaces, distributor units, operator console, juncture circuits, all of
which are essential for the operation of the entire switching system.

Switching System
The block diagram provided below illustrates the essential elements of a switching system.

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Figure 1.11

• Switching Network: It provides the switching paths between the called subscribers and
the calling subscribers.
• Control Subsystem: This is the critical component of the switching system responsible
for actively establishing the switching paths. It achieves this by identifying the inlet and
outlet lines and interpreting the signaling information received on these lines.
The control subsystem governs the creation and termination of connections by monitoring
the signal transfer on the lines. Additionally, it transmits signaling information to
subscribers and other exchanges connected to the outgoing trunks.
• Signaling: Signaling formats and requirements vary significantly for subscribers, trunks,
and subsystems. Therefore, a switching system accommodates three different forms of
signaling:
1. Subscriber loop signaling
2. Inter-exchange signaling
3. Intra-exchange or register signaling
A switching system comprises elements that perform switching, control, and signaling
functions.
• Trunk Interface: Trunk lines used for connections between switching systems are
terminated at this port. The trunk interface is where the trunk lines are connected to the
system.
• Subscriber Line Interface: Subscriber lines used for connections between subscribers and
the switching systems are terminated at this port. The subscriber line interface is where the
lines from the subscribers are connected to the system.
• Line Scanning Unit: The line scanning unit senses and retrieves signaling information
from the respective lines. The information obtained from these lines is then provided to the
control subsystem to identify the inlets and outlets.
• Distributor Units: Distributor units are utilized for distributing or transmitting signaling
information on the respective lines. They facilitate the distribution of information through
the trunk lines.
• Operator Console: The operator console permits interaction with the switching system for
maintenance and administrative purposes.
• Service Circuit Interface: The service circuit interface provides interaction between
circuits for maintenance and testing purposes.
• Junctures: The juncture is a junction that provides a folded connection for local
subscribers and service circuits. If both the called subscriber and the calling subscriber are
local, then the folded connection facilitates making the connection for a local call, without
utilizing the trunk lines.

Types of Switching Systems

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The switching systems are of the following two types:

i. Direct Control Switching System:
o Switching systems where the control subsystems form an integral part of the
network are called Direct Control Switching Systems. An example of this is the
Strowger switching system.
ii. Indirect Control Switching System:
o The switching system in which the control subsystem is located outside the
switching network is called an Indirect Control Switching System, Common
Control Switching System, or Register Control Switching System. Examples of
this system include the Crossbar switching system, electronic switching system, or
Stored Program Control method of switching systems.

E. STROWGER SWITCHING SYSTEM

The first-ever automatic telephone switching system was developed by Almon B. Strowger. As the
operator at the manual telephone exchange was the wife of his competitor and was diverting all
the business, Strowger conceived the idea of developing a switching system that did not require
an operator. This led to the invention of the automatic switching system developed by Strowger.
The Strowger Switching system is also called the step-by-step switching system as the
connections are established in a step-by-step manner.

Automatic Switching System

The Manual Switching system requires an operator who, upon receiving a request, manually places
a call. In this system, the operator is solely responsible for establishing or releasing connections.
However, the privacy of calls and the details of the called and calling subscribers are at risk.
To overcome the disadvantages of Manual Switching systems, Automatic Switching systems offer
several advantages:
1. Language barriers do not affect the request for connection.
2. A higher degree of privacy is maintained.
3. Calls can be established and released faster.
4. The number of calls made in a given period can be increased.
5. Calls can be made regardless of the system's load or the time of day.
The section below explains how a call is made and how dialing is done without the assistance of
an operator:

Dialing
Unlike in a Manual Switching system, an automatic switching system requires a formal numbering
plan or addressing scheme to identify subscribers. A numbering plan, where a number identifies a

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subscriber, is more widely used than an addressing scheme, where a subscriber is identified by
alphanumeric strings. Therefore, there needs to be a mechanism to transmit the identity of the
called subscriber to the exchange.
This mechanism should be present in the telephone set to connect the call automatically to the
required subscriber. The prevalent methods for this purpose are Pulse Dialing and Multi-
Frequency Dialing.
Among them, Pulse dialing is the most commonly used form of dialing to date.

Pulse Dialing
The digits used to identify the subscribers are represented by a train of pulses. The number of
pulses in a train is equal to the digit value it represents, except in the case of zero, which is
represented by 10 pulses. Successive digits in a number are represented by a series of pulse trains.
These pulses have an equal number of time intervals, and the number of pulses produced will be
according to the number dialed.
Two successive trains are distinguished from one another by a pause in between them, known as
the Inter-digit gap. The pulses are generated by alternately breaking and making the loop circuit
between the subscriber and the exchange. An example of pulse train is shown in the following
figure.

Figure 1.12
Fig 1.12 shows the pulsating pattern. The pulse rate is usually 10 pulses per second with a 10
percent of tolerance. The gap between the digits, which is called the Inter-digit gap is at least
200ms.
The pulse dialing pattern in recent times employs the duty ratio (ratio between the pulse width and
the time period of the waveform) of the pulse as 33% nominally and there exists an upper limit for
the inter-digit gap.

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Rotary Dial Telephone

Before the Rotary Dial Telephone, pulse dialing techniques involved making and breaking the
subscriber loops. This process could disturb and affect the performance of the speaker,
microphone, and bell contained in the telephone. Additionally, timing issues during dialing could
lead to dialing the wrong number.
The Rotary Dial Telephone was invented to address these problems. The microphone and
loudspeaker were combined and placed in the receiver set. The telephone set featured a finger plate
whose arrangement ensured appropriate dialing timing. The figure below illustrates what a rotary
dial looks like.

Figure 1.13
As mentioned earlier, in pulse dialing, digits are represented by a train of pulses. Each pulse train
contains a number of pulses equal to the digit it represents, except for zero, which is represented
by 10 pulses. Successive digits in a number are represented by a series of pulse trains. These pulses
have an equal number of time intervals, and the number of pulses produced corresponds to the
number dialed.
The dial is operated by placing the finger in the hole appropriate to the digit to be dialed. Now,
drawing the fingerplate round in the clockwise direction to the finger stop position and letting the
dial free by withdrawing the finger, makes a number dialed. The fingerplate and the associated
mechanism now return to the rest position under the influence of a spring. The dial is ready for the
next number.
The dial pulses are produced during the return travel of the fingerplate, thus eliminating the human
element in pulse timings. The following figure shows the dial holes and finger stop.

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Figure 1.14
A rotary dial phone uses the following for implementing pulse dialing: Finger plate and spring;
Shaft, gear and Pinion wheel; Pawl and ratchet mechanism; Impulsing cam and suppressor cam or
a trigger mechanism; Impulsing contact; Centrifugal governor and worm gear; Transmitter,
Receiver and bell by-pass circuits

Internal Mechanism
The cam mechanism or trigger mechanism assists in dialing. This mechanism operates the
Impulsing contact. The following figure illustrates the internal mechanism of the Rotary Dial
Telephone.

Figure 1.15
G = Governor P = Pawl
GW = Gear Wheel R = Rachet
IC = Impulsing Cam SC = Suppressor Cam
ICO = Impulsing Contacts W = Worm gear
MS = Main Shaft PW = Pinion Wheel
The suppressor cam functions to keep the Impulsing cam separated from the Impulsing contacts.
When the rotary dial is in the rest position, the Impulsing contacts are away from the Impulsing
cam. However, when a number is dialed by displacing the dial from its position, the Impulsing
contacts come near the Impulsing cam due to the rotation of the finger plate.
As the dial rotates clockwise, the pawl slips over the ratchet while the ratchet, gear wheel, pinion
wheel, and governor remain stationary. Upon the dial's return, the pawl engages and rotates the
ratchet, causing the gear wheel, pinion wheel, and governor to rotate. The governor maintains

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uniformity in the speed of rotation. The Impulsing cam, attached to a pinion shaft, then operates
the Impulsing contacts, creating pulses in the circuit. The shape of the Impulsing cam ensures that
the break and make periods are in a ratio of 2:1.
As the dial approaches the rest position, the suppressor cam once again moves the Impulsing
contacts away from the Impulsing cam. This action, combined with waiting for the next number
to be dialed, creates an inter-digit gap. This gap's timing is independent of the pause that may occur
between two successive digits due to human dialing habits. Additionally, a small change in the
suppressor cam design provides this gap before the dialing of the first digit.
The pulses generated through this mechanism are transmitted to the switching systems, where the
connection to the dialed number is established.

Signaling Tones
With the replacement of manual exchanges, the operator who used to communicate with calling
subscribers regarding the situation of the called subscribers needed to be replaced with different
tones indicating different situations.
Let's consider the following five subscriber-related signaling functions that are to be performed:
1. Respond to the calling subscriber that the system is ready to receive the identification of
the called party.
2. Inform the calling subscriber that the call is being established.
3. Ring the bell of the called party.
4. Inform the calling subscriber if the called party is busy.
5. Inform the calling subscriber if the called party line is unobtainable for some reason.
Function 2 is not signaled in the Strowger switching system. Signaling function 1 is fulfilled by
sending a dial tone to the calling subscriber.

Dial Tone
The dial tone is the signaling tone that indicates that the exchange is ready to accept the dialed
digits from the subscriber. The number should be dialed only when this signal is heard. Otherwise,
digits dialed before this signal will not be considered, potentially leading to the dialing of a wrong
number.
The dial tone is generally a 33 Hz or 50 Hz or 400 Hz continuous tone as shown below.

Figure 1.16

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Ring Tone
After dialing the number of the called party, when the line of the called party is obtained, the
exchange control equipment sends out the ringing current to the telephone set of the called party,
which is a familiar double-ring pattern.
Simultaneously, the control equipment sends out a ringing tone to the calling subscriber, which has
a pattern similar to that of the ringing current. The two rings double-ring pattern are separated by
a time gap of 0.2s and two double-ring patterns by a gap of 2s, as shown in the figure below.

Figure 1.17

Busy Tone
After dialing the required number, if the called subscriber or the lines at the exchange are not free
to place a call, the calling subscriber is sent a busy tone indicating that the lines or the subscriber
is busy; this is called a busy tone.
A busy tone of 400Hz signal with silence period in between is shown in the figure below. The burst
and silence durations have the same value of 0.75s.

Figure 1.18

Number Unobtainable Tone

If the called party is out of order or disconnected or if an error in dialing leads to the selection of
a spare line, such a situation is indicated using a continuous 400Hz signal, called as Number
Unobtainable tone. The following illustration shows a continuous 400Hz signal.

Figure 1.19

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Routing Tone or Call-in-Progress Tone

When a subscriber call is routed through a number of different types of exchanges, one hears
different call-in-progress tones as the call progresses through different exchanges. Such a signal is
a 400Hz or 800Hz intermittent pattern. This signal has different patterns in different systems.

• In electromechanical systems, it is usually 800Hz with 50% duty ratio and 0.5s ON/OFF
period.
• In analog electronic exchanges, it is a 400Hz pattern with 0.5s ON period and 2.5s OFF
period.
• In digital exchanges, it is 400Hz signal with 0.1s ON/OFF periods. The signal for routing
tone or call-in-progress tone is as shown below.

Figure 1.20
In order to overcome the problem of recognizing the difference in these tones for those who are
not familiar with telephone signaling and for those who rarely make calls, voice recorded messages
were introduced, later on.

F. SWITCHING MECHANISMS
What happens when the telephone set sends a signal to the switching system? The switching
system at the exchange should be able to connect the line automatically to the called subscriber.
In the Strowger switching system, there are two types of selectors; these selectors form the building
blocks for the switching systems.

• Uni-selector
• Two-motion selector
Both of these selectors are constructed using electro-mechanical rotary switches.

• The Uni- selector has a single selector pole and multiple throws to reach the bank of
contacts for each number dialed.
• The two-motion selector has two rotary switches for vertical and horizontal stepping
movement, to reach the bank of contacts.

Uni-selector Switching

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The Uni-selector switching mechanism consists of an Electromagnet, an Armature with springs, a

Pawl, a Ratchet wheel with Wiper attached and a Detent. The wiper is made to move on the bank
contacts in clock-wise direction.
As the wiper moves in one-direction, the process is called Uni-selector switching. The contacts
onto which the wiper moves are called Bank contacts as a number of contacts are placed in this
shape of an arc.
Fig 1.21 shows the drive mechanism of the Uni-selector Strowger switching system.

Figure 1.21
When the input voltage energizes the Electromagnet, the armature is pulled down towards the
magnet. Now as the armature gets attracted towards the electromagnet, the pawl falls one position
down the previous one in the ratchet wheel. The detent prevents the movement of the ratchet wheel.
Once the electromagnet gets de-energized, the armature is released and this action moves the pawl
upwards, which further moves the ratchet wheel to one position above. Hence, the wiper moves
one position below or in clockwise direction, to make a contact. If the electromagnet is energized
and de-energized five times, by applying five pulses, the wiper moves by five contacts. Usually
three sets (or more) of wipers are placed associated with the banks of Uni-selector, one for each
bank. The sets are rigidly mounted to a wiper assembly, which moves whenever the ratchet wheel
rotates. The interrupter spring releases the magnet and enables it to make another step.
The following figure shows a practical Uni-selector Strowger switching system.

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Figure 1.22
The type of switching mechanism discussed here is known as the reverse drive type because, here
the ratchet wheel moves when the armature return to its rest position. If it is arranged such that the
wheel moves during the forward motion of the armature, it is known as the forward drive type.
The Reverse drive type mechanism is prevalent in Uni-selectors and the forward drive type
mechanism in the two-motion selectors.
There is an interrupter contact associated with the Uni-selector, which is normally closed. When
the armature is energized, the interrupter contact opens and allows the movement of armature,
which helps the armature return to its rest position after breaking up the armature energizing
circuit.

Two-motion Selectors
Unlike in Uni-selector, the motion in these selectors is two-way, vertical and horizontal. An upward
movement is made in vertical and horizontal directions; there are no contacts made in the vertical
movement. However, bank contacts are made in the horizontal movement. If the two-motion
selector has 10 levels, each having 10 contacts, then 100 contacts are accessible, by the vertical
and horizontal movement of the two-motion selector switching system.
The following figure shows the internal structure of two-motion switching selectors.

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Figure 1.23

• When the first digit is dialed, the pulses energize and de-energize the vertical magnet
according to the number dialed, with the help of ratchet and pawl mechanism. This is called
as Vertical Stepping.
• When the second digit is dialed, the dialing pulses are diverted to horizontal magnet, with
the help of a relay where the pulses energize and de-energize the horizontal magnet
according to the number dialed, with the help of ratchet and pawl mechanism. This is called
Horizontal Stepping.
Normally, there are 11 vertical positions and 11 horizontal contacts in each vertical position. The
lowest vertical position and the first horizontal contact in each vertical level are home positions,
and the remaining ones are actual switching positions. Thus, the wiper in a two-motion selector
has access to 100 switching contacts. The following figure shows a practical two-motion switching
selector.

Figure 1.24
Thus, the wiper assembly establishes the call; after completion of which it comes back to the home
position. For this purpose, the rotary magnet is operated by the current and thus the wiper assembly
moves through the remaining contacts of the level. A restoring spring forces the wiper assembly
to drop vertically and then return horizontally to the home position.

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Step-by-Step Switching
The Step-by-step switching system is a very popular and widely-used switching system, which
may be constructed using Uni-selectors or two-motion selectors or the combination of both. The
wiper present in this switching, steps forward by one contact and then moves forward according
to the number of dialed pulses or according to the signaling conditions and hence the name, step-
by-step switching is given.
A step-by-step switching is also called the Direct control system as the relevant signaling tones
are sent out to the subscriber by the switching elements or selectors at the appropriate stages of
switching. This system has three main stages of configuration. The following figure shows the
different stages.

Figure 1.25

• Selector Hunters
As soon as the calling subscriber gets ready to dial the number, by lifting the handset from the
telephone, a dial tone is heard. We have already learnt that a number is not accepted unless the dial
tone is heard. But to get that dial tone, the line has to be established when the handset is lifted up.
The Selector Hunter circuit, establishes the line to make a call as immediately as the calling
subscriber lifts up the handset to make a call.

Figure 1.26
The Selector Hunters hunt for selecting a switching matrix part. Usually, 24-outlet Uni-selectors
are used as selector hunters. Hence, this can be called a Subscriber Uni-selector scheme as there

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is a dedicated Uni-selector for each subscriber in the system. These can also be built using two-
motion selectors.
The selector hunter mechanism can also be replaced with the line finder mechanism, where there
is a small difference between the two in construction.
The figure below gives an idea about the construction of select hunters.

Figure 1.27
When a calling subscriber lifts the handset to make a call, the selector hunter activates the
interrupter mechanism, which steps up the wiper until a free first group selector is found at the
outlet. One of the bank contacts of the selector hunter, at this point, senses whether the first group
selector is free or busy. Once a free first selector is sensed, the interrupter is disabled and the
connection is established, where the first selector sends out a dialer tone to the calling subscriber.
The line finder approach is used where the traffic is low and the exchange is small, whereas the
selector hunter mechanism described above is used for large exchanges with heavy traffic and this
approach is cost-effective.

• Group Selector Stage

The Group Selector stage has the main switching network. The calling subscriber dials the number
after hearing the dial tone. The first number when dialed activates the first selector. To be more
precise, the group selector consists of certain selector stages. There used to be 5 numbers as an
identification number, for the land connection. Hence, there were three selector stages present.
To dial the first number, the number plate is rotated by placing the finger in the finger gap given
according to the subscriber number. After taking out the finger, the number plate is rotated back to

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its previous position, which sends the dialing pulses to the first selector. The first selector then
moves accordingly to place a contact.

Figure 1.28
When the subscriber starts dialing, the dial tone produced till then, cuts off and the pulse train is
received according to the number dialed. The wiper assembly of the first selector then moves
vertically upward, according to the number dialed. The wipers then move in the horizontal plane
across the contacts until they come across a contact to which a free second group selector is
connected. This horizontal stepping is completed within the inter- digit gap of about 240ms. From
there, the first group selector connects the electrical path to the available second group selector.
Likewise, every group selector connects paths according to the number dialed and then extends
the connection to the next selector until the final selector. The action of the final selector is a bit
different. As discussed above, three selectors are present, and the fourth and the fifth numbers are
connected to the matrix by the final selector.

• Final Selector
The last two digits are processed by the final selector. This selector moves vertically according to
the fourth digit dialed and then it moves horizontally according to the last digit, as there are no
further digits to connect it to some other connector. The last digit dialed, establishes electrical
connection to the called subscriber.
Since the final selector responds to both the digits in vertical and horizontal directions unlike the
group selectors, this final selector is also called a Numerical Selector. If the called subscriber is
free, as sensed from a signal at the corresponding bank contact, the final selector sends out a
ringing current to the called subscriber and a ringing tone to the calling subscriber.

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Figure 1.29
When the called subscriber lifts his handset, the ringing current and the ringing tone provided till
then, are cut off and the call metering circuits are enabled by the control circuits associated with
the final selectors. Otherwise, if the called subscriber is found to be busy on some other line, then
the final selector sends out a busy tone to the calling subscriber. At any stage of switching, if there
is no free selector available at the next stage, a busy tone is returned to the calling subscriber.
The magnets and mechanical linkages used in rotating the shafts vertically and horizontally while
connecting a call, will release the magnet (generally called the release magnet) and armature
release the shaft when the call is completed.

G. COMMON CONTROL SUBSYSTEM

In order to establish calls between different exchanges, which may further lead to a long-distance
trunk call, the Crossbar switching system was developed and the first patent was given in 1915.
However, AT&T developed the first Crossbar switching system in 1938. The Crossbar switching
system introduced the Common Control Subsystem in its switching system.
To understand this, let us have an idea on the problem created by Multi-exchange network of the
Strowger system.

Multi-Exchange Network
When a subscriber belonging to a particular network has to be contacted, a number of ways can
help you contact the particular exchange; also, there is not one but any exchanges present in the
route.

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In a Multi exchange network, the routes used to establish connection with a particular subscriber
differs from time to time. In the Strowger exchange following the multi-exchange network, the
subscriber has to be more concerned with the routing. A subscriber should have the details of all
the numbers of exchanges present in the route. There may arise situations where a subscriber may
be required to establish a connection on other routes; this becomes cumbersome at times.
The following figure is an example of the topology of a multi-exchange network.

Figure 1.30
The level is reserved in each Strowger exchange, where the outgoing calls are connected to
neighboring exchanges. These exchanges are contacted as per the exchange numbers dialed when
the calls are made.
Hence, the disadvantages of implementing multi-Exchange network in switching are:

• The subscriber identity number is changed depending on the calling route.

• The user must have knowledge on the topology of the network and the numbers of the
exchanges present in it.
• The number and size of the called subscriber varies depending upon the exchange from
where the call originates.
In order to overcome these problems, the common control subsystem was introduced.

Common Control Subsystem

In order to avoid the complication and to make it easier for a subscriber to place a call, two main
ideas were implemented by the Common Control Sub system. The ideas are listed below:

• The routing of the call should be done by the exchange, but not by the numbers dialed.

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• A Unique Identification Number (UIN) should be allotted to the subscriber. The UIN
contains the number of the exchange of the subscriber and the number indicating the line
of the subscriber.
The above ideas helped solve the problem associated with the placement of calls. These two solve
the problem and make the work simple. Wherever the calling subscriber calls from, the call is
directed to the particular called subscriber, in a particular network. The routing of this call is taken
care of by the exchange itself. Hence, the uniform numbering scheme identifies the subscriber
based on the aspects described below.

Exchange Identifier + Subscriber Line Identifier

This is a combination of STD (Subscriber Trunk Dialing) code and the subscriber’s number;
consider this as the physical line address. Every user is assigned a logical number irrespective of
the physical line number. An Address translation mechanism translates the logical address to actual
physical address for connection establishment. The call processing takes place independent of the
switching network.
A Director system is employed in the common control sub system. As soon as the translated digits
are transmitted, the Director is free to process another call and is not involved in maintaining the
circuit for the conversation.
The following figure shows the diagram of the Common Control Subsystem, which contains Call
Processing Sub system, Charging Circuits, Operation Control, Maintenance Control and Event
Monitor.

Figure 1.31

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The above block diagram is a simple indication of the common control switching system. The
control functions in a switching system can be categorized as the following.

• Event Monitoring: Event Monitoring Section of the Control Subsystem monitors the
events occurring outside the exchange at the line units, trunk junctures and inter exchange
signaling and sender/receiver units. The events at the line units are - call request and call
release. The control of relays to establish connection to the required line is an event at the
junctures. There is control of relays between the exchanges for connection and also for
signaling the required tones both to the sender and receiver circuits at the inter exchange.
This event monitoring may be distributed.
• Call Processing: The Call Processing units contain digit receiver and storage register,
which receive and store the dialing number from the calling party. The units also contain
the initial and final translators. The Initial translator is the Office Code translator that
determines the route for the call through the network or charging method or rate. The Final
translator is the Subscriber Code translator which determines the line unit to which a
call must be connected and category of the called line. The Register Sender transfers the
route digit and dialed digit using proper signaling, depending on the requirements of the
destination exchange.
• Charging circuits: This is related to the charges levied on the calls made. It depends upon
the type of subscriber and the service of the subscriber. For example, some services like
emergency lines or fault repairs are free of charge; a few commercial services also may
offer charge- free services.
• Operation and Maintenance: The control and operation of the switching network with
two main techniques known as Map-in-memory and Map-in-network.
o Map-in-Memory
The path in this technique is determined by marking the switching elements
at different stages in accordance with a set of binary data defining the path, whereas
the control unit supplies the data. At this stage, the command for the actual
connection of the path is given. This Map-in-memory technique is present in Stored
Program Control.
o Map-in-Network
In this technique, the Path finding may be carried out at the level of common
control unit, where it marks the inlet and outlet to be connected and the actual path
is determined by the switching network. This Map-in-Network technique is
common in Crossbar exchanges using markers for control.
The administration and maintenance of a switching system, involves activities such as laying the
new subscriber lines and trunks into service, modifying subscriber service entitlements and
changing routing plans based on the network status, which are performed with the coordination of
control systems. Maintenance personnel do the maintenance activities such as supervision for
proper functioning, performing tests and making measurements for different line parameters.

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H. TOUCH-TONE DIAL TELEPHONE

When we talk about the technological development of the telephone set, the rotary dial was used
in the initial stages. Slower dialing was one major disadvantage associated with the Rotary dial. It
took 12 seconds to dial a 7-digit number on a Rotary dial. The step-by-step switching elements of
the Strowger switching system, cannot respond to rates higher than 10-12 pulses per second.
It uses the DTMF technology, prior to which the pulse dialing technique was used. In the Pulse
dialing technique which is also called a Loop disconnect technique, repeated connecting and
disconnecting of the lines is done, like clicks of a switch; this is interpreted by the exchange as the
number dialed, according to the number of clicks.

Need for Touch-tone

With the introduction of the Common Control subsystems into switching exchanges, there came
the feasibility for higher rates of dialing. Hence, a new system called the Touch- tone dialing was
developed in Telephony to replace the Rotary dial; this was considered to benefit the customer
with higher speed. This has also removed the disadvantages of limited usage and limited signaling
capacity along with lower speed.
The Pulse dialing is limited to signaling between the exchange and the subscriber, but not between
two subscribers, which is called End-to-End signaling. End-to-End signaling is a desirable feature
and is possible only if the signaling is in voice frequency band so that the signaling information
can be transmitted to any point in the telephone network to which voice can be transmitted.
Hence replacing the inconvenience of using the rotary dial, the touch-tone dial telephone was
introduced. The development of the touch-tone dial telephone came around 1950. However, the
usage of it started somewhere around 1964. The following figure shows a practical touch- tone
dial telephone.

Figure 1.32
In fig 1.32 we observe that the rotary dial is replaced with a push button keyboard, where the
buttons, if touched to “press” the button will generate frequencies related to the number dialed.
The hassle-free rotation was replaced and a feature to redial the number was added to this push

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button keyboard, where the dialed number is stored until another number is dialed. This eased the
process of redialing a 7- digit number all over again.

How does the Touch-tone Dial Telephone Operate?

The press of a button on the touch-tone dial telephone indicates the number dialed using certain
frequencies. “Touching” or light pressing of a number generates a “tone” which is a combination
of two frequencies, one from lower band and the other from upper band.
For example, by pressing the button 9, two frequencies such as 852 Hz the lower frequency and
1477 Hz the upper frequency are produced. The design of touch-tone dialing producing two
frequencies is as shown below.

Figure 1.33
The DTMF (Dual-tone multi-frequency) dialing can be done through the touch-tone dialing
technique as shown above. As two frequencies, one being higher and the other being lower are
transmitted at the same time in the touch-tone dialing technique, it is called the Dual- tone Multi
Frequency (DTMF) dialing. The two signals produced are for a duration of 100ms, which are
selected by the key pressed from the matrix as shown above. Each key is uniquely referenced by
selecting one of the four lower band frequencies associated with the matrix rows, coupled with
selecting one of the three higher band frequencies associated with the matrix column.
Design Considerations
The design considerations are

• Choice of Code
• Band Separation
• Choice of Frequencies
• Choice of Power Levels
• Signaling Duration
The choice of code for touch-tone signaling should be such that the imitation of code signals by
music and speech must be difficult.

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Consider the following reasons for separating the band of two frequencies:

• At the receiver, band filtering is used to separate the frequency groups; this helps to
determine the specific frequencies in a simple way.
• Easy amplitude regulation of each frequency component separately.
• Limiters can be used to guard the action of each frequency separately.
• The probability of false response is reduced.
The attenuation and delay distortion characteristics of the telephone network circuits determine
the choice of frequencies. A flat amplitude response with a very low attenuation and a uniform
delay response with a low relative delay value are desirable. Though the design is high enough for
reliability, the choice of power levels should be planned according to attenuation characteristics
of the channel. The signal duration although inefficient is longer and helpful to combat talk-off.
Internal Mechanism
The internal mechanism of the touch-tone receiver can be explained by a simple block diagram
which contains Band Separation Filter (BSF), Limiters (L), Selector Circuits (S) and Detectors (D)
which give out Low Band Frequency (LBF) signals and High Band Frequency (HBF) signals, as
indicated below.

Figure 1.34
The Band separation filter present at the receiver is used to separate the frequency groups. This
helps to determine the specific frequencies, separately. In addition, the filter also regulates the

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amplitudes of each component. Then the signal reaches the limiter, which has two of the
frequencies at its input. It allows the dominant signal through it bypassing the weak signal. If both
of the signals have the same strength, the limiter output is much below the full output and neither
of the signal dominates.
The selectors present in the circuitry, are designed to recognize the signal when it falls within the
specified narrow passband and has an amplitude within the range of 2.5dB of full output of the
limiter. Both of the limiter and selector circuits are efficient in recognizing the difference between
the touch-tone and the voice signal, to avoid talk-off. For further improvement, Band Elimination
filters are sometimes used in place of Band Separation filters as they permit a wide spectrum of
speech to pass through the filters. The high and low band frequency signals reach the output
separately through the detector outputs.

I. CROSSBAR SWITCHING
The Crossbar exchanges were developed during 1940s. They achieve full access and non-blocking
capabilities with the Crossbar switches and common control equipment, used in the Crossbar
exchanges. The active elements called Crosspoints are placed between the input and the output
lines. In the common control switching systems, the separation between switching and control
operations allows the usage of switching networks by a group of common control switches to
establish many calls at the same time on a shared basis.

The Features of Crossbar Switches

The features are described in brief below:

• While processing a call, the common control system helps in the sharing of resources.
• The specific route functions of call processing are hardwired because of the Wire logic
computers.
• The flexible system design helps in the appropriate ratio selection and is allowed for a
specific switch.
• Fewer moving parts ease the maintenance of Crossbar switching systems.
The Crossbar switching system uses the common control networks which enable the switching
network to perform event monitoring, call processing, charging, operation and maintenance as
discussed previously. The common control also provides uniform numbering of subscribers in a
multi-exchange area like big cities and routing of calls from one exchange to another using the
same intermediate exchanges. This method helps to avoid the disadvantages associated with the
step-by-step switching method through its unique process of receiving and storing the complete
number to establish a call connection.

Crossbar Switching Matrix

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The Crossbar arrangement is a matrix which is formed by the 𝑀 × 𝑁 sets of contacts arranged as
vertical and horizontal bars with contact points where they meet. They need nearly 𝑀 + 𝑁 number
of activators to select one of the contacts. The Crossbar matrix arrangement is shown in the
following figure.

Figure 1.35
The Crossbar matrix contains an array of horizontal and vertical wires as shown by solid lines in
Fig 1.35, which are both connected to initially separated contact points of switches. The horizontal
and vertical bars shown in dotted lines are mechanically connected to these contact points and
attached to the electromagnets.
The Crosspoints placed between the input and the output lines have electromagnets which when
energized, close the contact of intersection of the two bars. This makes the two bars to come closer
and hold on. The following figure will help you understand the contact made at the Crosspoints.

Figure 1.36
Once energized, the electromagnets pull the small magnetic slabs present on the bars. The column
control electromagnet pulls the magnet on the lower bar, while the row control electromagnet pulls
the magnet on the upper bar. In order to avoid the catching of different Crosspoints in the same

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circuit, a procedure is followed to establish a connection. According to this procedure, either

horizontal or vertical bar can be energized first to make a contact. However, to break a contact, the
horizontal bar is de-energized first; the vertical bar being de-energized follows this.
As all the stations are allowed to be connected with all possible connections as long as the called
party is free, this Crossbar Switching is called the Non-Blocking Crossbar configuration, which
requires 𝑁 2 switching elements for 𝑁 subscribers. So, the Crosspoints will be highly greater than
the subscribers. For example, 100 subscribers will require a 10,000 Crosspoints. This means that
this technique can be applied to a group having a small number of subscribers.

Figure 1.37
There is an external switch called the Marker; this can control many switches and serve many
registers. The switch decides the operation of magnets such as the select magnet and the bridge
magnet that should be energized and de-energized for connecting and releasing the subscriber
respectively.

Diagonal Crosspoint Matrix

In the matrix, as 1,2,3,4 indicate input lines and 1’, 2’, 3’, 4’ indicate output lines of the same
subscribers, if a connection has to be established between the 1st and the 2nd subscriber, then 1 and
2’ can be connected or 2 and 1’ can be connected using the Crosspoints. In the same way, when a
connection has to be established between 3 and 4, then 3-4’ Crosspoint or 4- 3’ Crosspoint can do
the work. The following figure will help you understand how this works.

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Figure 1.38
Now, the diagonal portions are the Crosspoints connecting to the same subscriber again. A line that
is already connected to the terminal has no need of connecting it again to the same terminal. Hence,
the diagonal points are also not necessary.

So, it is understood that for 𝑁 number of subscribers, if the diagonal points are also considered,
the total number of Crosspoints will be,
𝑁(𝑁 + 1)
2
For 𝑁 number of subscribers, if the diagonal points are not considered, then the total number of
Crosspoints will be,
𝑁(𝑁 − 1)
2
As the number of nodes 𝑁 increases, the Crosspoints proportionally increase up to 𝑁 2 .
The Crosspoints will always be linear. Therefore, as either the lower part or the upper part of the
diagonal points in the matrix, can be considered, the whole matrix considering the lower portion,
will now be as shown in the following figure.

Figure 1.39

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This is called the Diagonal Crosspoint Matrix. The matrix is in a triangular format and can be
called the Triangular Matrix or the Two-way Matrix. The diagonal Crosspoint matrix is fully
connected. When the third subscriber initiates a call, to the fourth subscriber, then the third
subscriber’s horizontal bar is initiated first and then the fourth subscriber’s vertical bar is
energized. The diagonal Crosspoint matrix is a non-blocking configuration. The main disadvantage
of this system is that, the failure of a single switch will make some subscribers inaccessible.

The Crosspoint switch is the abstract of any switch such as the time or space switch. If 𝑁
connections can be made simultaneously in an 𝑁 × 𝑁 switch matrix, it is called the Non- blocking
Switch. If the number of connections made are less than 𝑁 in some or all cases, then it is called
the Blocking switch. These blocking switches are worked upon using Multiple Switches and such
networks are called Line frames.

J. CROSSBAR SWITCH CONFIGURATIONS

The Crossbar switch configurations are non-blocking configurations, which have 𝑁 2 switching
elements for 𝑁 subscribers and can make 𝑁/2 simultaneous conversations. The usage of
Crosspoint depends upon the calling subscriber.
This is a modified non-blocking scheme with Diagonal Crosspoint matrix as discussed above
having 𝑁(𝑁 − 1)/2 elements. The number of elements is same as that of a fully connected
network. The connection in this method is established by first energizing the horizontal bar and
then the vertical bar. However, this non-blocking scheme has few disadvantages such as:

• Large number of switching elements are required.

• This is difficult to implement in practice.
• This is neither a cost-effective process.
In order to overcome these disadvantages, the blocking Crossbar switching was introduced.

Blocking Crossbar Switches

The main aim of blocking Crossbar switches is to reduce the number of Crosspoint switches. There
are single stage and multi-stage switches. The number of Crosspoint switches can be reduced with
the help of two different methodologies. In the first method, two subscribers share one vertical bar.
With this, the number of bars will be reduced but the number of Crosspoint switches remain the
same. The second method is where all the subscribers share a number of vertical bars. With this,
the number of bars and Crosspoint switches are reduced.
Method 1

This method contains 𝟐𝑵𝑲 switches, where 𝑵 is the number of subscribers and 𝑲 is the number
of simultaneous connections. Four bars operate to establish a connection. If a connection has to be
established between A and B, then the horizontal bar A is energized first and then one of the free
vertical bars, say P, is energized. Now, the Crosspoint AP is latched. If the horizontal bar B is

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energized, BP will not be latched, as the P vertical is energized before B was energized. To connect
A and B, we need another vertical Crossbar which should electrically correspond to the vertical
bar P, which is P’ as shown in Fig 1.40. When this P’ is energized after B, the Crosspoint BP’ is
latched and a connection between A and B is established.
The connections are as shown below.

Figure 1.40
Hence, the steps associated with the establishment of connection follows a sequence:

• Energize horizontal bar A

• Energize free vertical bar P
• De-energize horizontal bar A
• Energize horizontal bar B
• Energize free vertical bar P’ (associated with P)
• De-energize horizontal bar B
Method 2

This method contains 𝑵𝑲 switches, where 𝑵 is the number of subscribers and 𝑲 is the number of
simultaneous connections. Here, three bars operate to establish a connection. If a connection has
to be established between A and B, then the horizontal bars A and B are energized first and then
one of the free vertical bars say P is energized. Now, the connection is established using one vertical
bar P only instead of two bars. The horizontal bars A and B are de-energized now.
The connections are as shown in the following figure.

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Figure 1.41
Hence, the establishment of connection follows a sequence:

• Energize horizontal bars A and B

• Energize free vertical bar P
• De-energize horizontal bars A and B

Transfer Line Support

Both of the above discussed blocking and non-blocking type Crossbar switches can support
transfer lines. This is done by introducing additional vertical Crossbars and Crosspoint switches.
There are two methods to introduce additional vertical Crossbars and Crosspoint switches:

• Internal non-blocking and external blocking

• Blocking both local and external
The internal non-blocking and external blocking method is as shown in the figure below.

Figure 1.42

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The switch shown in internal non-blocking has two transfer lines. The number of Crosspoint
switches in this case is 𝑵(𝑵 + 𝑳), where 𝑵 is the number of subscribers, 𝑳 is the number of transfer
lines. The method of blocking both local and external is as shown in the figure below.

Figure 1.43
The switch shown in fig 1.43 is blocking both internally and externally with two simultaneous
internal and two simultaneous external calls. The number of Crosspoint switches in this case is
𝑵(𝟐𝑲 + 𝑳), where N is the number of subscribers, 𝑳 is the number of transfer lines and K is the
number of simultaneous calls that can be supported locally.

K. CROSSPOINT TECHNOLOGY
The Crossbar system mainly consists of the Crosspoint switches, which increases the cost of the
system. The cost of the Crossbar system increases in direct proportion to the number of Crosspoint.

Challenges for the Crosspoint Technology

The challenges are described below:

• Reduction in the size of a Crosspoint

• Reduction in the cost of a Crosspoint
• Improvisation of the switching time
In the process of finding solutions to the existing challenges, the Crosspoint technology evolved.
Crosspoint technology is an amalgamation of two related technologies. The technologies are:

• Electromechanical
• Electronic
The flowchart given below chows the different categories of the Crosspoint technology:

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Electromechanical Crosspoint Technology

The Electromechanical Crosspoint switches which are capable of making and breaking contacts in
1-10ms of time duration for several million times without any wear and tear are being extensively
used even today. The two types of switches widely used are Mini switches and Reed relay.

• Mini Switches
These switches are made up of a precious metal like Palladium, which makes the contacts work
quieter, with their bifurcated design and high resistance to corrosion for long lasting design. These
mechanically latched switches use ‘V’ notches for this purpose and are highly reliable in Crossbar
switching systems.
These switches mounted on Crossbars move horizontally and vertically to establish and release
contacts with a switching time of 8-10ms.

• Reed Relay Switches

In order to reduce the usage of mechanical switches and increase the operating life of the switches
further, the Reed relay switches were introduced. These switches are made up of magnetic material
contacts sealed in a glass tube; this protects the contacts from getting contaminated. The following
figure illustrates the design of a reed relay switch.

Figure 1.44

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A reed relay switch may be electrically or mechanically latched; it contains the contacts very close
to each other having a displacement of 0.2mm resulting in a fast-switching speed of 1ms. The
construction of this relay is such that the glass tube is surrounded by a pair of coils and when
current is passed through both the coils simultaneously, a field is created. This further leads to the
reed contacts moving together. As long as it is switched on, the electrical connection is latched and
current passes through the coil.
In magnetic latching, the hysteresis of the magnetic material decides the performance. The
magnetic pole pieces required may be placed outside the glass or the contacts may act as poles by
choosing an appropriate ferromagnetic material. The reed relay is called the remreed due to the
remanence property of the contact strips. The residual magnetism lets the contacts stay intact even
after the currents are withdrawn and hence, a demagnetizing current needs to be applied to open
the contacts.
These reed relays are placed at each Crosspoint to construct a Crosspoint matrix. Crosspoint
selection is achieved by connecting one of the coil windings of each relay in series with its vertical
neighbor and the other winding in series with its horizontal neighbor. The reed relay is excited
when the required Crosspoint is selected by pulsating the corresponding vertical and horizontal
bars simultaneously.

Crossbar Exchange Organization

The organization of a Crossbar exchange consists of three basic building blocks such as link
frames, control markers and registers. Link frames contain primary and secondary stages having
Crossbars, connected with links between them. This two-stage arrangement with links has the
effect of increasing the number of outlets for a given number of inlets. If the number of outlets is
high, the selectivity is higher too.
The Markers control the connections between the inlets and outlets via the primary section, links
and secondary sections. Registers are there to store the number dialed, in order to establish the
connection. The following figure shows the arrangement of a link frame and its control by a
marker.

Figure 1.45
The two main sections of the Crossbar Exchange organization are:
i. Line Unit

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The line link frames along with associated markers and registers can be termed as Line Unit. The
line units are two-way units that help in the origination and termination of calls. Because of its
two-way capability, the secondary section in the line link frame is called the terminal section. The
subscriber lines are terminated on the outlets of the terminal section frames.
ii. Group Unit
The trunk link frame along with its associated circuitry can be termed as the Group Unit. The
trunk link frame may be sub-divided into two or three link frames like local office link frame and
incoming link frame, etc. Group unit is a uni-directional device that receives the calls from the line
unit or from distant exchanges. It is capable of handling local, outgoing, incoming, terminating
and transit calls.

Call Processing
A Simplified organization of a Crossbar exchange is shown in the following figure.

Figure 1.46
The call processing in a Crossbar exchange is done in three stages, named as Pre-Selection, Group
Selection and Line Selection.

• Pre-Selection
The originating marker does the pre-selection. When the calling subscriber lifts the handset, the
dial tone is heard. The register sends this tone. This stage that starts from lifting the handset to
sending the dialed tone is called Pre-Selection.

• Group Selection
Once the dial tone is heard, the number can be dialed. The call is switched through the desired
direction as decided, in accordance with the code given by the translator. This stage of selecting
the desired group for making a call is called Group Selection.

• Line Selection

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Once a number is dialed, the calling subscriber is connected to the called subscriber by the
terminating marker. The line of the called party is controlled by the terminating marker which also
sets up ringing on the line. This stage of selecting the line of the desired subscriber can be called
as the Line Selection.
With these three sections, a call can be connected and processed in a Crossbar exchange.

L. STORED PROGRAM CONTROL

In order to increase the efficiency and speed of control and signaling in switching, the use of
electronics was introduced. The Stored Program Control, in short SPC, is the concept of
electronics that ringed in a change in telecommunication. It permits the features like abbreviated
dialing, call forwarding, call waiting, etc. The Stored Program Control concept is where a program
or a set of instructions to the computer is stored in its memory and the instructions are executed
automatically one by one by the processor.
As the exchange control functions are carried out through programs stored in the memory of a
computer, it is called the Stored Program Control (SPC). The following figure shows the basic
control structure of an SPC telephony exchange.

Figure 1.47
The processors used by SPC are designed based on the requirements of the exchange. The
processors are duplicated; and, using more than one processor makes the process reliable. A
separate processor is used for the maintenance of the switching system.
There are two types of SPCs:

• Centralized SPC
• Distributed SPC

Centralized SPC

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The previous version of Centralized SPC used a single main processor to perform the exchange
functions. The dual processor replaced the single main processor at a later stage of advancement.
This made the process more reliable. Fig 1.48 shows the organization of a typical Centralized SPC.

Figure 1.48
A dual processor architecture may be configured to operate in three modes like:

• Standby Mode
• Synchronous Duplex Mode
• Load Sharing Mode
Standby Mode
As the name implies, in the two processors present, one processor is active and the other is in the
standby mode. The processor in the standby mode is used as a backup, in case the active one fails.
This mode of exchange uses a secondary storage common to both the processors. The active
processor copies the status of the system periodically and stores in the axis secondary storage, but
the processors are not directly connected. The programs and instructions related to the control
functions, routine programs and other required information are stored in the Secondary storage.
Synchronous Duplex Mode
In the Synchronous Duplex mode, two processors are connected and operated in synchronism.
Two processors P1 and P2 are connected and separate memories like M1 and M2 are used. These
processors are coupled to exchange the stored data. A Comparator is used in between these two
processors. The Comparator helps in comparing the results.
During the normal operation, both of the processors function individually receiving all the
information from the exchange and also related data from their memories. However, only one
processor controls the exchange; the other one remains in synchronism with the previous one. The

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comparator, which compares the results of both the processors, identifies if any fault occurs and
then the faulty processor among them is identified by operating them individually. The faulty
processor is brought into service only after the rectification of fault and the other processor serves
meanwhile.
Load Sharing Mode
Load sharing mode is where a task is shared between two processors. The Exclusion Device (ED)
is used instead of the comparator in this mode. The processors call for ED to share the resources,
so that both the processors do not seek the same resource at the same time.
In this mode, both the processors are simultaneously active. These processors share the resources
of the exchange and load. In case one of the processor fails, the other one takes over the entire load
of the exchange with the help of ED. Under normal operation, each processor handles one-half of
the calls on a statistical basis. The exchange operator can however vary the processor load for
maintenance purpose.

Distributed SPC
Unlike Electromechanical switches and Centralized SPC, the introduction of Distributed SPC has
enabled to provide a wide range of services. This SPC has separate small processors called the
Regional Processors that deal with different works, rather than just one or two processors working
on the whole thing like in the centralized system. However, when these regional processors are
required to perform complex tasks, the centralized SPC helps by directing them.
The Distributed SPC has more availability and reliability than Centralized SPC, because entire
exchange control functions may be decomposed either horizontally or vertically for distributed
processing. Such distributed control where switching equipment is divided into parts, each of
which have its own processor, is indicated in the figure below.

Figure 1.49
The exchange environment in vertical decomposition is divided into several blocks and each block
is assigned to a processor that performs all the control functions that are related to specific block

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of equipment, whereas each processor in horizontal decomposition performs one or some of the
exchange control functions.

M. SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE
The software of the SPC systems can be categorized into two for better understanding – System
Software and Application Software. The Software architecture deals with the system software
environment of SPC including the language processors. Many features along with call processing
are part of the operating system under which operations and Management functions are carried
out.
Call Processing is the main processing function, which is event oriented. The event that occurs at
the subscriber’s line or trunk triggers the call processing. Call setup is not done in one continuous
processing sequence in the exchange. This entire process is consistent of many elementary
processes that last for few tens or hundreds of milliseconds and many calls are processed as such
simultaneously and each call is handled by a separate Process. A Process is an active entity which
is a program in execution, sometimes even termed as a task.

Process in a Multiprogramming Environment

A Process in a multiprogramming environment may be one of the following:

• Running
• Ready
• Blocked
The state of a process is defined by its current activity and the process it executes and the transitions
that its state undergoes.

• A Process is said to be running if an instruction is currently being executed by the

processor.
• A Process is said to be ready if the next instruction of running a process is waiting or has
an instruction that is timed out.
• A Process is said to be blocked if it is waiting for some event to occur before it can proceed.
The following figure indicates the process that shows the transition between running, ready and
blocked.

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Figure 1.50
While some processes are in the running state, some will be in the ready state while others are
blocked up. The processes in the ready list will be according to the priorities. The blocked
processes are unordered and they unblock in the order in which the events are waiting to occur. If
a process is not executed and waits for some other instruction or resource, the processor time is
saved by pushing such process to the ready list and will be unblocked when its priority is high.

Process Control Block

The Process Control Block represents each process in the operating system. PCB is a data structure
containing the following information about the process.

• Current running state of the process

• Process priority which are in the ready state
• CPU scheduling parameters
• Saves the content of CPU when a process gets interrupted
• Memory allocation to the process
• The details of process like its number, CPU usage etc. are present
• Status of events and I/O resources that are associated with the process
PCB has all the information about the processes to be executed next when it gets the CPU. The
CPU registers include a Program Status Word (PSW) that contains the address of the next
instruction to be executed, the types of interrupts enabled or disabled currently, etc.
While the CPU executes some process, that process needs to be switched when the currently
running process becomes blocked or an event or interrupt that triggers a high priority process
occurs. Such a situation is called Process Switching, which is also known as Context Switching.
Such interrupt priority mechanism is described in the following figure.

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Figure 1.51
If a process A scans a particular subscriber line and finds it free, then the process establishes a call
with that subscriber. However, if another process B claims the priority and establishes a call with
the same subscriber at the same time, then both the processes need to make a call to the same
subscriber at the same time, which is not suggestable. A similar problem might occur with other
shared tables and files also.
Information about the resources of the exchange (trunks, registers etc.) and their current utilization
is kept in the form of tables. These tables when needed are shared by different processes. The
problem occurs when two or more processes opt for the same table at the same time. This problem
can be solved by giving access to each process to a shared table.
Sharing Resources
Whenever a process uses a shared table or any shared resource, all the other processes that needs
the same are to be kept waiting. When the running process finishes using the resource, it will be
allotted to the first prioritized ready process which is kept waiting. This process of using the shared
resources is called Mutual Exclusion. The process, which is accessing the shared resource, is said
to be in its Critical Section or Critical Region. Mutual Exclusion implies that only one process
can be in the critical region at any instance for a given shared resource. The coding for the process
to be in the critical section is done very carefully that there are no infinite loops. This helps in the

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process not being blocked. The work done is more accurate and efficient. This helps the other
processes that are waiting.
If two processes in a semaphore have to share a common resource, it is shared by them for certain
time intervals. While one uses the resource, the other waits. Now, while waiting, in order to be in
synchronism with the other one, it reads the task that was written until then. This means, the state
of that process should be non-zero and should keep on incrementing, which otherwise would be
sent out to the blocked list. The processes that are in the blocked list are stacked one over the other
and are allowed to use the resource according to the priority.
The following figure shows how the process works:

Figure 1.52
If two or more processes in a semaphore wait indefinitely for a resource and does not get zero to
return to the block state, while other processes wait in the blocked state for the use of the same
resource while none could use the resource but wait, such a state is called the Deadlock State.
The techniques have been developed for deadlock prevention, avoidance, detection and recovery.
Therefore, these cover the salient features of operating system for switching processors.
Software Production
The SPC software production is important because of its complexity and size of the software along
with its long working life and reliability, availability and portability.
Software production is that branch of software engineering that deals with the problems
encountered in the production and maintenance of large-scale software for complex systems. The
practice of software engineering is categorized into four stages. These stages make up for the
production of software systems.

• Functional specifications
• Formal description and detailed specifications
• Coding and verification

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• Testing and debugging

The Application software of a switching system may be divided into call processing software,
administrative software and maintenance software; the application software packages of a
switching system use a modular organization.
With the introduction of the Stored Program Control, a host of new or improved services can be
made available to the subscribers. Many kinds of enhanced services such as abbreviated dialing,
recorded number calls or no dialing calls, call back when free, call forwarding, operator answer,
calling number record, call waiting, consultation hold, conference calls, automatic alarm, STD
barring, malicious call tracing, etc. are all introduced with these changes in the telephony.

Multi-Stage Networks
The multi-stage networks are the networks built to provide connections between more subscribers
more efficiently than the Crossbar switching systems.
The Crossbar switching networks discussed previously have some limitations as described below:

• The number of Crosspoint will be the square of the number of attached stations and hence
this is costly for a large switch.
• The failure of Crosspoint prevents connection with those two subscribers between which
the Crosspoint is connected.
• Even if all the attached devices are active, only few of the Crosspoints are utilized.
In order to find a solution to subsidize these disadvantages, the multistage space division switches
were built. By splitting the Crossbar switch into smaller units and interconnecting them, it is
possible to build multistage switches with fewer Crosspoints. The following figure shows an
example of a multistage switch.

Figure 1.53
The multistage switch like the above one needs a smaller number of Crosspoints than the ones
needed in Crossbar switching. According to the example shown above, for the 8 (input) and 8
(output) various subscribers (both called and calling subscribers), the Crosspoints needed in a

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normal Crossbar network will be square of them, which is 64. However, in the multistage Crossbar
network, just 40 Crosspoints are enough. This is as shown in the diagram above. In a large
multistage Crossbar switch, the reduction is more significant.
Advantages of a Multistage Network
The advantages of a multistage network are as follows:

• The number of Crossbars is reduced.

• The number of paths of connection can be more.
Disadvantages of a Multistage Network
The disadvantage of a multistage network are as follows:

• Multistage switches may cause Blocking.

• The number or size of the intermediate switches if increased can solve this problem, but
the cost increases with this.
Blocking
Blocking reduces the number of Crosspoints.

Figure 1.54
In fig 1.54, where there are 4 inputs and 2 outputs, Subscriber 1 is connected to Line 3 and
Subscriber 2 is connected to Line 4. However, there will be more requests coming; a calling request
from subscriber 3 and subscriber 4 if made cannot be processed, as the call cannot be established.
The subscribers of the above block also (as shown in the above diagram) face the same problem.
Only two blocks can be connected at a time; connecting more than two or all of the inputs cannot
be done (as it depends on the number of outputs present). Hence, a number of connections cannot
be established simultaneously, which is understood as the calls being blocked up.

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N. SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
In large networks, there may be more than one path for transmitting data from the sender to the
receiver. Selecting a path that data must take out of the available options can be understood as
Switching. The information may be switched while it travels between various communication
channels.
There are three typical switching techniques available for digital traffic. They are:

• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching
Let us now see how these techniques work.
Circuit Switching
In Circuit switching, two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication
path. In this, a circuit is established to transfer the data. These circuits may be permanent or
temporary. Applications that use circuit switching may have to go through three phases. The
different phases are:

• Establishing a circuit
• Transferring the data
• Disconnecting the circuit
The following figure shows the pattern of Circuit switching.

Figure 1.55
Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of
circuit switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between the called subscriber and
the calling subscriber is established over the network.
The drawbacks of circuit switching are:

• The waiting time lasts long, and there is no data transfer.

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• Each connection has a dedicated path, and this gets expensive.

• When connected systems do not use the channel, it is kept idle.
The circuit pattern is made once the connection is established, using the dedicated path which is
intended for data transfer, in the circuit switching. The telephone system is a common example of
Circuit Switching technique.
Message Switching
In message switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit. The data is transferred in its
entire circuitry. A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and
buffers it until there are resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not
having enough resource to accommodate large size message, the message is stored and the switch
waits.
The following figure shows the pattern of Message switching.

Figure 1.56
In this technique, the data is stored and forwarded. The technique is also called the Store- and-
Forward technique. This technique was considered a substitute to circuit switching. But the
transmission delay that followed the end-to-end delay of message transmission added to the
propagation delay and slowed down the entire process.
Message switching has the following drawbacks:

• Every switch in the transit path needs enough storage to accommodate the entire message.
• Because of the waiting included until resources are available, message switching is very
slow.
• Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real -time applications.
The data packets are accepted even when the network is busy; this slows down the delivery. Hence,
this is not recommended for real time applications like voice and video.
Packet Switching

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The packet switching technique is derived from message switching where the message is broken
down into smaller chunks called Packets. The header of each packet contains the switching
information which is then transmitted independently. The header contains details such as source,
destination and intermediate node address information. The intermediate networking devices can
store small size packets and don’t take many resources either on the carrier path or in the internal
memory of switches.
Individual routing of packets is done where a total set of packets need not be sent in the same route.
As the data is split, bandwidth is reduced. This switching is used for performing data rate
conversion.
The figure below shows the pattern of Packet switching.

Figure 1.57
The line efficiency of packet switching can be enhanced by multiplexing the packets from multiple
applications over the carrier. The internet which uses this packet switching enables the user to
differentiate data streams based on priorities. Depending upon the priority list, these packets are
forwarded after storing to provide quality of service.
The packet switching technique was proved to be an efficient technique and is being widely used
in both voice and data transfer. The transmission resources are allocated using different techniques
such as Statistical Multiplexing or Dynamic Bandwidth allocation.
Statistical Multiplexing
Statistical multiplexing is a communication link sharing technique which is used in packet
switching. The shared linking is variable in statistical multiplexing, whereas it is fixed in TDM or
FDM. This is a strategic application for maximizing the utilization of bandwidth. This can increase
the efficiency of network, as well.
By allocating the bandwidth for channels with valid data packets, statistical multiplexing technique
combines the input traffic to maximize channel efficiency. Each stream is divided into packets,
and delivered on a first-come, first-served basis. The increase in priority levels allow to allocate

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more bandwidth. The time slots are taken care not to be wasted in the statistical multiplexing
whereas they are wasted in time division multiplexing.

Network Traffic
Network traffic is simply the data that moves along the network in a given time. The data
transmission is done in the form of packets, where the number of packets transmitted per unit time
is considered as load. The controlling of this network traffic includes managing, prioritizing,
controlling or reducing the network traffic. The amount and type of traffic on a network can also
be measured with the help of a few techniques. The network traffic needs to be monitored as this
helps in network security; high data rate might cause damage to the network.
A measure of the total work done by a resource or facility, over a period (usually 24 hours) is
understood as Traffic Volume and is measured in Erlang-hours. The traffic volume is defined as
the product of the average traffic intensity and the period of the study.
Congestion
Congestion in a network is said to have occurred when load on the network is greater than the
capacity of the network. When the buffer size of the node exceeds the data received, then the traffic
will be high. This further leads to congestion. The amount of data moved from a node to the other
can be called as Throughput.
The following figure shows congestion.

Figure 1.58
In fig 1.58, when the data packets arrive at Node from the senders A, B and C, the node cannot
transmit the data to the receiver at a faster rate. There occurs a delay in transmission or may be
data loss due to heavy congestion.
When too many packets arrive at the port in a packet switched network, then the performance
degrades and such a situation is called Congestion. The data waits in the queue line for
transmission. When the queue line is utilized more than 80%, then the queue line is said to be

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congested. The Congestion control techniques help in controlling the congestion. The following
graph, drawn between throughput and packet send shows the difference between congestion-
controlled transmission and uncontrolled transmission.

Figure 1.59
The techniques used for congestion control are of two types – open loop and closed loop. The
loops differ by the protocols they issue.
Open Loop
The open loop congestion control mechanism produces protocols to avoid congestion. These
protocols are sent to the source and the destination.
Closed Loop
The closed loop congestion control mechanism produces protocols that allow the system to enter
the congested state and then detect and remove the congestion. The explicit and implicit feedback
methods help in the running of the mechanism.

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QUESTIONS:
1. Evolution of Telecommunications:
- What were the key technological milestones in the evolution of
telecommunications?
- How has the need for communication shaped the development of
telecommunications over time?
- What were some significant challenges faced during the evolution of
telecommunications, and how were they overcome?
2. Simple Telephone Communication:
- What were the fundamental principles behind early telephone communication
systems?
- How did simple telephone communication systems operate, and what were their
limitations?
- What role did simple telephone communication systems play in laying the
foundation for modern telecommunications?
3. Manual Switching System:
- What was the manual switching system, and how did it function?
- What were the advantages and disadvantages of manual switching systems?
- How did the manual switching system pave the way for more advanced
telecommunication technologies?
4. Major Telecommunication Networks:
- What are some examples of major telecommunication networks, and what
purposes do they serve?
- How do major telecommunication networks facilitate global communication?
- What are some key characteristics of major telecommunication networks that
distinguish them from other forms of communication?
5. Strowger Switching System:
- Who was Strowger, and what was his contribution to telecommunications?
- How did the Strowger switching system improve upon manual switching systems?
- What impact did the Strowger switching system have on the development of
telecommunications?
6. Crossbar Switching:
- What is crossbar switching, and how does it differ from other switching systems?
- What are the advantages of crossbar switching systems?

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- How did crossbar switching systems contribute to the advancement of

telecommunications?
7. Electronic Space Division Switching (ESDS):
- What is electronic space division switching, and how does it work?
- What are the main components of an ESDS system?
- How has ESDS technology evolved over time?
8. Stored Program Control (SPC):
- What is stored program control, and how does it improve telecommunications
systems?
- What are some examples of applications of stored program control in
telecommunications?
- How has stored program control influenced the efficiency and flexibility of
telecommunication networks?
9. Centralized SPC vs. Distributed SPC:
- What are the key differences between centralized and distributed stored program
control?
- What are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach?
- In what scenarios would you choose centralized SPC over distributed SPC, and
vice versa?
10. Enhanced Services in Telecommunications:
- What are enhanced services in the context of telecommunications?
- How do enhanced services improve the user experience?
- What are some examples of enhanced services offered by modern
telecommunication networks?
11. Two Stage Networks, Three Stage Networks, n-Stage Networks:
- What are two-stage, three-stage, and n-stage networks in telecommunications?
- How does the number of stages in a network affect its performance?
- What are some real-world applications of two-stage, three-stage, and n-stage
networks?

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