CHAPTER 4: HYDROLOGY

Hydrology means the science of water. It is the science that deals with the occurrence,
circulation and distribution of water of the earth and earth’s atmosphere. As a branch of
earth science, it is concerned with the water in streams and lakes, rainfall on the land
and water occurring below the earth’s surface in the pores of the soil and rocks.

1.2 Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrologic cycle shows that Earth’s water is continuously moving in the four
spheres namely: hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere with the help of
the energy powered by the sun. The water cycle, collects, purifies, and distributes the
earth’s fixed supply of water. It consists of various including evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, runoff, infiltration and transpiration.

Figure 6.1 The Hydrologic Cycle

 Evaporation - the conversion of water from liquid to vapor from the earth’s
oceans, lakes, rivers, soil, and plants.
 Condensation – the transformation of water vapour to liquid in the form of clouds.
 Precipitation – any form of water that falls from the atmosphere to the ground.
 Runoff- occurs when surplus water flows over the surface into lakes and streams.
 Infiltration – happens when water soaks into the ground, slowly moving
downward, then moving laterally, and finally seeping into lakes, streams, or
directly into the ocean.
 Transpiration – occurs when water that soaks into the ground is absorbed by
plants, which then release it into the atmosphere.

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil (2021).

 Another part of the precipitation maybe intercepted by vegetation, structures
and other surfaces modifications from which it may be either evaporated back to
atmosphere or move down to the ground surface.

The total amount of moisture in the air remains about the same, this indicates
that the average annual precipitation worldwide is equal to the quantity of water
evaporated. However, taking separately the continent and oceans, precipitation
exceeds evaporation over the continent whereas evaporation exceeds precipitation over
the ocean.

1.3 Water Budget Equation

The area of land draining into a steam or a water course at a given location is
known as catchment area or drainage area or watershed. A catchment area is
separated from its neighbouring area by a ridge called divide.
For a given area (catchment area), in an interval of time (∆t), the continuity
equation for water in its various phases is:
Change in mass storage = mass inflow – mass outflow (Equation 1)
In hydrologic calculations, the volume are often expressed as average depths
over the catchment area. For example, if the annual stream flow from a 10 km2
catchment is 107 m3 , it corresponds to a depth of 1 m or 100 cm.
depth = volume/catchment area (Equation 2)
7 3 2
depth = 10 m / 10 km
depth = 1 m or 100 cm
Rainfall, evaporation, and run-off volumes are expressed in units of depth over
catchment.

An expression for the water budget of a catchment for a time interval (∆t) is
written as:
∆S = P-R-G-E-T (Equation 3)
Where: P – precipitation
R- surface run-off
G- net groundwater flow out of the catchment
E- evaporation
T- transpiration
∆S= change in storage

The storage (S) consists of three components as

S= Ss + Ssm + Sg (Equation 4)
Ss= surface water storage
Ssm= water in storage as soil moisture
Sg= water in storage as groundwater

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil (2021).

 All these have the dimensions of volume, and can be expressed as depth over
the catchment area (in meter or cm).

In terms of rainfall- runoff relationships, it can be represented as:

R= P-L (Equation 5)
Where R- surface runoff
P- precipitation
L- losses = water not available to runoff due to infiltration (causing
addition to soil moisture and groundwater storage), evaporation, transpiration and
surface storage.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A lake had a water surface elevation of 103.200 m above datum at the beginning
of a certain month. In that month the lake received an average inflow of 6.0 m 3/s from
the surface runoff sources. In the same period, the outflow from the lake had an
average value of 6.5 m3/s. Further, in that month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm
and the evaporation from the lake surface was estimated as 6.10 cm. Write the water
budget equation for the lake and calculate the water surface elevation of the lake at the
end of the month. The average surface are can be taken as 5000 hectares. Assume
that there is no contribution to or from the groundwater storage.

Solution:
Change in storage of the lake = input volume- output volume
∆S= (𝐼 ̅ ∆t + PA) -(𝑄̅ ∆t + EA)

Where: 𝐼 ̅ = average rate of inflow of water into the lake

𝑄̅ = average rate of outflow from the lake
P = precipitation
E = evaporation
A = average surface area of the lake
∆S = change in storage volume
∆t = 30 month = 2.592 x 106 s

In one month:
Inflow volume = I̅ ∆t = 6.0 m3/s x 2.592 x106 s = 15,552,000 m3
Outflow volume = Q ̅ ∆t = 5.5 m3/s x 2.592 x106 s = 16,848,000 m3
Input due to precipitation = PA
PA = 145 mm x 5000 ha
1cm 1m 10000m2
PA = (145 mm x x ) (5000 ha x )
10 mm 100 cm 1 ha
PA= 7,250, 000 m3
Input due to evaporation = EA

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil (2021).

 EA = 6.10 cm x 5000 ha
1m 10000m2
EA = (6.10 cm x ) (5000 ha x )
100 cm 1 ha

EA = 3,050,000 m3
∆S= (𝐼 ̅ ∆t + PA) -(𝑄̅ ∆t + EA)
∆S= 15,552,000 m3 + 7,250, 000 m3 - 16,848,000 m3 - 3,050,000 m3
∆S= 2,904,000 m3
Change in elevation:
Change in elevation or depth = volume/catchment area
Change in elevation or depth = 2,904,000 m3 / 5000 ha
2,904,000 𝑚3
Change in elevation or depth = 10000 𝑚2
5000 ℎ𝑎 𝑥
1 ℎ𝑎

Change in elevation or depth = 0.058 m

New water surface elevation = 103.200 m above datum + 0.058 m =103.258 m

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A small catchment area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10.5 cm in 90 minutes due
to a storm. At the outlet of the catchment, the stream draining the catchment was dry
before the storm and experienced a run-off lasting for 10 hours with an average
discharge of 1.5 m3/s. The stream was again dry after the run-off event.
a. What is the amount of water which was not available to run-off due to the
combined effect of infiltration, evaporation and transpiration?
b. What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?

Solution:
The water budget equation for the catchment in a time (∆t) is
R = P-L thus
L= P-R
a. Input due to precipitation in 10 hrs = PA = P

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil (2021).

 1𝑚 10000 𝑚2
PA = (10.5 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 ) 𝑥 (150 ℎ𝑎 𝑥 ) = 157,500 m3
100 𝑐𝑚 1 ℎ𝑎

Outflow volume at the catchment outlet in 10 hours

1.5 𝑚3 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠
R= 𝑥 10 hr 𝑥 𝑥 = 54,000 m3
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛

L = P-R = 157,500 m3 - 54,000 m3 = 103,500 m3

b. Runoff/rainfall = 54000/157500 = 0.343

Runoff/rainfall is a ratio known as runoff coefficient.

1.4 WORLD WATER BALANCE

Earth is known as the blue planet because it consists mainly of water, estimating to
1386 million cubic kilometres. Roughly 96.5 % of the water is stored in the global ocean,
1.76% in ice sheets and glaciers and 2% in lakes, streams, groundwater, and the
atmosphere.

Figure 6.2 Distribution of Earth’s Water

An estimated distribution of water on the earth is given in Table 6.1.

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Table 6.1 Estimated World Water Quantities

The global annual water balance is shown in Table 6.1

Table 6.2 Global Annual Water Balance

As shown in Table 6.2, the annual evaporation form the world’s oceans and inland
areas are 0.505 and 0.072 M km3 respectively. Thus, over the oceans about 9% more
water evaporated than that falls back as precipitation. Correspondingly, there will be
excess precipitation over evaporation on the landmass. The differential, which is
estimated to be about 0.047 M km3 is the runoff from landmass to oceans and
groundwater outflow to oceans.
The average duration of a particle of water to pass through a phase of the
hydrologic cycle is known as the residence time of that phase. It is calculated by dividing
the volume of water in the phase by the average flow rate in that phase.

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 The shorter the residence time the greater is the difficulty in predicting the
behaviour of that phase of the hydrologic cycle.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Assuming that all surface runoff to the oceans comes from the rivers, what is the
residence time of global rivers?
Solution:
From Table 6.1, the volume of water in the rivers of the world = 0.00212 M km 3
From Table 6.2, the average flow rate of water in global rivers = 44700 km3/year

Residence time, Tr = 2120 km3 /44700 km3 = 0.0474 year = 17.3 days

Table 1.3 shows the water balance of continents (mm/yr). Africa, in spites of its
equatorial forest zones, is the driest continent in the world with only 20% of the
precipitation going as runoff. On the other hand, North America and Europe emerge as
continents with highest runoff.
Table 1.3 Water Balance of Continents (mm/yr)

Table 1.4 portrays the water balance of oceans, which indicates that there is
considerable transfer of water between the oceans and the evaporation and precipitation
values vary from one ocean to another.
Table 1.4 Water Balance of Oceans (mm/yr)

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1.5 SOURCES OF DATA
The data normally required in hydrology studies are:
 Weather records- temperature, humidity, and wind velocity
 Precipitation data
 Stream Flow records
 Evaporation and evapotranspiration data
 Infiltration characteristics of the study area
 Soils of the area
 Land use and land cover
 Groundwater characteristics
 Physical and geological characteristics of the area
 Water quality data

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Name: _____________________________CYS: __________________Date: _______
EXERCISE 3.1
TRUE OR FALSE
__________1. Asia has the largest value of annual precipitation to runoff.
__________2. Australia has the smallest value of annual precipitation to runoff.
__________3. In the hydrologic cycle, the average residence time of water in the global
atmospheric moisture is larger than that in the global waters.
__________4. In the hydrologic cycle, the average residence time of water in the global
rivers is larger than that of the global groundwater.

FOR ITEMS 5-8. If the average annual rainfall and evaporation over landmasses and
oceans of the earth are considered it would be found that:
__________5. over the land mass the annual evaporation is the same as the annual
precipitation.
__________6. more water evaporates from the oceans than what falls back on them as
precipitation.
__________7. over the ocean, more rainfalls than what is evaporated.
__________8. the total amount of moisture in the air remains about the same, if not
taking separately the continent and oceans, this indicates that the
average annual precipitation worldwide is equal to the quantity of water
evaporated.
__________9. When the surface material is highly impermeable, or when it becomes
saturated, runoff is the dominant process.
__________10. Infiltration occurs when surplus water flows over the surface into lakes
and streams whereas runoff happens when water soaks into the ground,
slowly moving downward, then moving laterally, and finally seeping into
lakes, streams, or directly into the ocean.

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil (2021).

Name: ______________________________ CYS: _________________Date:_______

EXERCISE 6.2
1. A catchment area of 140 km2 received 120 cm of rainfall in a year. At the outlet of
the catchment the flow in the stream draining the catchment was found to have an
average rate of 2.0 m3/s for 3 months, 3.0 m3/s for 6 months, and 5.0 m3/s for 3
months. What is the runoff coefficient of the catchment?
2. A river reach had a flood wave passing through it. At a given instant the storage of
water in the reach was estimated as15.5 ha.m. What would be the new storage in
the river reach after an interval of 3 hours if the average inflow and outflow during
the time period are 14.2 m3/s and 10.6 m3/s respectively?
3. A catchment has four sub-areas. The annual precipitation and evaporation (or
losses) from each of the sub-area are given below. What are the annual runoff
coefficients for each sub-area and for the total catchment taken as a whole?

4. Estimate the residence time of

a. Global atmospheric moisture (ocean + land)
b. Global groundwater by assuming that only the fresh groundwater runoffs to the
oceans.
5. Rainfall of intensity of 20 mm/h occurred over a watershed of area 100 ha for a
duration of 6hr. Measured direct runoff volume in the stream draining the
watershed was found to be 30,000 m3. What is the volume of precipitation not
available to runoff in this case?

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil (2021).