Bachelor of Global Engineering

Introduction to Classical Mechanics

Exam

November 2, 2023

Duration 2h, no document allowed, calculator authorized

1 Ballistic pendulum
We consider a pendulum made of a mass m assimilated to a
mass point M and an inextensible and massless rod of length
l fixed on one end in a fixed point O and on the other end
in M . This pendulum will be used to determine the veloc-
ity of a gun bullet in a police laboratory, this device is called
a ballistic pendulum. We assume that the motion is pla-
nar and in the plane of motion, we will use the polar coordi-
nates system (r, θ). The velocity of a mass point M is writ-
ten → −v M . We denote g = 10 m/s2 the norm of the gravity
field.

We first study the pendulum in general. We neglect all frictions.

1. Justify that the laboratory reference frame can be considered as Galilean.

2. Summarize the forces exerted on M and express them in the coordinate system.

3. Prove that θ = 0 and θ = π are equilibrium positions.

4. The mass point M is slightly displaced from θ = 0 with an infinitesimal angle dθ. Express
−→
the net force exerted on M , dF . Discuss the stability of the equilibrium position θ = 0.

5. Same question around the equilibrium position θ = π.

6. Express the potential energy Ep of M and its mechanical energy EM . We assume that
Ep (θ = 0) = 0.

7. Is EM a constant with respect to time?

8. Find again the equilibrium positions and discuss their stability by studying Ep (θ).

9. Establish the differential equation verified by θ(t).

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 10. For small values of θ express the general solution to this equation.

11. The mass point M is in its stable equilibrium position at t = 0 with an initial velocity
v0 . Give the expression of θ(t) in that case (assuming that θ remains small enough).

−
→
We now assume that some fluid friction force is exerted on M , Ff = −α m −
v→
M , with α a
positive parameter.

12. For small values of θ establish the new differential equation for θ(t).

13. On which condition on l, g and α are the solution of this equation oscillatory?

We will now study the

ballistic pendulum. A bul-
let assimilated to a mass
point B of mass mb is fired
in the direction of M with
a velocity v0 that we would
like to measure. M is in
fact a device, initially at
rest, that will absorb the
bullet at t = 0. Just after
the impact, the pendulum is therefore constituted by both M and the bullet B it contained.
→
−
It can be assimilated to a mass point M ′ of mass m + mb . We define the momentum P of a
system of mass points Mi of masses mi with i = 1, ..., N , as the following quantity:

N
→
−
mi −
v→
X
P = Mi
i

We assume that the impact of B on M occurs within a very short time and that the
momentum of the system {B, M } is conserved during the impact. Just after the impact,
{B, M } is then simply M ′ .

14. Using the conservation of the momentum, show that, just after the impact, the velocity
of M ′ is written:

mb
vM ′ (0) = v0
m + mb
15. Show that there was a loss in the total mechanical energy of the system {B, M } during
the impact. What happened to this lost energy?

16. After being hit by the bullet the pendulum reaches a maximum angle θmax that cannot
be considered as small. Express v0 as a function of θmax , mb , m′ , l and g. Friction can be
neglected.

17. Calculate v0 with θmax = π/3, mb = 10 g, m′ = 1 kg, l = 1 m.

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2 Bohr’s model of the atom of hydrogen
In this exercise we will study a planetary model of the atom of hydrogen, in which we will
introduce a quantification. This model is called Bohr’s model or the semi-classic model. We
assume that the atom of hydrogen is constituted of a proton of mass mp = 1.67 × 10−27 kg
and charge qp = e = 1.6 × 10−19 C and an electron of mass me = 9.3 × 10−31 kg and charge
qe = −e = −1.6 × 10−19 C. Both the proton and the electron are mass points denoted Mp and
Me . The atom is in the terrestrial reference frame, considered as Galilean.
We recall the interaction force exerted by the proton on the electron:

−−→ e2 −−→
Fp→e = − up→e .
4πϵ0 r2
e2
We define K = 4πϵ0
. We will neglect all other forces.

1. Show that the barycentric reference frame is Galilean.

2. Justify the fact that the proton can be considered as motionless in the barycentric refer-
ence frame and confounded with the barycenter G.

From now on, we will only study the motion of the electron Me , the proton being fixed at
the origin O of the cylindrical coordinates system.

3. Show that the motion of the electron is planar. From now on (r, θ) will denote the polar
coordinates of Me in the plane of motion.
4. Demonstrate the area law C = r2 θ̇ = constant.
5. Express the kinetic energy of Me .
6. Express the potential energy of Me , assuming that Ep (r → ∞) = 0.
7. Using the area law, express the mechanical energy of Me as a function of r and ṙ only.
8. Show that for negative values of the mechanical energy the trajectory is bounded.

We now only consider circular trajectories of radius r.

9. Show that the motion is uniform, and express v as a function of the radius r, K and me .
10. Express the kinetic energy of the electron as a function of the radius r and K.
11. Same question for the mechanical energy.
12. We define T the orbital period of the electron around the proton. Express T as a function
of r, K and me .
13. We denote L the norm of the angular momentum of the electron in O. Show that:

L2
r= .
Km

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 One of the problem of the planetary model of the atom we studied in this exercise is that the
trajectory can have any radius, and therefore any negative mechanical energy. Indeed, when
a gas made of hydrogen atoms interacts with light, there are only some very specific angular
frequencies of light that can be absorbed or emitted by the atoms. These angular frequencies
ωp1 ,p2 respects an experimental law called Rydberg’s law, discovered along the XIXth century:
Å ã
1 1
ωp1 ,p2 =A 2 − 2 ,
p1 p2

with (p1 , p2 ) ∈ N∗2 and p1 < p2 , and A a constant. This law is not explained by the
planetary model. In 1913 Niels Bohr proposed to introduce a quantification in the planetary
model: the angular momentum takes only discretes values regularly spaced:

L = nℏ,

where n ∈ N∗ and ℏ = 1.05 × 10−34 Js is the reduced Planck constant. This constant also
appeared in Einstein’s work on the photon (1905), the energy of one photon of light with an
angular frequency ω being equal to ℏω.

14. Show that with the quantification introduced by Bohr, r must take discrete values you
will express as a function of n, K, me and ℏ.

15. Show that the mechanical energy can take discrete values En , n ∈ N∗ :

me K 2
En = −
2ℏ2 n2
16. Calculate E1 the minimum value of En and express it in electron volts eV.

17. Explain how this model is in line with Rydbergh’s law.