AI 5 Semester - Questions & Answers - Set 1 06-01-2025
AI 5 Semester - Questions & Answers - Set 1 06-01-2025
solution more efficiently than an uninformed search strategy. Informed search is also called a
Heuristic search. A heuristic is a way which might not always be guaranteed for best solutions
but guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time. Informed search can solve much
complex problem which could not be solved in another way.
An example of informed search algorithms is a traveling salesman problem.
➢ Greedy Search
➢ A* Search
52. What is Best First Search?
Best First Search is an instance of the general TREE SEARCH or GRAPH SEARCH algorithm
in which a node is selected for expansion based on an evaluation function, f(n).
53. Define Evaluation function, f(n).
A node with the lowest evaluation is selected for expansion, because evaluation measures
distance to the goal.
54. Define Heuristic function, h (n).
h (n) is defined as the estimated cost of the cheapest path from node n to a goal node.
55. Define Greedy Best First Search.
It expands the node that is closest to the goal (i.e.) to reach solution in a quicker way. It is done
by using the heuristic function: f(n) = h(n).
56. Define A* search.
A* search evaluates nodes by combining g(n), the cost to reach the node and h(n), the cost to
get from the node to the goal.
f(n) = g(n) + h(n)
57. Define Admissible heuristic h (n).
In A* search, if it is optimal then, h(n) is an admissible heuristic which means h(n) never
overestimates the cost to reach the goal.
58. What is triangle inequality?
It states that each side of a triangle cannot be longer than the sum of the other two slides of
the triangle.
59. What are the 2 types of memory bounded heuristic algorithms?
1. Recursive Best First Search(RBFS)
2. Memory bounded A*(MA*)
60. Differentiate BFS & DFS.
BFS means breath wise search. Space complexity is more. Do not give optimal solution
Queuing fn is same as that of queue operator
DFS means depth wise search. Space complexity is less Gives optimal solution Queuing fn is
somewhat different from queue operator.
61. What is RBFS?
It keeps track of the f-value of the best alternative path available from any ancestor of the
current node. RBFS remembers the f-value of the best leaf in the forgotten sub tree and
therefore decide whether its worth re expanding the sub tree sometimes later.
62. Define iterative deepening search.
Iterative deepening is a strategy that sidesteps the issue of choosing the best depth limit by
trying all possible depth limits: first depth 0, then depth 1, then depth 2& so on.
It is a loop that continually moves in an increasing value direction (i.e.) up hill and terminates
when it reaches a “peak” where no neighbour has a higher value.
77. List some drawbacks of hill climbing process.
Local maxima: A local maxima as opposed to a goal maximum is a peak that is lower that the
highest peak in the state space. Once a local maxima is reached the algorithm will halt even
though the solution may be far from satisfactory.
Plateaux: A plateaux is an area of the state space where the evaluation fn is essentially flat.
The search will conduct a random walk.
78. What is the meaning for greedy local search?
It goals (picks) a good neighbour state without thinking ahead about where to go next.
79. Define Local maxima.
A local maximum is a peak that is higher than each of its neighbouring states, but lower than
the global maximum.
80. What are the variants of hill climbing?
1. Stochastic hill climbing
2. First choice hill climbing
3. Simulated annealing search
4. Local beam search
5. Stochastic beam search
81. Define annealing.
Annealing is the process used to harden metals (or) glass by heating them to a high
temperature and then gradually cooling them, thus allowing the material to coalesce into a low
energy crystalline state.
82. Define simulated annealing.
This algorithm, instead of picking the best move, it picks a random move. If the move improves
the situation, it is always accepted.
83. What is the advantage of memory bounded search techniques?
We can reduce space requirements of A* with memory bounded algorithm such as IDA* &
SMA*.
84. Give the procedure of IDA* search.
Minimize f(n)=g(n)+h(n) combines the advantage of uniform cost search + greedy search A* is
complete, optimal. Its space complexity is still prohibitive.
Iterative improvement algorithms keep only a single state in memory, but can get stuck on local
maxima. In this algorithm each iteration is a DFS just as in regular iterative deepening. The
depth first search is modified to use an f-cost limit rather than a depth limit. Thus, each iteration
expands all nodes inside the contour for the current f-cost.
85. List some properties of SMA* search.
➢ It will utilize whatever memory is made available to it.
➢ It avoids repeated states as for as its memory allow.
➢ It is complete if the available memory is sufficient to store the shallowest path.
➢ It is optimal if enough memory is available to store the shallowest optimal solution path.
Otherwise, it returns the best solution that can be reached with the available memory.
When enough memory is available for entire search tree, the search is optimally efficient.
➢ Hill climbing.
➢ Simulated annealing.
86. What are Genetic Algorithms?
Genetic Algorithm is a variant of stochastic beam search in which successor states are
generated by combining two parent states, rather than by modifying a single state.
87. Define CSP.
Constraint Satisfaction problem (CSP) is defined by a set of variables X1,X2,…Xn and set of
constraints C1,C2,…Cm.
88. Define Successor function.
A value can be assigned to any unassigned variable, provided that does not conflict with
previously assigned variables.
89. Define Tree decomposition.
The constraint graph is divided into a set of connected sub problems. Each sub problem is
solved independently and the resulting solutions are then combined. This process is called tree
decomposition.
90. Define Alpha beta pruning.
Alpha beta pruning eliminates away branches that cannot possibly influence the final decision.
91. Define FOL.
FOL is a first order logic. It is a representational language of knowledge which is powerful than
propositional logic (i.e.) Boolean Logic. It is an expressive, declarative, compositional
language.
92. Define a knowledge Base:
Knowledge base is the central component of knowledge base agent and it is described as a
set of representations of facts about the world.
93. With an example, show objects, properties functions and relations.
Example
“EVIL KING JOHN BROTHER OF RICHARD RULED ENGLAND IN 1200”
Objects : John, Richard, England, 1200
Relation : Ruled
Properties : Evil, King
Functions : BROTHER OF
94. Define a Sentence?
Each individual representation of facts is called a sentence. The sentences are expressed in a
language called as knowledge representation language.
95. Define an inference procedure
An inference procedure reports whether or not a sentence is entitled by knowledge base
provided a knowledge base and a sentence. An inference procedure ‘i’ can be described by
the sentences that it can derive. If i can derive from knowledge base, we can write. KB --Alpha
is derived from KB or i derives alpha from KB.
96. Define Ontological commitment.
The difference between propositional and first order logic is in the ontological commitment. It
assumes about the nature of reality.
AND elimination rule states that from a given conjunction it is possible to inference any of the
conjuncts. OR-Introduction rule states that from, a sentence, we can infer its disjunction with
anything.
123. Define Unification.
Lifted Inference rule require finding substitutions that make different logical expressions look
identical (same). This is called Unification.
124. Define Occur check.
When matching a variable in 2 expressions against a complex term, one must check whether
the variable itself occurs inside the term, If it does the match fails. This is called occur check.
125. Define pattern matching.
The inner loop of an algorithm involves finding all the possible unifiers with facts in the KB. This
is called pattern matching.
126. Explain the function of Rete Algorithm?
This algorithm preprocess the set of rules in KB to constant a sort of data flow network in which
each node is a literals from rule a premise.
127. Define magic set.
To rewrite the rule set, using information from the goal, so that only relevant variable bindings
called magic set.
128. Define backward chaining.
This algorithm works backward from the goal, chaining through rules to find known facts that
support the proof.
129. Define Prolog program.
It is a set of definite clauses written in a notation somewhat different from standard FOL.