BASIC DESIGNER AND

VIRTUAL VERIFIER
Content updation is in progress
COURSE NAME : BASIC DESIGNER AND VIRTUAL VERIFIER
Course Overview:
This course is designed to provide the basic concepts and hands on experience on Basics of Design and Virtual Verification and to build
competency in performing the finite element analysis of structures and provide the design solutions.

Course Duration: 2 Year

Outcome / Job Role:

The student will have an ability to understand the basics of design concepts, engineering drawing drafting, engineering material and its
properties, basics of engineering mechanics strength of material concepts for basic design calculations, basics of finite element method,
Generating a CAD models and preparing a finite element model using various meshing parameters like different elements, adopting industry
required quality criteria, understanding of loading and boundary conditions to verify the model and solve the models for required failure
modes and interpret the results and based on the results and required improvements provide the design solutions.

On successful completion of the course and obtaining the requisite certification the student will become finite element analyst or computer
aided engineering analyst and can seek jobs in the various industry like automotive, aerospace, FMCG, marine etc.,
INDEX  FEA software user interface
 INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCT AND DESIGN
 Introduction to Computer Geometric Modelling and
 Why Testing and Validation? Importing Geometry

 WHY VIRTUAL VERIFICATION?  Geometry cleanup & editing

 Finite Element Analysis Overview  Mid Surface

 Overview of engineering mechanics and Strength of  Introduction to Meshing

Materials
 Mesh Quality Check
 Introduction to FEA
 Material Properties
 Why FEA?
 Loads and Boundary condition
 FEA Steps
 Solving the Model
 Application of FEA
 View and Interpretation of Result
 Types of Analysis
INTRODUCTION TO PRODUCT AND DESIGN
Introduction:
The “Virtual Verification” has gained significant attraction in most industries such as
aerospace, automotive, biomedical, consumer goods, defence, energy, electronics, heavy
industry, and marine throughout the last years. There are many reasons for the overall
acceptance of Virtual Verification as simulation has proven to help with:
• New and inspiring designs
• Products with better quality (e.g. increased material efficiency where less material =
lighter designs)
• Designing faster (i.e. due to shortened development cycles and a reduction in the
number of prototypes by minimizing “Trial and Error” attempts.
The subject explores the various tools and techniques that are available for the
verification of the product virtually.
BASICS OF PRODUCT DESIGN AND VERIFICATION
Topic heading sub-contents:

• What is a Product

• What is Design

• Essentials of Product

• Design Considerations

• Stages of Product Development

• Why Testing is Required

• Concept Creation

• Stages of Concept Creation

INTRODUCTION
What is Product?

• A product is defined as a “thing produced by labour or effort” or the “result of an act or a process”.

• Product is produced to perform specified function

Bench wise Automobile Aero Engine Drone

INTRODUCTION
What is Design?

• Design is a plan, implementation of which results a product, service or a result.

Idea

Design Product
INTRODUCTION
Essentials of a Product
• Product design can be divided into three fundamental components.

Appearance

Customer

Designer
• Durability • How service life can
• Trendy be increased?
• Comfortable • How to enhance
Product • Fuel Efficient aerodynamics
•
Design Prestige
•
features?
Does it have enough
strength?
• How to improve the
Quality Functionality cabin vibration
levels?
• How to increase the
milage?
 INTRODUCTION
Design Considerations:
Strength • The product should have sufficient strength to avoid failure due to yielding or fracture (failure) under the loads

• The product should have a longer life span providing satisfactory performance
Reliability & Serviceability • The product should be such that it can be easily repaired or serviced.

Safety • The product should be designed such that it ensures safety of the users and machine

•Cost & Weight • The total cost of the product should be minimum possible
• The product should have a minimum possible weight

•Conformance to Standards • The product should conform to national/international standards and codes

•Ergonomics • The product should be designed with ergonomic* criteria

•Aesthetics • The product should appealing enough to attractive customers

•Manufacturing & Assembly • The manufacturing process to produce the product should cost less
• The product should minimize assembly cost and time

*Ergonomics is a scientific study of man-machine-working environment relationship to solve problems arising from the same
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
• Generic phases of product development is shown.
• The stages vary from company to company, product to product.

Recognition Definition of
Analysis Synthesis
of Need the Problem

Market Test Prototype

• Testing is an important stage to validate the complete product

• Saleability of the product depends on passing the phase
INTRODUCTION
Why Testing?

• Assuring that the product meets • Testing ensures that the product meets
specific standards. its goal.
• To ensure that the products are safe, • The product comprises of multiple
reliable and high-quality. components connected together.
• Testing ensures that all parts are able to
work together in harmony.

• Through testing, real life situations can

• To avoid customer dissatisfaction be introduced that the product will face
• In larger applications, product defects are during their lifecycle, without waiting out
the potential to cause of serious injury. the life of the product.
• To minimize the risk of defects, there by • Response of the structure can be
protecting the company’s image and obtained under the product’s operating
brand value. conditions.

Lets go through the development of Car……

INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:

Development Development Development Production Entering

Planning Designing Testing Engineering Market
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
1. Development Planning: The development planning department is the first step for creating an actual vehicle
based on the planning or the styling. Image of the future bringing people inspiration.
A. Basic Layout: Summarize the overall vehicle’s general layout by studying the engine room layout and a lot of
functions required for cars, such as driving performances, interior space, exterior, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
1. Development Planning:
B. Styling: Make the car’s styling sketches, and study the styling with computer graphics or clay models to create
3D-CAD data.
.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
1. Development Planning:
C. Digital Development: Create a new development process by using the digital technologies. In addition, conduct
the vehicle verification virtually to develop a process sharing the information of designing, testing, and production
engineering.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
1. Development Planning:

D. Competitive Car Analysis: To plan the development concept or the target performances, analyse the
competitive cars’ features from various viewpoints according to the measurement or the teardown investigation of
those to evaluate the performances or ease of use.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
2. Development Designing:
• Carry out consistently the process of the concept making through to the production drawing fix in conformity

with the corresponding vehicle concept.

• The development designing department makes the basic concept about parts/system’s specifications and
performances, cost, etc., reviews and makes drawings of the structure and shape, and then fixes the production
drawings consistently.
• The development designing department makes drawings by optimizing the structure and shape with the digital
technology, and then feeds back the test and evaluation results, etc. of the prototype parts to seek higher quality
and performances.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
2. Development Designing:
A. Body / Door / Exterior Designing: Design body, door, exterior parts, wiper, lamp, glass, etc. by studying various
requirements of styling, performances, structure, strength, rigidity, operability, etc. via CAD/CAE.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
2. Development Designing:
B. Interior Designing: Design instrument panel, air bag, seat, seat belt, upholstery parts, air-conditioner parts, etc.,
which are the most familiar parts for customer, by the repeated study of those structure and performances.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
2. Development Designing:
C. Electronics / Electrical System Designing: Conduct control design of respective ECUs in the body / powertrain
system which are brains of cars, and of various devices such as car navigation, audio, etc., or design circuits / layout
of harnesses which are blood vessels of cars, meters/switches, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
2. Development Designing:
D. Chassis Engineering: Study underbody parts concerned performances and structure and design parts such as
suspension, steering wheel, brake, tire and wheel which are deeply related to the basic performances “Drive”,
“Turn”, and “Stop” of cars.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
2. Development Designing:
E. Electric Vehicle Engineering: Study performances, layout/structure, and design parts such as motor system,
charger, battery pack, invertor, etc. which are the basics of electrical vehicles.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
2. Development Designing:
F. Power Train Engineering: Analyse performances, study structure, plan layout, and design parts such as engine,
transmission, drivetrain system, fuel system, etc. which are the heart of cars.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
2. Development Designing:
G. Accessories / Special Modification Vehicle Design: Design and develop accessory parts for exterior parts,
interior parts, electronic/electrical parts, navigation/audio, etc., and design and develop special modification
vehicles such as vehicle for disabled persons.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
3. Development Testing:
• Improve a vehicle thoroughly to respond to our customer’s joy for driving.
• The development testing department consists largely of the testing of function, vehicle, and powertrain, and
plays a role in evaluation, verification, and improvements of design quality with a mutual cooperation.
• If the development designing department is a parent of creating cars, the development testing is, as it were, a
foster parent who trains and brings up the vehicles.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
3. Development Testing:
A. Function Testing:Conduct the development related to safety such as impact safety, braking, strength, etc. the
vehicle should provide, quietness, vehicle handling, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
3. Development Testing:
B. Vehicle Testing:Conduct the development related to safety such as impact safety, braking, strength, etc. the
vehicle should provide, quietness, vehicle handling, etc.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
3. Development Testing:
C. Power Train Testing: Conduct the development related to performances, function, durability, and reliability of
engines, transmissions, driveline, and EV components that support the vehicle’s driving performances.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
4. Production Engineering:
• Plan/conduct/support the human and environment friendly production line with efficiently controlled cost.
• The production engineering department begins with planning and reviewing the powertrain and vehicle
production line, designs the production facilities, machines, tools and jigs, prepares the production plant related
documents, and supports the mass-production.
• In addition, the production engineering department strives for power and energy conservation to minimize
environmental impacts.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
4. Production Engineering:
A. Production Process Planning:
• Plan the production processes with the people – and environmental - friendly production line in mind, while
efficiently keeping the cost low.
• Structural study, Plant layout, Process plan/man-hour planning, Production line planning, Equipment/jig
planning.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
4. Production Engineering:
B. Designing of Production Facilities, Machines, Tools and Jigs: Design using the latest digital technologies with
the accumulated know-how. Electrical control designing, Die designing, Equipment/jig designing, Stamping
die/plastic mould designing.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
4. Production Engineering:
C. Construction of Production Line: Supervise and construct to enable the secure production start within the
determined period. Construction management, Construction work.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
4. Production Engineering:
D. Production Support:
• Conduct the quality creation and the production support to enable the delivery of the stable- quality vehicle to
our customer.
• Vehicle quality build-in, Plant production related documents, Establishment of inspection system etc.
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
INTRODUCTION
Stages of Product Development:
Development of Passenger Car:
CONCEPT CREATION
What Is Concept Generation?
• Product concept generation is a process that starts with a
list parameters set by the customer regarding his needs and
specifications.
• Based on the requirements, concept generation helps to
pinpoint a variety of possible solutions and ideas that
answers those needs.
• Understanding of the requirements is the key.
CONCEPT CREATION
Steps in Concept Generation:

•Researching •Assessing the •Picking the

•Understandin •Brainstorming
Established Ideas & winner & Start
g the Problem & Ideation
Solutions Solutions Working on It
CONCEPT CREATION
Steps in Concept Generation:

Brainstorming Multiple Concepts Winning Concept

Overview of Product Design and Development (PDD)
• Product design may refer to the whole design process it is generally used for “product designers” job, (Also called “industrial designers”)

• Product development is the whole process.

• Market/Customer requirement analysis

• Concept Development

• Product specifications

• Technological research

• Analysis and development

• Market launch

• Analysis and improvements

Why Testing and Validation?
• The product must satisfy the requirements set for development. For every product there are various rules and regulations that
companies have to comply with that of those set by the regulating authorities. The product has to be checked for various loads acting on
it.

• The basic requirements for the product to validate for loads are :

• 1 ) Validation for Strength

• 2) Validation for Stability

• Considering the Aircraft Industry, the components of the aircraft and the aircraft as a whole needs to be tested and validated to fly.

• An Aircraft OEM must comply with rules and regulations of regulatory authorities such as FAA, EASA,DGCA etc., to fly the aircraft safely.
The testing of the aircraft and aircraft components are usually carried out using the virtual verification method that is using the
computers and the software packages developed to test the aircraft and its components even before the physical testing, as the physical
testing is very expensive and is time consuming.

• The technology of verification and validation of the products using computers and not physically is the Computer Aided Engineering.
Why Testing and Validation?

An aviation product such as an aircraft needs to fulfil the requirements of the OEM, Airliners and Aviation authorities.
Various types of CAE Analysis
Advantages of CAE :
Various advantages of CAE are as shown below.

• CAE allows for easy visualization and improves design efficiency

• Since simulating reality is less time consuming, CAE processes save on time
and money

• CAE reduces the errors in design and drawing process and helps in quality
improvement

• The impacts of changing parameters on a system can be studied with more

accuracy

• Robustness and performance of components and assemblies can be

analyzed

• CAE aids ease of manufacturing support

• Comply wit the safety standards and helps achieve them virtually with less
cost
WHY VIRTUAL VERIFICATION?
Traditional Product Testing:

•Physical
•Design •Testing •Redesign •Build
Prototype

• Expensive in terms of design change

• Time consuming

• Impacts company’s image in the market

WHY VIRTUAL VERIFICATION?
Virtual Product Testing:
• Set of digital techniques, acting to support the design, that allow to simulate the behavior of components, structures and complex systems in their
respective operating conditions in a virtual environment.

• Aims at improving product designs or assist in the resolution of engineering problems

•Simulatio
•Design •Redesign •Build
n

• Physical behaviour of the product obeys the laws of mathematics

• Easy, Fast and Cost efficient

• Saves cost on building prototypes

• Design cycle will be shorter

WHY VIRTUAL VERIFICATION?
Physical v/s Virtual Product Testing – A comparison:
Finite Element Analysis overview
• What is FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA)?

• Basics of Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials

• Steps in FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA)?

WHAT IS FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA)?
• The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a computing technique used to Exact Solution:
obtain approximate solutions to engineering problems. Perimeter = 2πr
• Originally developed to cater aerospace industry, now rules all the
Approximate Solution:
fields from high tech engineering to FMCG consumer goods.
Perimeter = Summation of Length of Lines
• The concept of FEA can be explained using an example involving the (Green)
measurement of perimeter of a circle.
• The greater number of lines, the more
accurate the perimeter will be.

• It will never match the exact solution even

if the number of lines are increased.
• Similarly, a design (geometry) is divided into to finite number regions / divisions called elements. These elements can be of predefined shape
such as triangular, quadrilateral etc.
• These shape of an element helps define the equation that describe how the element will respond to certain loads.
• The sum of all the responses of all elements in a model gives the total response of the complete model (stress, strain, displacement etc.)
WHAT IS FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA)?
Background: Approaches to
Problems
• Continuous Approach:

All real-life components are continuous.

• Discrete Approach:
Discrete (mathematical equivalent) model, chair represented by shell and beam Continuous Discrete
elements, person via lumped mass at C.G
WHAT IS FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA)?
Finite Element Method:
- A numerical method
- Mathematical representation of an actual problem
- Approximate method

• The Finite Element Method only makes calculations at a limited (Finite) number of points and then
interpolates the results for the entire domain (surface or volume).
Continuous Region
Finite –The Finite Element Method reduces the distribution of material from infinite to finite with the No of Points = ∞
help of discretization or meshing (nodes and elements).

Element – All of the calculations are made at a limited number of points known as nodes. The entity
joining nodes and forming a specific shape such as quadrilateral or triangular is known as an Element. To
get the value of a variable (say displacement) anywhere in between the calculation points, an
interpolation function (as per the shape of the element) is used.

Method - There are 3 methods to solve any engineering problem. Finite element analysis belongs to the
numerical method category.
STEPS IN FEA
General Procedure to Conduct Finite Element Analysis:

Finite Element Modelling

(Generation Nodes,
Elements, Problem solving,
Visualization of results,
Physical Problem Material Properties, creation of the results,
reports
Element Properties, storing the results
Loads & Boundary
Conditions)

Pre-Processor Processor Post-Processor

Effectively Simulates “What If” scenario,
- Geometry
- Material
- Configuration
- Loads & Boundary Conditions
TYPES OF ANALYSIS
TYPES OF ANALYSIS • Stress
Static Analysis • Strain
• Internal Loads
• Normal Modes
Dynamic Analyses • Elemental Strain Energy
• Frequency or Time Varying Responses

• Buckling Factors
Buckling Analysis • Deformed Shape

Heat Transfer • Temperature Distribution

Analysis
• Stress Life
Fatigue & DT • Strain Life
Analysis • Residual Stress
• Energy Balance
Crash Analysis • Deformed Shape
• HIC

• Optimum Shape
Optimization • Optimum Weight
BEFORE THE JOURNEY BEGINS………..

Some Basics Related to Finite Element Analysis

OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Mechanics

It is defined as that branch of science, which describes and predicts the conditions of rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces. Engineering
mechanics applies the principle of mechanics to design, considering the effects of forces.
Statics
Statics deal with the condition of equilibrium of bodies acted upon by forces.

Rigid Body
A combination of large number of particles in which all particles remain at a fixed distance (practically) from one another before and after
applying a load.

Material properties of a rigid body are not required to be considered when

analyzing the forces acting on the body. In most cases, actual deformations
occurring in structures, machines, mechanisms, etc. are relatively small, and rigid
body assumption is suitable for analysis
FORCE
An agent which produces or tends to produce, destroy or tends to destroy motion of a body is called force. Unit of force is Newton.
It is a vector quantity

CHARACHTERISTIC OF A FORCE
MAGNITUDE: Magnitude of force may be 10kN etc.
DIRECTION: It has certain fixed direction.
NATURE: It may be tensile or compressive.
POINT OF APPLICATION: Point at which force acts.

TYPES OF FORCES
• Contact Force • Internal Force
• Body Force • Frictional Force
• Point Force • Wind Force
• Distributed Force • Hydrostatic Force
• External Force • Cohesive & Adhesive Force etc.
CONTACT FORCES
Force produced by direct contact of bodies is known as contact force. It may be of pull
type or push type.

BODY FORCES
Forces produced without contact of the bodies is called body force. It is the force holds
together the particles forming the rigid bodies.

POINT FORCES
Force acting at a point is called point force. It acts on a very small area, compared to total
surface area
DISTRIBUTED FORCE
When force is distributed over large area it is called distributed force.

EXTERNAL & INTERNAL FORCE

The force exerted by weight on a body is external force, while the resistance offered to retain its
shape is called internal force.

ACTION & RECTION

As per Newton’s third law, whenever a body exerts force (action) on other body. The other body
exerts similar force on the former body known as reaction.
Action= Reaction
FRICTIONAL FORCE
Resisting force offered during sliding of a body by the surface in contact is called frictional
forces.

WIND FORCE
Force exerted by wind when it is obstructed by any object.

COHESION & ADHESION

Force developed between molecules of same material is called cohesive forces. Force
developed between molecules of different materials is called adhesive force.
HYDROSTATIC FORCE
Force exerted by water on a body when it is obstructed by a body.

SYSTEM OF FORCES
When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to form a system of forces.
• Coplanar Forces
• Concurrent Forces • Non coplanar Concurrent Forces
• Collinear Forces • Non coplanar Non concurrent Forces
• Coplanar Concurrent Forces • Like parallel Forces
• Coplanar non Concurrent Forces • Unlike parallel Forces
COPLANAR FORCES
Forces whose line of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar forces.

CONCURRENT FORCES
The forces which meet at one point, are known as concurrent forces.

CO-LINEAR FORCES
The forces whose line of action lie on the same line, are known as collinear force.
COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES
Forces which meet at one point & lines of action also lie on the same plane are known as coplanar
concurrent forces.

NON-COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCES

Forces whose line of action do not lie on the same plane, but they meet at one point.

COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCES

The forces whose line of action lie on the same plane but they do not meet at one point are
known as coplanar non-concurrent forces.
NON-COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCES
Forces whose line of action do not lie on the same plane & they do not meet at any point.

LIKE PARALLEL FORCES

Forces whose line of action are parallel to each other & all of them act in same direction.

UNLIKE PARALLEL FORCES

Forces whose line of action are parallel to each other but all of them do not act in the same direction.
RESOLVED FORCES
Splitting of forces into their component unit is called resolution of forces.
This is the reverse process which consist of expressing a single force in terms of their
components.

Example
X = 20 cos 35 – 30 sin 50 – 5 = - 11.5983 N
Y = 6 – 20 sin 35 – 30 cos 50 = - 24.7552 N

𝑅= (𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 ) = 27.3 N
𝑌
𝜃= tan−1 = 64.9°
𝑋
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF MECHANICS
• Principle of transmissibility
• Principle of superposition
• Law of parallelogram of forces

The Principle of Transmissibility

“A force may be applied at any point on its given line of action without
altering the resultant effects external to the rigid body on which it acts.
PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES
If two forces acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in
magnitude & direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram: their
resultant may be represented in magnitude & direction by the diagonal of
the parallelogram which passes through the point of intersection.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
If two equal and opposite collinear forces are added or removed from the
system of forces, there will be no change in the system & position of body.
Free body diagram
Free body diagram is necessary to investigate the condition of equilibrium of a body or system. While drawing the free body diagram all the
supports of the body are removed and replaced with the reaction forces acting on it.
Centre of gravity
Centre of gravity: It is that point through which the resultant of the distributed gravity force passes regardless of the orientation of the body in
space.
 As the point through which resultant of force of gravity (weight) of the body acts

Centroid
Centroid of an area lies on the axis of symmetry if it exits.
Centre of gravity is applied to bodies with mass and weight and centroid is applied
to plane areas.
Centroids of Different Shapes
Moment of Inertia of plane Figures
A quantity expressing a body's tendency to resist angular acceleration, which is the sum of the
products of the mass of each particle in the body with the square of its distance from the axis of
rotation.

The moment of inertia of any plane figure with respect to x and y axes in its plane are expressed
as,

𝐼𝑥𝑥 = න𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴

𝐼𝑦𝑦 = න𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
Where,
Ixx ad Iyy are also known as second moment of area about the axes as its distance is squared
from corresponding axis.
Unit of moment of inertia of area is expressed as m4 or mm4.
Moment of Inertia of common plane figures
Strength of Material
Stress
Stress is the internal resistance offered by the body to the external load applied to it per unit cross sectional area. Stresses are normal to the
plane to which they act and are tensile or compressive in nature.

Now stress is defined as the force intensity or force per unit area. Here we use a symbol  to represent the stress.
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
Where, A is the area of the X –X section

Units : The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International system) are N / m2 (or Pa)
MPa = 106 Pa
GPa = 109 Pa
KPa = 103 Pa
Sometimes N / mm2 units are also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa. While US customary unit is pound per square inch (psi).
TYPES OF STRESSES: Only two basic stresses exists :
(1) Normal stress and
(2) Shear stress.

Other stresses either are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of this e.g. bending stress is a combination tensile, compressive and
shear stresses. Torsional stress, as encountered in twisting of a shaft is a shearing stress.

Normal stresses :
We have defined stress as force per unit area. If the stresses are normal to the
areas concerned, then these are termed as normal stresses. The normal
stresses are generally denoted by a Greek letter (σ).

Tensile or compressive Stresses: Sign convections for Normal stress

The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive whether the Direct stresses or normal stresses
stresses acts out of the area or into the area - Tensile +ve
- Compressive –ve
Shear Stresses:
Let us consider now the situation, where the cross – sectional area of a block of material is subject to a distribution of forces which are parallel,
rather than normal, to the area concerned. Such forces are associated with a shearing of the material, and are referred to as shear forces. The
resulting stress is known as shear stress.

Where,
P is the total force,
A the area over which it acts

Sign convections for shear stresses:

- Tending to turn the element C.W +ve.
- Tending to turn the element C.C.W – ve.
Strain:
When a single force or a system force acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This deformation per unit length is known as strain.
Mathematically strain may be defined as deformation per unit length.
𝛿𝑙
So, Strain=Elongation/Original length or 𝜖=
𝑙
Elasticity:
The property of material by virtue of which it returns to its original shape and size upon removal of load is known as elasticity.

Hooks Law
It states that within elastic limit stress is proportional to strain. Mathematically,

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸=
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Where, E = Young’s Modulus
Hooks law holds good equally for tension and compression.
Poisson’s Ratio:
The ratio lateral strain to longitudinal strain produced by a single stress is known as Poisson’s ratio. Symbol used for poisson’s ratio is  or 1/ m .

Modulus of Elasticity (or Young’s Modulus)

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to strain within elastic limit . 𝐸=
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Deformation of a body due to load acting on it

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 𝑃
We know that young’s modulus, 𝐸 = = Now We know, Stress 𝜎=
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 𝐴
𝜎 𝑃
𝜀= = 𝜖=
𝛿𝑙
𝐸 𝐴𝐸 Strain
𝑙
𝑃𝑙
So, Deformation 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸
Stress – Strain Diagram
Tensile test curve for mild steel is shown below

lg = Gauge length
L = Length of Specimen

Salient pints on Stress Strain curve

A = Proportionality limit
B = Elastic limit
C and D = Upper and Lower Yield points and stress at this point
is the yield stress
E = Ultimate point, stress at this point is the ultimate stress
F = Rupture point
Beams Bars Subjected to transverse loads

Supports: Identified by the resistance offered to forces.

(a) Rollers/Links: Resists forces in a direction along the line of action
(b) Pins: Resists forces in any direction of the plane
(c) Fixed Support: Resists forces in any direction. Resists moments.

Classification of Beams
(a) Statically determinate or indeterminate.
Statically determinate - Equilibrium conditions sufficient to compute reactions.
Statically indeterminate - Deflections (Compatibility conditions) along with equilibrium
equations should be used to find out reactions.
(b) Cross sectional Shapes - I, T,C or other cross sections.
(c) Depending on the supports used
1) Simply supported - Pinned at one end and roller at the other
2) Cantilever - Fixed at one end and the other end free
3) Fixed beam - Fixed at both ends
Beam deflection, slope, shear and moment equation
Cantilever Beam
Simply Supported Beams
Fixed-Fixed Beams

𝜎 𝑀 𝐸
Bending equation 𝑦
=
𝐼
=
𝑅

𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼
Buckling of Columns
Columns:
Short, thick members are generally termed columns and these usually fail by crushing when
the yield stress of the material in compression is exceeded.

Struts:
Long, slender columns are generally termed as struts, they fail by buckling some time
before the yield stress in compression is reached.

Buckling equation (Euler’s buckling equation)

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑒 =
𝐿2
Von-Mises stresses introduction
Von-Mises stresses is defined as “the uniaxial (tensile) stress that would create the same distortion energy as it is created by the actual combined
applied stresses”

For 3D case 𝜎′ = 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 − 𝜎2 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 𝜎3

In terms of applied stresses

2 2 2 2 2
𝜎′ = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 2 + 6 𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 𝜏𝑥𝑧

For 2D case, let 𝜎𝑧 = 0 𝜎′ = 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 − 𝜎1 𝜎2

Or from applied stresses 𝜎′ = 𝜎𝑥2 + 𝜎𝑦2 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦

2

Safety of factor
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
If we define safety factor as 𝑁 =
𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Why von-Mises Stress is recommended for Ductile and Principal
Stresses for Brittle Materials?
Brittle material Ductile Material
Failure of cast iron rod subjected to Mild steel fails at a plane inclined 45°
uniaxial test is along a plane to axis of loading. Normal stress
perpendicular to axis of loading. cannot act on this plane and the only
Clearly the failure is due to normal other possibility is shear stress. Out of
stress. Out of different theories of different theories of failures its max.
failures max. Principal stress theory Shear stress and vonMises stress
is the one which is based on normal which are based on shear stress.
stress. Hence for brittle material VonMises stress gives better
component (casting parts) Max. correlation with experimental results
Principal stress is used and hence preferred for ductile
material.
Why von-Mises Stress is recommended for Ductile and Principal
Stresses for Brittle Materials?
INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
• The finite element method (FEM), or finite element analysis (FEA), is based on the idea of building a complicated object with simple blocks, or,
dividing a complicated object into smaller and manageable pieces.

• Application of this simple idea can be found everywhere in everyday life (as in figure below), as well as in engineering.

Objects built with simple and small pieces:

(a) a fire engine built with Lego Pieces ); and
(b) a house built with many elements—bricks, beams, columns, panels, and so on
INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
In mathematical terms, this is simply the use of the limit concept, that is, to approach or represent a smooth object with a finite number of
simple pieces and increasing the number of such pieces in order to improve the accuracy of representation. So, the Finite Element Analysis
(FEA) is a numerical method for solving problems of engineering and mathematical physics.

Stress analysis for trusses, beams, and other simple structures are carried out based on dramatic simplification and idealization: – mass
concentrated at the center of gravity – beam simplified as a line segment. Design is based on the calculation results of the idealized structure

Design geometry is a lot more complex; and the accuracy requirement is a lot higher. We need – To understand the physical behaviors of a
complex object .To predict the performance and behavior of the design; to calculate the safety margin; and to identify the weakness of the
design accurately; and – To identify the optimal design with confidence
INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Method to solve any engineering problem
INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Introduction to different numerical method

• Finite element method (FEM): Is a numerical technique for solving problems which are described by partial differential equations
or can be formulated as functional minimization.
• A domain of interest is represented as an assembly of finite elements. Approximating functions in finite elements are determined in terms of
nodal values of a physical field which is sought. A continuous physical problem is transformed into a discretized finite element problem with
unknown nodal values.
• For a linear problem a system of linear algebraic equations should be solved. Values inside finite elements can be recovered using nodal
values. Two features of the FEM are worth to be mentioned:
1. Piece-wise approximation of physical fields on finite elements provides good precision even with simple approximating functions
(increasing the number of elements we can achieve any precision).
2. Locality of approximation leads to sparse equation systems for a discretized problem. This helps to solve problems with very large
number of nodal unknowns.
INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Boundary element method:
• The boundary element method (BEM) is an important computational analysis technique that engineers and scientists can apply
to a range of problems.
• The application of the boundary element method to an appropriate scientific or engineering problem essentially requires a mesh of the
boundary of the domain only, and the determination of the boundary condition on the surface.
• The computational solution then yields the approximate solution at selected points in the domain.
• The BEM is generally more efficient to apply and execute than competing methods, such as the finite element or finite difference methods.
• The BE method is especially advantageous in the case of problems with infinite or semi-infinite domains, e.g., so-called exterior domain
problems: there, although only the finite surface of the infinite domain has to be discretized, the solution at any arbitrary point of the domain
can be found after determining the unknown boundary data.
INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Finite difference method(FDM)
• Finite-difference methods (FDM) are numerical methods for solving differential equations by approximating them
with differential equations, in which finite differences approximate the derivatives.
• FDMs are thus discretization methods. FDMs convert a linear (non-linear) ODE (Ordinary Differential Equations) /PDE
(Partial differential equations) into a system of linear (non-linear) equations, which can then be solved by matrix
algebra techniques.
• The reduction of the differential equation to a system of algebraic equations makes the problem of finding the solution
to a given ODE ideally suited to modern computers, hence the widespread use of FDMs in modern numerical
analysis[.Today, FDMs are the dominant approach to numerical solutions of partial differential equations.
INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Are FEA and FEM different?

Finite Element Method (FEM) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) are one and the same. The term “FEA” is more popular in industries while “FEM” is
more popular at universities.

• Finite – Any continuous object has infinite degrees of freedom and it is not possible to solve the problem in this format. The Finite Element
Method reduces the degrees of freedom from infinite to finite with the help of discretization or meshing (nodes and elements).
• Element – All of the calculations are made at a limited number of points known as nodes. The entity joining nodes and forming a specific shape
such as quadrilateral or triangular is known as an Element. To get the value of a variable (say displacement) anywhere in between the calculation
points, an interpolation function (as per the shape of the element) is used.
• Method - There are 3 methods to solve any engineering problem. Finite element analysis belongs to the numerical method category.
WHY FEA?
• To get some of the more common advantages and capabilities of the FEM, The most common advantages include:

1. Optimised product performance and cost

2. Reduction of development time

3. Elimination or reduction of testing

4. Improved safety

5. Satisfaction of design codes

6. Improved information for engineering decision making

7. Fuller understanding of components allowing more rational design

8. Satisfaction of legal and contractual requirements.

WHY FEA?
• For example, in the field of stress analysis, which is the most common application of FEA for a typical engineering component or body, the
general problem in the first place is to determine the various stresses or strains acting at all points in the body, in all directions, for all
conditions of loading and use, and for the actual characteristics and properties of the materials of construction.

• For all but the most simple of shapes and conditions, this task is humanly impossible, hence the need for setting up simulations and modelling
the behaviour.

• Straight away, we have to make assumptions; these include the following:

• Are the loads worst-case likely or expected scenarios? We have to choose or specify various options of loads and their application points to
embrace the likely real situation that the product may experience in use, transport or assembly.

• How is the component held or restrained? In short, what are the boundary conditions and how are these modelled?

• What are the relevant material properties? Do we know, for example, the material behaviour under stress, heat, static or dynamic loading? Is
there a reliable database of material properties that we can draw on?
INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Advantages of FEA
• Modeling. FEM allows for easier modeling of complex geometrical and irregular shapes. Because the designer is able to model both the interior
and exterior, he or she can determine how critical factors might affect the entire structure and why failures might occur.
• Adaptability. FEM can be adapted to meet certain specifications for accuracy in order to decrease the need for physical prototypes in the design
process. Creating multiple iterations of initial prototypes is usually a costly and timely process. Instead of spending weeks on hard prototyping,
the designer can model different designs and materials in hours via software.
• Accuracy. While modeling a complex physical deformity by hand can be impractical, a computer using FEM can solve the problem with a high
degree of accuracy.

• Time-dependent simulation. FEM is highly useful for certain time-dependent simulations, such as crash simulations, in which deformations in
one area depend on deformation in another area.

• Boundaries. With FEM, designers can use boundary conditions to define to which conditions the model needs to respond. Boundary conditions
can include point forces, distributed forces, thermal effects (such as temperature changes or applied heat energy), and positional constraints.

• Visualization. Engineers can easily spot any vulnerability in design with the detailed visualizations FEM produces, then use the new data to
make a new design
ADVANTAGES OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Advantages of FEA in Automotive
• FEA have been widely used in the mechanical design of automobile parts, such as the
lightweight design of automotive frame and the analysis of frame and body vibration
characteristics, which can effectively solve the problem of the whole deformation and stress
distribution of complex parts
• In addition, FEA also provides a strong support for the strength and stiffness analysis design
of the transmission shell, suspension systems, brake systems, wheels and other auto parts.
• FEA is used to analyze stress condition under different working conditions, which effectively
improves the design efficiency and reduces the calculation error. Automobiles are composed
of three parts: body, chassis and engine. The body is involved in the material, manufacturing
process, modeling and so on.
• It is the most important and the most complicated part, and its strength and stiffness are
closely related to safety performance. FEA can introduce the virtual simulation into
traditional design methods, greatly reduces the test cost and shortens the manufacturing
period.
ADVANTAGES OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Advantages of FEA in Automotive
• Automobiles as one of the most common transportation in the world, the quality of automotive parts is directly related to the safety of life
and property of drivers and passengers.
• Fatigue damage is the main failure mode of wheels, so it is critical to take the radial load fatigue test and bending fatigue test. Local stress-
strain method combined with Smith-Watson-Topper damage formula is more accurate than other traditional methods.
• In the bending fatigue test conditions, the bolt preload and rotational centrifugal force should be considered for the wheel structure.
• By comparing the traditional method, the common curvature method and the concentrated load method with FEA, FEA can not only analyze
the strength and stiffness characteristics, but also can take into account the actual use of friction in the process of analysis, further improving
the accuracy.
• For the body frame, the finite element analysis under four different working conditions, which are horizontal bending, emergency braking,
emergency turning, ultimate bending and tearing.
ADVANTAGES OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Advantages of FEA in Aerospace
• Composite Structures FEA analysis

• Shock and Vibration FEA calculations (NAVSEA, MIL STD)

• Durability and Fatigue Life Estimation

• Modal Analysis and Frequency response calculations

• Weight Reduction and Shape Optimization of aero components

• Force estimations in Actuators, Mechanisms and Complex Mechanical Devices

• Cooling and Thermal Management of Avionics, Electronic Cooling Systems

• Structural Strength and Buckling calculations

ADVANTAGES OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Advantages of FEA in Aerospace
• Stress calculations on components and sub-systems

• Kinematic Analysis using Cosmos Motion for mechanisms such as landing gear, door-closure, actuating levers, remotely controlled devices

• Non-linear Simulation of Elastomers, Seals, Gaskets, reinforced rubber components for strains, performance, durability, sealing effectiveness,
pressure foot-print, deflections

• Stiffness, Durability, Tri-axial / Random Vibration and Life estimation for aerospace components such as mounts

• Stiffness and strain calculations for Composite Panels

• Life Calculations of safety systems..

• Fluid Flow calculations for valves,pumps, pressure-regulating devices.

ADVANTAGES OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Advantages of FEA in Manufacturing
• The advantages of Finite Element Analysis are huge - for example, it can be used to demonstrate a new design concept that would help the
engineering team predict its possible real-world behavior under diverse load environments.

• Based on this analysis, any suitable alteration can be easily made before finalizing the drawing. And once the detailed CAD model is
developed, the product engineering team can analyze the details with FEA, thus saving time and resources by limiting the number of
prototypes required. Apart from that, any existing product that has been facing a field problem, or is undergoing upgrade can also be
analyzed to speed up the process and limit the costs.

• The biggest strength of Finite Element Analysis techniques is the sensitive software used to deliver in-depth and precise analysis of various
physical and functional aspects of materials, systems, products, 3D CAD designs etc. For example, how a washing machine would operate or
how durable its agitator would be-- all these answers can be derived from FEA.