Public Policy I (MPA 507)

Q.No.1
First of all, policy refers to a set of rules, principles, or guidelines that are developed &
implemented by governments, organizations, or any institutions to perform certain tasks and
achieve objectives. Policies serve as a framework and road map for decision making. It is an
instrument that shapes behaviours of individuals of society. Policies regardless of their types
and facets drive individuals, organization, society and entire nation towards specific
tasks/motive.

Public Policy:
Among the various types of policies, public policy is the most important one as it is the
policy of country or the government. Public policy refers to the government's course of action
or a set of decisions that it takes to address societal issues, collective demand, achieve
nation’s goal or regulate various aspects of public life. Public policy is the framework of
laws, regulations & actions government implements to achieve social & economic goals.
Public policy is developed & implemented by the state or the government at various levels
i.e. local, regional, national or even international level. It encompasses large areas such as
economy, politics, administration, environment etc. As a nation or the government, it has
various or huge expectations to fulfill and obligations to meet. As a government of a
country, they form different policies which are on the favour of the country and the citizens.
Public Policies are formed with different motives & targets.
PolicyAnalysis:
Policy analysis is the evaluation and study of formulation or adoption and implementation of
a principle or course of action intended to enhance economic, social or other public issues.
Policy analysis is concerned primarily with policy alternatives that are expected to produce
novel solutions. Social, economic & political variables influence policy decisions and
outcomes, and we need to develop and implement such policies that have the greatest
benefits. And policy analysis is the examination & evaluation of such options to address
various issues. Effective policy analysis is critical in the policymaking process. It is a vibrant
and spontaneous process & it keeps changing with changes in different facets & dimensions
of policy making process. Policy analysis is a technique used to evaluate & examine options
for implementing the goals. The five basic approaches to policy analysis are:
 Cost-benefit analysis
  Qualitative cost-benefit analysis
 Modified cost-benefit analysis
 Cost-effectiveness analysis
 Multi-goal policy analysis
Policy analysis can be regarded as the back bone of policy formulating process.
Public Policy: From a Broader Perspective:
We have already emphasized about nature & importance of public policy. There are some
key characteristics & features of public policy:
Purpose: Public policy is designed to solve specific problems or address particular societal
needs. It sets out government’s strategies and objectives.
Scope:
It covers a wide range of issues such as healthcare, education, transportation, finance,
diplomacy, etc. Its scope is broad so that it addresses overall goals.
Development:
Public policies are developed through a scientific & structured process that involves research,
policy analysis, consultation with stakeholders, studies, expert inputs, and gathering public
feedback.
Legislation & Regulation:
Such policies can be implemented through legislation. Legislative policies require approval
by a legislative body, while regulatory policies are often developed by administrative bodies
to regulate concerned organizations.
Evaluation:
Public policies are evaluated to assess their effectiveness & impact & whether they are
achieving their intended outcomes.
Political Process:
The development & implementation of public policies are often influenced by political
factors.

Dynamic nature:
Public policies are dynamic as they change according to change in time and circumstances,
and demand of issues of public opinions
Systematic:
Public policy is a set of coordinated actions that work together to achieve a desired outcome.
They are developed & implemented systematically.
Public policy plays crucial role in shaping the direction of functioning of governments for
promoting social & economic welfare, promoting & providing rights, achieving collective
goals & ensuring sustainability. Public policy has government involvement us they are
developed & implemented by government at authorities. The main purpose of motive of
formulating public party is addressing public interest on collective basis. Public policies are
designed & executed by the concerned authorities to meet certain & specific goods &
purposes. Public policies derive authority from legal or regulatory frameworks. And the main
characteristic & beauty of public policy is the accountability from concerned authorities or
the government. Policymakers & government officials responsible for formulating &
implementing public policies are accountable to the public & government bodies. Public
policy always emphasize public participation as these policies are built for public or the
society. From the need assessment to implementation and feedbacks public participation lies
at the heart of public policy. Public policies can be formulated to propel developments,
provide rights of identities, and for protecting social welfare. So, public policy is the policy of
the government that addresses various needs & issues of the public. Effective public policy
ensures the equitable allocation of resources promote social justice and addresses societal
changes.

Q.NO.2
Policy:
Policy refers to the formal set of principles, guidelines, rules, regulations or plans that are
established & implemented by organizations, institutions, governments or other authoritative
bodies to govern behaviour, decision making & actions in particular context. Policies are
designed to provide a structural framework for addressing specific issues. Policies has
specific, purpose, scopes, authority, compliance certain guidelines & procedures, review &
revision. Types of policy:
There are various types of policies and they are.
Public policy:
Public policy is a statement of government's commitment to address a particular issue or
problem. Public policy shapes the decisions of the government officials and agencies & it
affects society, the economy & politics. public policy is purposeful, systematic and strategic.
Public policy can be distributive, redistributive, regulatory and substantive. But while
forming public policy there is societal needs and collective welfare at the centre.
Organizational policy:
Organizational policies are a set of rules, responsibilities processes & timelines that govern
an organizational behaviour and structures. They are crucial for on organization's success and
efficient functioning organizational policies provide guidance to employees, protect the
business, set standards for service delivery, establish structures, ensure communication, point
of view of control the entire behaviour. An organizational policy is strategic framework of
any ang organization that describes an organization attitude toward a specific aspect. It is set
of rules that governs the behaviour of various entities connected with on organization like
employees management, partners, suppliers etc. Organizational policies are policies to run an
organization.
Social policy:
Social policy is a government action that addresses social needs, such as education, health
care, housing & employment. It also refers to the study of how societies distribute resources
to address these needs. Social policy focuses on human needs of what governments and other
bodies can do to meet them. It also addresses how states and societies respond to global
challenges. It includes provision of various services and welfare activities like health,
education, insurance, transportation security, housing, food, sanitation eff. It refers to
government's action aimed at fulfilling those needs.
Foreign policy:
Foreign policy is a government's set of actions & decisions that guide its relationships and
trans-national dealings with other countries around the world of other international
organization. It is a way for a country to protect its citizens well-being & represent our
national interest on international platforms or arenas. Foreign policies provide frameworks on
negotiating treaties, our common voices, priorities on international issues to make effective
decisions on providing state’s opinion. Nepal's foreign policy is non-aligned foreign policy
i.e. we are unbiased & neutral on international dimensions without any political inclination
and favorism. Our foreign policy reflects our values of goals along with political & economic
aims at the global platforms.
Information Technology Information Security policy:
Information security policy is a set of guidelines & rules that outline how a country or
organization should manage protect & distribute its information assets, resources and digital
identity. Information security policy's purpose is to protect sensitive information & data
assets from security threats. It also defines strategies & procedures to overcome IT risks.
Human Resource polity:
Human Resource policies are formal rules & guidelines that are used to manage the human
resources of the employees. They are standardized set of rules that outline acceptable
behavioural standards, employee expectations, or disciplinary procedures & organizations
obligations. Human Resource Policies include all HRM and HRD process.
Military/Defence policy:
Defence policy is a part of a country's national security strategy or national security policy. It
includes defence planning & management.
Health policy:
Health policy is the process of defining health goals of local, national level and then
specifying plans, actions & decisions to achieve those goals. Health policy encompasses
following categories such as public health, mental health & health care insurance.
Revenue policy:
Revenue policy aims to ensure diversified & stable tax and non-tax revenue sources and
adequate long-term funding. It aims to increase source of revenue, Collection of targeted
revenue & expenditure of such as public expenditure of state.
Importance of Public Policy:
 It aligns government’s action with citizen’s needs-
Public policy ensures that government action align with the needs & desires of the citizens. It
should meet expectations of public from the state government.

 Influences important decisions-

Public policy is formed as a response to specific issues or problems and it makes sure that it
also provides solution to those problems.

 Addresses societal issues-

Public policy provides a framework for the government to identify, understand & address
pressing social issues. It allows government to respond to such issues.

 It promotes public/social welfare.

 It guides resource collection.
 It fosters economic growth.
 It ensures social justice.
 It enhances governance & democracy.
 It ensures effective administration.
 It promotes long term sustainability.
 It makes society lead a better life.
 Q.NO.3

Philosophy:
Philosophy is the fundamental question about reality, knowledge, ethics, existence and the
mind. It involves the critical examination of most basic and general concepts and principles
involved in thoughts and experience.
Policy Philosophy:
Policy philosophy refers to the underlying principles, values & beliefs that guide the
development & implement action of policies within a specific context, such as government,
organizations or institutions. It involves considering the values, goals and ethical frameworks
that shape decision making in areas such as governance, economics of social issues. Different
policymakers may adhere to different philosophies.
The concept of policy philosophy involves the fundamental ideas & beliefs that shape the
creation, implementation & evaluation of policies. If encompasses the underlying principles,
values & ethical considerations that guide decision making in the realm of public governance.
These philosophies shape how policy makers perceive societal issues and influence the
decisions made to address these challenges. Different policies are developed & implemented
to tackle some issues or problems. Policies are formed after the demand of such policies
within the society. Different policy philosophers reflect varying perspectives on the role of
government, individual rights. social justice & economic priorities. Some examples of policy
philosophies include liberalism, conservation, socialism etc each advocating different
approaches to governance & policy making.
Policy philosophies can be studied as one's perspectives & beliefs on policy making
approaches. It involves the philosophical foundation upon which policies are created,
justified & evaluated. To make good policies we need to understand moral values principles
of institutions, political structures, society. While formulating different policies we need to
have social rights and justice, economic priorities at the centre and different philosophies
have different perspectives on these dimensions. From different perspectives of different
philosophies, we build different approaches to policy formation. There are no certain things
like right or wrong on policy making but rather it is only about how you view these process
from philosophical approaches. For example, from socialism philosophy we advocate social
welfare of security where there is equal access and distribution of different resources & assets
among & within the society. Policy philosophy provides philosophical foundation upon
which policies are created, justified & evaluated. That means it provides a proper strategy and
frameworks for policy formulation process. Policymakers often draw on specific
philosophical perspectives to inform their approaches to address societal issues. We can
assume that policy philosophy is a deliberate system of principles that guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes. We know philosophy is a belief & policy is plan & strategic
framework to execute different tasks. So, policy philosophy is philosophical study of policies
which provides a sense of guidelines & roadmaps for any policies to be formed.
Policy philosophy involves consideration of the intended outcomes and impacts of policies on
individuals, communities of society. Policymakers must pass through complex policy
predicaments to address demands of societies. Additionally, policy philosophy evolves over
time in response to societal changes, paradigm shifts of social values, cultural shifts oand
emerging issues.
Pragmatism:
There are various types of policy philosophies that exist reflecting diverse perspectives on
governance & societal changes. They are protectionism, Rationalism, brokerism, pragmatism
liberalism, conservation, socialism, capitalism, feminism, egoism of so on. As we know
policy philosophy is a dynamic term that adresses all social paradigm shifts, it encompasses
all facets of society.
Here, we will be discussing about pragmatism. Pragmatism is a policy philosophy that
prioritizes practical consequences and real-world outcomes lover rigid adherence to a specific
ideology or set of principles. It emphasizes use of practical, flexible approaches to problem
solving, focusing on what works in a given situation rather than strictly following a
predefined doctrine. It is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an
ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactory, that the meaning of a proposition is to
be found in the practical consequences of accepting it & that unpractical ideas are to be
rejected. Pragmatism emphasizes practicality and rationality actions over theoretical &
hypothetical ideas. It is based on the principle that the usefulness, workability and practicality
of ideas, policies are the criteria of their merit.
A pragmatic person is more concerned with matters of fact than with what could be or should
be. Pragmatic policymakers are often willing to adopt strategies based on evidence & the
evolving needs of society, aiming for effective solutions rather than ideological purity. The
pragmatic approach involves a willingness to experiment, learn from experience & adjust
policies to achieve the best outcomes. It assess that the truth & value of any idea or theory are
determined by their practical application of effectiveness in solving problems and improving
situations. Key principles of pragmatism include instrumentalism, empirical verification anti-
absolutism, problem solving orientation, open mindedness & pluralism. Pragmatism states
that if a philosophical theory does not contribute directly to social progress than it is not
worth much. All philosophical ideas should be tested via scientific experiment and it is
claimed to be true if/only it is useful.

Q.NO.4
Decision making is an intellectual & rational process that requires rigorous effort & attention,
thorough analysis & proper forecast of possible consequences of outcomes. Decision making
can be constrained by factors such as time limitations, incomplete information, cognitive
biases of external pressures. Effective decision making requires a thorough understanding of
the problem and opportunity at hand, as well as the resources. It also involves gathering &
analysing information, generating potential solutions, evaluating & comparing options &
selecting best course of actions.
However, this process is often complicated & obstructed by a range of challenges & obstacles
and can be an intimidating experience. These constraints oppose the flow of decision-making
process. Constraints on decision making refers to factors or limitations that restrict the
options available to decision makers, influence their choices and impede the decision-making
process. These constraints can arise from various sources & can have significant implications
for the quality & outcome of decisions. They are various factors or limitations that influence
& shape the process of making choices. These constraints can be external or internal & they
impact the quality speed or outcome of decisions. Here are some common constraints on
decision making:
Organizational constraints:
They are organizations limitations & structures which effect the decision-making process.
The hierarchy, organizational resources, conflicts, debates etc are organizational constraints.
These conditions and limitations impact decision making process. They can be physical,
financial or policy decisions/behaviours. Along with that, hierarchical structures or
bureaucratic processes can import decision making process.
Time constraints:
Limited time may force quick decisions without extensive analysis. Decision making process
sometimes might needs to be operated under limited timeframes, requiring decision makers to
make choices in deadlines or under pressure. Time constraints can lead to rushed decisions,
neglect of thorough analysis and reliance on shortcuts. Time constraints occurs when there is
limited time available to make choice for decision makers. Time constraints are the factors
that limit the amount of time available to complete a task. Time constrained decisionmakers,
process less information & try to do everything faster.
Information constraints:
Incomplete or inaccurate information can hinder the decision-making process. Information
constraint on decision making includes:
 information overload
 Lack of complete information.
 Limited time & resources
 Inaccurate information.
It occurs where there is lack of complete & adequate information to make decision makers
well informed. Decision makers may face challenges due to missing data, unclear sources or
insufficient details.
Resource constraints:
Insufficient resources such as budget, staffs, physical infrastructures can constrain decision
making process. These constraints can impact the range of options available & influence the
feasibility of certain decisions. If restricts available options for decision making.
Cognitive constraints:
Human cognitive limitations such as bounded rationality, cognitive biases & limited attention
can affect decision makers ability to process information, analyse complex problems and
make optimal choices. It refers to limitations stemming from the way individuals process
information & think. Cognitive constraints may lead to errors in judgement, overconfidence
and suspensibility to persuasion.
Environmental constraints:
Environmental constraints on decision making refer to external factors in the broader context
that can influence decision makers. External factors such as regulatory environment,
economic conditions, socio-cultural norms can impose constraints on decision making. These
factors affect decision man's approach, their consciousness & capability on different phases.
Economy constraints:
Economic constraints on decision making involve limitations imposed by the financial
aspects and situation. So, there is vast difference between decision making process of Tokyo
& decision-making process of Kathmandu. Budget limitations, cost-benefit analysis, market
conditions, resource scarcity & financial risk has huge impact on decision making. The
different types of economic factors create different situation during the period of policy
formation. Economic constraints bring financial & monetary obstacles on decision making
process.
Political Constraints:
Political constraints on decision making involves limitations imposed by the political context,
including government policies, regulations & broader political dynamics. Policy compliance,
government priorities, international relations, public opinion, political stability of
bureaucratic process are the part of political constraints which obstruct the decision-making
process.
Social constraints:
Social constraints on decision making involve limitations imposed by societal factors norms,
values and expectations. These constraints can influence choices & outcomes in various
domains.
Effects of constraints on policy making process
Decision making plays vital part in policy formulation and executing process. Decision
making involves thorough analysis of policy formulation & strategic planning process.
Decision making constraints can affect the policy making process in number of ways.
Policies are formed through scientific researches & analysis. They need to be implemented on
certain place to be more effective. Decision making constraints in policy making can impact
outcomes significantly. Tight constraints, whether due to budget limitations, legal restrictions
or political considerations can limit the range of policy options available. These constraints
also oppose the flow of policy making and policy implementing process. These constraints &
limitations impacts the planning process, preparation, awareness and implementation of
policy that are formed and developed.

Q.NO.5
Policy making is the process by which governments, organizations or individuals create &
implement courses of action to address specific issues or achieve particular goals. The policy
making process involves different stages. Studying policy making process is a complex and
multidisciplinary process that involves various methods and approaches Some common
methods used to study the policy making process are literature review, case studies, surveys
& questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, policy document analysis, comparative analysis,
simulation & modelling, network analysis of ethnography. Researchers & policy makers
often go through this process to gain a broader of comprehensive understanding of policy
making process. We know that policy making process is a bold, spontaneous and multi-
disciplinary process which requires thorough analysis, scientific & rational decision-making
capability. In order to form such strong & effective policies, policymakers often focus &
implement different approaches i.e. analytical and the theoretical approaches to policy
making. Analytical approaches to policy making include policy analysis and this approach
measures policies on the basis of effectiveness efficiency, ethical considerations, evaluation
of alternatives and establishment of recommendations.
There are five basic approaches to policy analysis which also affects the policy making
processes. Policy analysis encourages practitioner and scholars to critically examine policy
issues with the tools of systematic enquiry. There is an implied assumption in policy analysis
that developing scientific knowledge about the forces shaping public policy and the
consequences of the policy are socially relevant activities. These discussions have created
different models of policy making such as group theoretic model, elite theoretic model,
incremental model, institutional model, rational model and system theoretic model.
Theoretical approaches to policy making refers to overarching frameworks or perspectives
that scholars & researchers use to understand and analyse phenomena in various fields. Some
basic approaches of policy making that is sort of universal in all policy making process are:
 policy formulation
 need assessment
 implementation
 agenda setting
 policy adoption
 institutionalism
 feedbacks
 group theory
 policy analysis.
These can be regarded as basic/normal approaches on policy making. The theoretical
approaches on policy making include elite theory, group theory, political systems theory &
institutionalism, policy output analysis, incremental theory and rational choice theory. These
are primarily concerned with public policy making process
Political systems theory:
Political systems theory is a comprehensive theory that emphasizes larger social, economic
and cultural contents that put pressure on policy makers to act & lead to policy outputs &
outcomes. This theory applies systems theory to politics. Political systems theory is a branch
of social science that seeks to understand the dynamics of political systems, their structures,
processes and functions. It draws from various disciplines. The key concepts associated with
political systems theory are system theory, inputs, outputs & feedback, open systems,
hierarchy & differentiation of power and authority, equilibrium & stability, political culture
and socialization.
Elite Theory:
Elite denotes the richest, most powerful, best educated or best trained groups of society with
a lot of influence. Elite theory is a concept in philosophy, sociology, political science of
economics that claims that a selected few individuals/groups hold a majority of power and
control over society. It suggests that political power is concentrated in the hands of small
privileged individuals/groups. Power concentration, influence on decision making, class
distinctions and critique of democracy idealism are the key aspects of elite theory. Elite
theory is a perspective in political science & sociology that analyses sometimes in terms of
power distribution and the role of elites. The philosophy of elite theory revolves around the
examination of power structures within societies and the concentration of influence in the
hands of a select few. The elite model of public policy making and implementation is a
perspective in political science that focuses on the role of a small, influential elite group in
shaping & executing public policies.
Group Theory:
Group theory is a policy making approach that aims to maintain balance in society by
balancing the interests of various groups and views policy making as a constant struggle for
balance among the competing interest of various groups. Group theory's main claims and
propositions are:
-Everyone has their own perspectives.
-A group is never homogeneous but rather made up of a range of different perspectives.
-The way to decide on policy is to find out which perspective will have the greatest effect.
Institutionalism:
Institutionalism in public policy refers to a theoretical perspective that focuses on the role of
institutions in shaping public policies & governance. Institutionalism is a movement that
studies how institutions and organizations shape society, economics of politics. It's a
significant approach to understanding policy development
Two-way communication Theory:
Two way communication theory refers to a communication process in which information is
exchanged between two or more parties. Theories related to communication often explores
the dynamics of information exchange, feedback and interaction. It involves bidirectional
communication where there is active participation and feedback from both the sender and
receiver.
Q.NO.6
Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering
information and assessing alternative solutions. This is the process of choosing a course of
action from a set of alternatives. It involves identifying a decision, gathering information and
assessing possible solutions. The decision-making process can help people make more
deliberate decisions by organizing relevant information and defining alternatives. It also
ensures that the best solution is found. Decision making can be categorized into three levels:
1. strategic decisions: It sets the course of the organization
2. Tactical decisions: Decisions about how things will be done
3. Operational decisions: Decisions that employees make each day to run organization.
The steps in the decision-making process are Defining, identifying, assessing, considering
implementing & evaluating.
In the field of policy making, assessing and selecting the preferred policy option through a
decision- making process is crucial. Decision makers may include elected officials,
bureaucrats’, experts & other stakeholders. In public policy, decision making is a complex &
multi-faceted process that involves identifying, analysing and addressing societal issues
through the formulation and implementation of policies. Some other steps in the decision-
making process invoices
-Asking clarifying questions -Gathering information
-Evaluating options -Making a final decision
-Reviewing the results of the decision.
Decision making ability & skills show the potentials to select the best possible option from
the alternatives available. The ability to maintain good decision helps contribute to the
company's or state’s goal.
Different approaches to decision making:
Approaches to decision making refers to various methods or strategies individuals or groups
use to make choices. Common approaches include rational decision making, intuitive
decision making, collaborative decision making and systematic decision-making analysis.
Each approach has its own strengths & weaknesses depending on the context of complexity
of the decision. Here is brief explanation of some decision-making approaches:
Rational:
This approach involves a logical and systematic analysis of options, considering pros & cons
to arrive of the most favourable choice. The term "rational" itself denotes quality of being
based on reason, logic or sound judgement.
Intuitive approach:
Intuition relies on gut feelings or instincts. It is a natural way of making decisions which is
based on instinct of gut feeling of decision makers without the use of any formal tools &
procedures.
Bounded rationality:
This theory describes how human make derision that aren't perfectly rational. It suggests that
people make decisions of judgement's based on a limited amount of information and their
cognitive capacity. Bounded rationality con lead to suboptimal decisions as it only cansiders
some available options.
Behavioural approach:
Behavioural decision making is the study of how people use social, cognitive & effective
processes to identify & choose alternatives. This approach to decision making focuses on
understanding how individuals or groups make decisions incorporating psychological and
social factors.
Practical approach:
It involves applying methods of strategies that feasible and effective in real world situations.
This approach prioritizes actionability & considers the practical availability.
Personal approach:
In personal approach to decision making individuals often rely on a combination of rational
thinking, emotions & intuition.

Among all decision-making approaches rational approach can be regarded as the best
approaches to decision making. The rational approach to decision making is a systematic,
logical and analytical method that aims to maximize outcomes by evaluating options
objectively. I think, rational approaches have edge above all due to given reasons:
-Defining the problems: If clearly articulates the decision to be made & identify the specific
problem or goal
- The national approach assumes that decision makers have access to complete & accurate
information & can objectively evaluate options. It provides a structured framework.
- Rational decision-making approach involves analysing multiple alternatives & using
credible data or facts to choose among options.
-It involves more careful & methodical steps. The more carefully & strictly the steps are
followed the more practical the outcomes will be.
- Rational approach generates potential solutions or choices based on the gathered
information and considers a range of alterative
- Rational approaches on decision making always looks after holistic approaches that fits for
all & it tries to be unbiased as much as possible.
-It systematically assesses each option by weighing the pros & cons considering potential
risks & comparing against predetermined criteria,
-Rational approach allows for an objective approach that is based on scientific data &
informed decisions.
-It has objectivity, transparency & a well-defined but flexible structure
-It addresses complex decisions by breaking them down.
-It provides a structured of systematic framework for decision making, ensuring a logical &,
organized process
-The rational approach assumes that decision makers have access to complete & accurate
information & can objectively evaluate options.