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1 FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 WORK, POWER & ENERGY
Work, power, and energy are all interrelated. Work is the amount of movement a
given force causes; energy is the ability to do work, and power is the rate of doing
work.
1.1.1 WORK
In its technical sense, work is the product of force and distance, and work is done
only when a force causes movement. We can see this by the formula:
Work = Force x Distance
We normally measure distance in feet or inches, and force in pounds or ounces.
This allows us to measure work in foot-pounds or inch-ounces.
Example:
To find the amount of work done when a 500 pound load is lifted for a distance of 6
feet, we can use the formula:
Work = Force x Distance
= 500 X 6
= 3,000 foot-pounds
1.1.2 POWER
The rate of doing work is called power, and it is defined as the work done in unit time.
As a formula, this would be:
power = work done
time taken
Power is expressed in several different units, such as the watt, ergs per second, and
foot-pounds per second. The most common unit of power in general use in the
United States is the horsepower. One horsepower (hp) is equal to 550 ft-lb’s or
33000 ft-1b/min. In the metric system the unit of power is the watt (W) or the kilowatt
(kW). One hp is equal to 746 watts; and 1 kW = 1.34 hp.
Example:
To compute the power necessary to raise an elevator containing 10 persons a
distance of 100 ft in 5 s (assuming the loaded elevator weighs 2500 lb), proceed as
follows:
Power = work done = 2500 x 100 = 50,000 ft-lb’s/sec
Time taken 5

Since 1hp = 550 ft-lb’s/sec then required hp = 50,000

550
= 90.9 hp (67.81 kw assuming no friction losses)

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1.1.3 ENERGY
The term energy may be defined as the capacity for doing work. There are two forms
of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy.
1.1.3.1 POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is the stored energy possessed by a system, because of the relative
positions of the components of that system. If work done raises an object to a certain
height, energy will be stored in that object in the form of the gravitational force. This
energy, waiting to be released is called potential energy. The amount of potential
energy a system possesses is equal to the work done on the system previously.
Potential energy can be found in forms other than weights and height. Electrically
charged components contain potential (electrical) energy because of their position
within an electric field. An explosive substance has chemical potential energy that is
released in the form of light, heat and kinetic energy, when detonated.
Example :
A weight of 50 pounds is raised 5 feet. Using the formula:
Potential Energy = Force x Distance
= 50 x 5
= 250 ft-lb’s.
Note: That energy is expressed in the same units as those used for work and in all
cases energy is the product of force x distance.
1.1.3.2 KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object, resulting from the motion of that
object. The magnitude of that energy depends on both the mass and speed of the
object. This is demonstrated by the simple equation:
Energy =½mv2 or w v2
2g
where m = mass, v = velocity (in feet or metres per second), w = weight, g = gravity
(32 ft/sec2 or 9.81m/sec2).
All forms of energy convert into other forms by appropriate processes. In this
process of transformation, either form of energy can be lost or gained but the total
energy must remain the same.
Example:
A weight of 50lbs dropped from a height of 5 ft has kinetic energy of
KE = 50 x 25
2 x 32
= 19.53 ft-lb’s

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1.2 FORCE AND MOTION

1.2.1 FORCE
Force may be defined as a push or a pull upon an object. In the English system the
pound (1b) is used to express the value of a force. For example, we say that a force
of 30 lb is acting upon a hydraulic piston.
A unit of force in the metric system is the newton (N). The newton is the force
required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram (kg) 1 metre per second per second
(m/s2).
The dyne (dyn) is also employed in the metric system as a unit of force. One dyne is
the force required to accelerate a mass of 1g 1 centimetre per second per second
(cm/s2). One newton is equal to 100,000 dynes (0.225 Ib).
1.2.2 VELOCITY
It is common to find people confusing the terms velocity and speed when describing
how fast an object is moving. The difference is that speed is a scalar quantity, whilst
the term velocity refers to both speed and direction of an object. The full definition of
velocity is that it is the rate at which its position changes, over time, and the direction
of the change.
The simple diagram below shows how an aircraft, which flies the irregular path from
'A' to 'B' in an hour, (a speed of 350 mph), has an actual velocity of 200 mph in an
East-Northeast direction.

Path of Aircraft
B

350 Ml (563 Km)

200 Ml (322 Km)

N

A C

Diagram Showing Difference Between Velocity and Speed

Figure 1.1.

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1.2.3 ACCELERATION
This term describes the rate at which velocity changes. If an object increases in
speed, it has positive acceleration; if it decreases in speed, it has negative
acceleration. A reference to Newton's Second law of Motion will explain the
principles of acceleration. Acceleration can be in a straight line, which is referred to a
linear acceleration and it can apply to rotating objects whose speed of rotation is
increasing, (or decreasing), when it is called angular acceleration.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION
Newton’s Laws of Motion. To understand the basic principles of jet propulsion it is
necessary to understand the practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's Laws of
Motion. There are three laws.
1. The First Law States. A mass will remain stationary until acted upon by a force. If
the mass is already moving at a constant speed in a straight line, it will. continue
to move at that constant speed in a straight line until acted upon by a force.
2. The Second Law States. When a force acts on a mass the mass will accelerate
in the direction in which the force acts.
3. The Third Law States. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The function of any propeller or gas turbine engine is to produce THRUST, (or a
propulsion force), by accelerating a mass of air or gas rearwards. If we apply
Newton's Laws of Motion to aircraft propulsion it can be said that:-
• a FORCE must be applied in order to accelerate the mass of air or gas: first law,
the acceleration of the mass is proportional to the force applied: second law,
• there must be an equal and opposite reaction, in our case this is THRUST, a
forward acting force: third law.
1.3.1 THRUST CALCULATION.
The amount of thrust produced depends upon two things:-
the MASS of air which is moved rearwards in a given time,
• the ACCELERATION imparted to the air.
It can be expressed as:- Thrust = Mass x Acceleration
The MASS is defined as “the quantity of matter in a body".
It is expressed as W
g
Where:- W = the weight of the body (in lb’s or newtons) and
g = the gravitational constant (taken as 32 ft/sec/sec or 9.81 m/sec2)
The ACCELERATION imparted to the air is the difference between its inlet and outlet
velocity.

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If we let: -
V2 = the air velocity at exit (in ft/sec/sec or 9.81m/sec2)
and
V1 = the air velocity at inlet (in ft/sec/sec or 9.81m/sec2)
It may be expressed as V2 – V1
Taking these expressions for Mass and Acceleration, the thrust produced by an
engine or propeller can be calculated from the following formula:-
W
THRUST = (V2 - V1)
g
Example 1.
The airflow through a propeller is 256 lbs/sec, Inlet velocity 0 ft/sec, outlet velocity
700 ft/sec.
Thrust developed will be:
W
THRUST = (V2 - V1)
g
THRUST = 256 x (700 – 0)
32
= 5600 lbs
Example 2.
The mass airflow through a gas turbine engine is 128lbs/sec, inlet velocity is 0 ft/sec,
outlet velocity is 1400 ft/sec. Using the formula :
THRUST = 128 x (1400 – 0)
32
= 5600lbs
By comparing both examples, you can see that the gas turbine produced the same
thrust as the propeller by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass. It can be
said that a propeller accelerates a large mass slowly whilst the gas turbine produces
the same thrust by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass.
Note that in both of the examples the inlet velocity was zero ft/sec. The aircraft was
stationary so the thrust produced is referred to as STATIC THRUST.

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1.4 GAS TURBINES

A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using a mass of air as a working
fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this, the mass of air passing through the engine
has to be accelerated, which means that the velocity, (or kinetic energy), of the air is
increased. To obtain this increase, the pressure energy is first of all increased,
followed by the addition of heat energy, before final conversion back to kinetic energy
in the form of a high velocity jet efflux.
The simplest form of gas turbine engine is the turbojet engine, which has three
major parts; the compressor, the combustion section and the turbine. A shaft
connects the compressor and the turbine to form a single, rotating unit. These
engines produce thrust in the manner described in the Brayton Cycle.
The simplest turbojet engine is the unit shown below with a single centrifugal(Double
Entry)compressor and a single stage turbine. This type of engine can still be found in
certain special installations but generally, they have been superseded by engines
with axial compressors and multiple stage turbines. The advantages and
disadvantages of the two types of compressor will be discussed in depth later in this
module

Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine (Derwent)

Figure 1.2.

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1.5 THE BRAYTON CYCLE

The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-stroke piston
engine. There is induction, compression, ignition and exhaust in both cases,
although the process is continuous in a gas turbine. Also, the combustion in a piston
engine occurs at a constant volume, whilst in a gas turbine engine it occurs at a
constant pressure.

The Working Cycle.

Figure 1.3.

The cycle, upon which the gas

turbine engine functions, in its
simplest form, is the Brayton cycle,
which is represented by the
pressure/volume diagram, shown
in figure 1.4.

The Brayton Cycle.

Figure 1.4.

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• The air entering the engine is compressed.

• Heat is added to the air by burning fuel at a constant pressure, thereby
considerably increasing the volume of the resulting gas.
• The gases resulting from combustion expand through the turbine, which converts
some of the energy in the expanding gases into mechanical energy to drive the
compressor.
• The remainder of the expanding gases are propelled through the turbine and jet
pipe back to the atmosphere where they provide the propulsive jet.
There are three main stages in the engine working cycle during which the changes
discussed occur:
• During compression. Work is done on the air. This increases the pressure and
temperature and decreases the volume of air.
• During combustion. Fuel is added to the air and then burnt. This increases the
temperature and volume of the gas, whilst the pressure remains almost constant
(the latter being arranged by design in a gas turbine engine).
• During expansion. Energy is taken from the gas stream to drive the compressor
via the turbine; this decreases the temperature and pressure, whilst the volume
increases. The rapidly expanding gases are propelled through the turbine and jet
pipe to give a final momentum that is much greater than the initial momentum; it
is this change in momentum which produces the propulsive jet.

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1.5.1 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY .

1.5.2 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
The changes in temperature and pressure of the gases through a gas turbine engine
are illustrated in Figure 1.5 The efficiency with which these changes are made will
determine to what extent the desired relations between pressure, temperature and
velocity are obtained. The more efficient the compressor, the higher is the pressure
generated for a given work input - i.e. for a given temperature rise of the gas.
Conversely, the more efficiently the turbine uses the expanding gas, the greater is
the output of work for a given temperature drop in gas.

Gas Flow Through an Engine

Figure 1.5

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1.5.3 VELOCITY AND PRESSURE

During the passage of the air (gas) through the engine, aerodynamic and energy
requirements demand changes in its velocity and pressure. For example, during
compression a rise in the pressure of the air is required with no increase in its
velocity. After the air has been heated and its internal energy increased by
combustion, an increase in the velocity of the gases is necessary to cause the
turbine to rotate. Also at the propelling nozzle, a high velocity is required, for it is the
change in momentum of the air that provides the thrust on the aircraft. Local
decelerations of gas flow are also required - for example, in the combustion
chambers to provide a low velocity zone for the flame.
1.5.4 HOW THE CHANGES ARE OBTAINED.
The various changes in temperature, pressure and velocity are effected by means of
the ducts through which the air (gas) passes on its way through the engine. When a
conversion from kinetic energy to pressure energy is required, the ducts are
divergent in shape. Conversely, when it is required to convert the energy stored in
the combustion gases to velocity, a convergent nozzle is used. The design of the
passages and nozzles is of great importance, for upon their good design depends the
efficiency with which the energy changes are effected. Any interference with the
smooth flow of gases creates a loss in efficiency and could result in component
failure because of vibration caused by eddies or turbulence of the gas flow.
1.6 DUCTS AND NOZZLES
1.6.1 CONTINUITY EQUATION.
If we consider the machine to be an open-ended duct (Fig 1.6.), we find that the
mass flow per second will depend on the density of the fluid and the volume flowing
per sec:

Open Ended Duct to Illustrate Continuity Equation

Figure 1.6.

Now volume flow = Area of duct x distance travelled (L)

Time (sec)
But the distance travelled per second = Velocity.
Therefore, Mass flow = density x area x velocity.

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This is known as the ‘continuity equation’ and it is true for any steady flow system
regardless of changes in the cross-sectional area of the duct.
1.6.2 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW.
Now consider an incompressible fluid as it flows through the duct system shown in
the fig. 1.7. We know that the mass flow is of a constant value and, naturally, as the
fluid enters the larger cross sectional area it will take up the new shape and the initial
volume will now occupy less length in the duct. Therefore, in a given time, less
distance is travelled and the velocity is reduced.
Thus we conclude that if the mass flow is to remain constant, as it must, an increase
in duct area must be accompanied by a reduction in flow velocity, and a decrease in
duct area must bring about an increase in velocity; we can express this action as –
velocity varies inversely with changes in duct area.

Duct System
Figure 1.7.

1.6.3 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

This theorem can be related to the relationship between pressure and velocity
existing in the air flowing through a duct, such as a jet engine. The theorem states
that the total energy per unit mass is constant for a fluid moving inside a duct and
that total energy consists mainly of pressure energy and kinetic energy:
Pressure energy.
In gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is more often called ‘static pressure’ and it
can be defined as the pressure that would be felt by a body which was submerged in
the medium (gas or fluid) and moving at the same velocity as the medium.

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Kinetic energy.
This kind of energy is more often called ‘dynamic pressure’ and this term is used to
define the extra pressure created by the movement of the medium. Dynamic
pressure is proportional to ½ mass x velocity 2 (ie. ½mv2).
When the medium (gas or fluid) is moving, the total energy = static pressure +
dynamic pressure.
Consider a duct which is filled with an incompressible fluid and pressurised from one
end by an external force (Fig 1.8.). The other end of the duct is sealed by a valve,
which can be opened or closed, and a pressure gauge is fitted into the wall of the
duct to indicate the static pressure (PS). With the valve closed, static pressure and
total energy are the same. However, when the valve is opened to allow a fluid flow,
the circumstances changes and, although the total energy must remain the same, it
now consists of static pressure + dynamic pressure. As the velocity V increases, so
dynamic pressure increases and the static pressure is reduced.

Duct with Flow Control Valve

Figure 1.8.

1.6.4 TOTAL ENERGY.

Total energy can be measured as a ram pressure and is usually called the ‘total
head’ or pitot pressure (PT). It is measured by placing a ram tube in the fluid flow.
The ram tube must be parallel to the flow with its open end facing the flow. A gauge
connected into such a tube always records the total head (pitot) pressure regardless
of the rate of flow, refer to Fig 1.9.

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In a situation where there is a no fluid flow, the static pressure (PS) gauge, and the
total head pressure (PT) gauge will show the same value, but when there is a fluid
flow, the total pressure reading remains the same although the static pressure drops.

Illustration of Pitot and Static Pressures

Figure 1.9.

1.7 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

1.7.1 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID.
The combined effect of the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s theorem produces the
effects shown, when a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct of
varying cross sectional area (Fig 1.10.).

Duct of Varying Cross Sectional Area

Figure 1.10.
The effects of a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct of varying
cross sectional area shows:
Mass flow remains constant as cross-sectional area of duct (and velocity) change.

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Total pressure remains constant, but static pressure (PS) changes as area (and
velocity) change.

1.7.1.1 Compressibility Fluid (Atmosphere).

Compressible fluid flow refers to the air flow through a gas turbine engine and,
because the air is compressible, flow at subsonic speeds causes a change in the
density of the air as it progresses through the engine.
The air entering the duct at section A (Fig 1.11), consists of air at pressure (P1) and
velocity (V1); then as the air enters the increased area of the duct at B it will spread
out to fill the increased area and this will cause the air flow to slow down (continuity
equation) and give a change in velocity to V2. The static pressure of the air will
increase (Bernoulli’s theorem) to become P2 in the wider section of the duct and,
because air is compressible, the air density will increase as it is compresses by the
rise in pressure in section B of the duct.

Airflow Through a Duct Section

Figure 1.11.

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1.7.1.2 Diffuser action.

The flare, which increases the area of the duct, is known as a diffuser (Fig 1.12.)and
its shape determines the rate of compression and the amount by which the air is
compressed. For best results, the airflow must remain smooth and, because of this,
a most important design feature is the angle of divergence. When air is compressed
by this process it is called subsonic diffusion and it is a principle that is used
extensively in jet engine design.

Diffuser Section
Figure 1.12.

1.7.2 GAS LAWS

In addition to the preceding information, the following gas laws are closely related to
the function of a gas turbine engine:
Boyle’s Law. This law is related to temperature and pressure of a gas. It states that
if the temperature T remains constant, the volume V of a given mass varies
inversely as the pressure P exerted upon it (ie. PV = Constant).
Charles’ Law. This law states that the volume V of a given mass of gas increases
by 1/273 of its volume at 0°C for a rise of 1°C when the pressure P of the gas is
kept constant. These laws are now combined in what is called the ideal gas law.
It gives the relationship:
PV = RT where: P = pressure
V = volume
R = a constant
T = absolute temperature in K

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1.8 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS

1.8.1 DIVERGENT DUCT
A divergent duct widens out as the airflow progresses through it. At subsonic speeds
the effect of this kind of duct is to decrease the velocity and increase the pressure
and temperature of the air passing through it.

Divergent Duct.
Figure 1.13.

1.8.2 CONVERGENT DUCT

A convergent duct is such that the space inside reduces as the airflow progresses
through it. At subsonic speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to increase the
velocity and decreases the pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.

Convergent Duct.
Figure 1.14.

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1.9 SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS

When a flow of fluid (i.e. gas) flows at sonic speed through a convergent duct a
shock wave forms at the exit area of the duct - The exit area is said to be choked.
The shock wave forms a restriction to the fluid and pressure will increase,
temperature will increase and velocity will decrease.

A Con-Di Nozzle
Figure 1.14.
When a gas flow reaches sonic velocity in a convergent duct the nozzle will choke
and the pressure will increase. To prevent a pressure rise that would eventually
prevent a 'fluid' flow and completely choke the duct a divergent section is added
making the duct convergent/divergent (Con/DI). The pressure of gas released into
the divergent section of the nozzle causes the velocity of the 'fluid' to increase,
pressure to decrease, and therefore temperature to decrease. Gas pressure acts on
the walls of the divergent section, this pressure gives additional thrust that is known
as pressure thrust.

Airflow Through a Con-Di Nozzle or Venturi.

Figure 1.15.

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1.9.1 THE WORKING CYCLE ON A PRESSURE VOLUME DIAGRAM

Air is drawn from the atmosphere (Ambient Air) into the compressor. The compressor
raises the pressure of the air (A to B) on diagram. If the pressure of the air is
increased the volume is decreased. The air passes to the combustion system and
heat is added by burning fuel with a proportion of the air. From the diagram (B to C)
it is seen that combustion takes place at constant pressure so the gas turbine
working cycle is known as the constant pressure cycle. In the combustion system
the air expands rearwards and the volume of the gas increases and the gas kinetic
energy increases. The gas flow passes to the turbine section to drive the turbine(s),
energy is extracted and the pressure decreases. The gas passes via an exhaust unit
to the propelling nozzle which forms a convergent duct. The velocity of the gas
increases. The reaction to the high velocity jet produces thrust (C to D on diagram).
1.10 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS.
There are
two main
types of
gas

turbine engines:
Changes in Temperature, Pressure and Velocity and the Brayton Cycle
• Reaction engines, which derive their thrust by jet reaction
Figure 1.16.
• Power engines, which provide a mechanical output to drive another device.

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1.10.1 REACTION ENGINES

These can be divided into several categories.
a. Turbojet engines. The turbojet was the first type of jet engine developed. In this
engine all the air passes through the core engine (i.e. the compressor, combustor
and turbine). The engine may be single shaft as in the Avon engine, or twin
shafted as in the Olympus 593 fitted to Concorde.
These engines are noisy and are not the most fuel efficient for normal use,
however for high altitude high speed flight they are in a class of their own.

Turbo jet Engines.

Figure 1.17.

b. Low and Medium By-pass or turbofan engines. These engines will have two or
three shafts. The Low Pressure (LP) shaft drives a larger diameter compressor.
Some of the air produced by-passes the core engine (hence the name) and is
used to provide thrust. The core airflow provides power for the compressors and
thrust. These engine are quieter than turbojets and more fuel efficient. The Spey
and Tay engines fall into this category.

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The by-pass ratio is determined by the ratio of the air in flowing through the by-
pass to the air passing through the core of the engine. Low by-pass less than 2:1,
medium by-pass 2:1 to 4:1, high by pass greater than 5:1.

Low By-pass Twin Spool Engine (Spey)

Figure 1.17.
c. High by-pass turbofan engines. These engines have very large fans driven by a
relatively small core engine. Often the fan is geared to run at a lower speed than
the LP turbine, which gives the turbine mechanical advantage and also allows it to
run at higher speed where it is more efficient. The ALF 502, RB211 and the Trent
engines are all high by-pass
High by-pass engines
are very fuel efficient,
powerful and quiet.
These engines have a
very large diameter
which does give drag
problems, and are not
suitable for high speed
flight as the blade tips
will suffer compressibility
problems as they
approach the speed of
A Three Spool High By-pass Engine (RB211)
Figure 1.18. sound.

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1.10.2 POWER ENGINES

Power producing engines come in two main forms Turboprop and turboshaft.
a. Turboprop Engines. Turboprop engines extract most of the energy from the gas
stream and convert it into rotational energy to drive a propeller. The engines are
either single or twin shaft and may be direct drive where the LP or main shaft
drive the propeller through a gearbox, or they may have a separate power turbine
to drive the propeller. Turboprop engines differ from high by-pass turbofans in
that the propeller does not have an intake to slow and prepare the air before
passing through it. The propeller therefore has to meet the demands of airspeed
etc. Examples of turboprops are the Dart, PW125 and Tyne engines.

Turboprop Engines
Figure 1.19.

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b. Turboshaft Engines. These engines are used in helicopters. They share many
of the attributes of turboprop engines, but are usually smaller. They do not have
propeller control systems built into the engine and usually do not have many
accessories attached such as generators etc. as these are driven by the main rotor
gearbox. Modern turboshaft and turbo prop engines run at constant speed which
tends to prolong the life of the engine and also means that they are more efficient as
the engine can run at its optimum speed all the time.

Turboshaft Engine with Free power Turbine. (Gem)

Figure 1.20.

There are other types of engine such as ram jets, pulse jets, turbo-ram jet and
turbo - rockets, but none of these are used commercially if at all.
1.11 ENGINE STATIONS
Engines are divided up into section or stations. These help identify the source of air
pressure or temperature when looking at more complex systems such as the fuel
system.
Station 0 air is air before the intake, this becomes station 1 air in the intake. Station 2
air is air in the fan and compressor and may be further divided down by adding a
decimal figure after the 2. This is usually indicates the stage, however some engines
do not conform in this area. Station 3 is compressor discharge air which is the
highest pressure air in the engine. After combustion this becomes station 4 air and
remains station 4 air through the turbine, again this may be modified by adding a
decimal figure for each stage. Behind the turbine it becomes station 5 air, becoming
station 6 or 7 air aft of the tail cone. Station 7 air is just before the propelling nozzle
and station 8 air at the narrowest point of the propelling nozzle. Finally the air behind
the nozzle is referred to as station 9.
As can be seen from figure 1.21. there are variations in this notation, also different
manufacturers may have their own interpretation for instance on some of the new
Rolls-Royce engines they have made all the stations whole numbers by adding a 0 to
the single figure numbers and removing the decimal point i.e. stn 3 becomes stn 30.

Issue 3 – Jan 2004 Page 1-22

 uk JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15/17
PROPULSION
engineering SYSTEMS

Station Numbering
Figure 1.21.

Issue 3 – Jan 2004 Page 1-23

 uk JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15/17
PROPULSION
engineering SYSTEMS

Stations for Propeller/ Propfan/ Unducted Fan/ Ultra high by pass engines.
Figure 1.22.

Issue 3 – Jan 2004 Page 1-24