UNIT V DIGITAL INSTRUMENTATION

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTOR

Definition:
An electronic integrated circuit which converts a signal from analog (continuous and can
take an inifinity of values) to digital (discrete digital data) form. Provides a link between the
analog world of transducers and the digital world of signal processing and data handling.

Examples of A/D Applications

1. Microphones - Take your voice varying pressure waves in the air and convert
them into varying electrical signals
2. Strain Gages - Determines the amount of strain (change in dimensions) when a
stress is applied
3. Thermocouple – Temperature measuring device converts thermal energy to
electric energy
4. Voltmeters
5. Digital Multimeters

Basic circuit:
 Process of Analog to Digital Conversion:
1. Sampling and Holding
2. Quantizing - Breaking down analog value in to a set of finite states
3. Encoding - Assigning a digital word or number to each state and matching it to
the input signal
Sampling and Holding
The circuit is an analog device that samples the voltage of a continuously varying analog
signal and holds (freezes) its value at a constant level for a specified minimum period of
time.
 Measuring analog signals at uniform time intervals
 Ideally twice as fast as what we are sampling
 Digital system works with discrete states
 Taking samples from each location
 The signal is only defined at determined times
 The sampling times are proportional to the sampling period (Ts)

 Switch ON – sampling of signal (time to charge capacitor w/ Vin)

 Switch OFF - voltage stored in capacitor (hold operation)
 Must hold sampled value constant for digital conversion
ADC AND DAC SPECIFICATIONS
Resolution:
The resolution of a DAC is the smallest change in the output of the DAC for any change
in digital input.i.e. if a input to DAC changes one bit, how much analog output has changed in
full scale deflection.
% resolution = [Step size / Full scale output (FSO)] * 100
In other way the resolution is the number of states into which the full scale output is
divided. i.e if a 8 bit DAC can resolve the FSO up to 255 levels. Each level of output is called
step size and for higher number of bits the resolution will be better.
% resolution = [1/(2N-1) *100]
Normally the resolution will be in milli volts.
Accuracy
The Accuracy of a DAC is the difference between output practical analog output to the
ideal expected output for a given digital input. The DAC is contains electronic components
where the gain plays a major role which can introduce gain error in the output. Due to the the
full scale output may differ compared to ideal one. For an example if a DAC of 10 V is said to
have an accuracy of 0.01% there will be 10mv output deviation. The another factor which
implicates the accuracy is the zero offset error i.e for a zero input the output of DAC reflects
some offset value.
Conversion Speed
The conversion speed of the DAC is output analog value settling time period for a
change in the digital input. This is also called settling time period of DAC. Normally it will be
micro seconds and in some advanced micro controller DAC it may be nano seconds.

Settling time:
This is usually expressed as the time taken to settle within half LSB. Generally settling time
will be 500ns.
Stability:
The ability of a DAC to produce a stable output all the time is called as Stability. The
performance
of a converter changes with drift in temperature, aging and power supply variations. So all the
parameters such as offset, gain, linearity error & monotonicity may change from the values
specified in the datasheet. Temperature sensitivity defines the stability of a D/A converter.
Quantization error
Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of
levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a discrete-time signal.

For any system, during its functioning, there is always a difference in the values of its
input and output. The processing of the system results in an error, which is the difference of
those values.
 The difference between an input value and its quantized value is called a Quantization
Error. A Quantizer is a logarithmic function that performs Quantization (rounding off the
value). An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) works as a quantizer.

The following figure illustrates an example for a quantization error, indicating the
difference between the original signal and the quantized signal.

5.2.TYPES OF ADC
1.1 FLASH TYPE ADC:
This is the simplest possible A/D converter. It is at the same time, the fastest and most
expensive technique. Figure shows a 3 bit A/D converter. The circuit consists of a resistive
divider network, 8 op-amp comparators and a 8-1ine to 3-1ine encoder (3-bit priority encoder).
The Comparator and its truth table are shown in Figure below

Fig.3 A comparator and its truth table

 Fig.4 Flash type A-D converter
Table 1:Truth table for Flash type ADC

A small amount of hysteresis is built into the comparator to resolve any problems that might
occur if both inputs were of equal voltage as shown in the truth table. From the Figure, at each
node of the resistive divider, a comparison voltage is available. Since all the resistors are of
equal value, the voltage levels available at the nodes are equally divided between the reference
voltage VR and the ground. The purpose of the circuit is to compare the analog input voltage
Va with each of the node voltages. The truth table for the flash type A/D converter is shown
above.
 Advantages of flash type A/D converter

 High speed simultaneous conversion

 Typical conversion time is 100 ns or less.

Disadvantages of flash type A/D converter

 The number of comparators required almost doubles for each added bit.

 Larger the value of n (number of bits), the more complex is the priority encoder.

COUNTER TYPE ADC

The counter type ADC is the basic form of ADC which is also called as ramp type
ADC or stair case approximation ADC. This circuit consists of N-bit counter, DAC and

comparator
Fig.5 Counter type ADC
The N bit counter generates an n bit digital output which is applied as an input to the
DAC. The analog output corresponding to the digital input from DAC is compared with the
input analog voltage using an op-amp comparator. The op-amp compares the two voltages and
if the generated DAC voltage is less, it generates a high pulse to the N-bit counter as a clock
pulse to increment the counter. The same process will be repeated until the DAC output equals
to the input analog voltage.

If the DAC output voltage is equal to the input analog voltage, then it generates low
clock pulse and it also generates a clear signal to the counter and load signal to the storage
resistor to store the corresponding digital bits. These digital values are closely matched with
the input analog values with small quantization error. For every sampling interval the DAC
output follows a ramp fashion so that it is called as Digital ramp type ADC. And this ramp
looks like stair cases for every sampling time so that it is also called as staircase approximation
type ADC.
 Fig.6 Digital output and analog input for a counter type ADC
Conversion time of ADC is the time taken by the ADC to convert the input sampled analog
value to digital value. Here the maximum conversion of high input voltage for a N bit ADC is
the clock pulses required to the counter to count its maximum count value. So

The maximum conversion of Counter type ADC is = (2N-1) T

Where, T is the time period of clock pulse.

If N=2 bit then the Tmax = 3T.

By observing the above conversion time of Counter type ADC it is illustrated that the sampling
period of Counter type ADC should be as shown below.

Ts >= (2N-1) T

Advantages of Counter type ADC:

 Simple to understand and operate.

 Cost is less because of less complexity in design.

Disadvantages or limitations of Counter type of ADC:

 Speed is less because every time the counter has to start from ZERO.

 There may be clash or aliasing effect if the next input is sampled before completion of
one operation.

SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION TYPE ADC

 A Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is added to the circuit

 Instead of counting up in binary sequence, this register counts by trying all values of
bits starting with the MSB and finishing at the LSB.

 The register monitors the comparators output to see if the binary count is greater or less
than the analog signal input and adjusts the bits accordingly
 Fig.7 Successive Approximation ADC Circuit
Elements:
 DAC = Digital to Analog Converter

 EOC = End of Conversion

 SAR = Successive Approximation Register

 S/H = Sample and Hold Circuit

 Vin = Input Voltage

 Comparator

 Vref = Reference Voltage

Algorithm
 Uses an n-bit DAC and original analog results

 Performs a binary comparison of VDAC and Vin

 MSB is initialized at 1 for DAC

 If Vin < VDAC (VREF / 2^n=1) then MSB is reset to 0

 If Vin > VDAC (VREF / 2^n) Successive Bits set to 1 otherwise 0

 Algorithm is repeated up to LSB

 At end DAC in = ADC out

  N-bit conversion requires N comparison cycles

Example 1:
5-bit ADC, Vin=0.6V, Vref=1V
Cycle 1 => MSB=1
SAR = 1 0 0 0 0
VDAC = Vref/2^1 = .5 Vin > VDAC SAR unchanged = 1 0 0 0 0
 Cycle 2

SAR = 1 1 0 0 0
VDAC = .5 +.25 = .75 Vin < VDAC SAR bit3 reset to 0 = 1 0 0 0 0
 Cycle 3

SAR = 1 0 1 0 0
VDAC = .5 + .125 = .625 Vin < VDAC SAR bit2 reset to 0 = 1 0 0 0 0
 Cycle 4

SAR = 1 0 0 1 0
VDAC = .5+.0625=.5625 Vin > VDAC SAR unchanged = 1 0 0 1 0
 Cycle 5

SAR = 1 0 0 1 1
VDAC = .5+.0625+.03125= .59375
Table 2:Input vs Voltage

Bit 4 3 2 1 0

Voltage .5 .25 .125 .0625 .03125

Advantages
 Capable of high speed and reliable

 Medium accuracy compared to other ADC types

 Good tradeoff between speed and cost

 Capable of output the binary number in serial (one bit at a time) format.

 High resolution
  No precision external components needed

Disadvantages
 Higher resolution successive approximation ADC’s will be slower

 Speed limited.

5.3.TYPES OF DAC

Fig 11: DAC

The input in the digital to analog converter is an n-bit binary word D and is combined with a
reference voltage 𝑉𝑟 to give an analog output signal. The output of a DAC can be either a
voltage or current. For a voltage output DAC, the D/A converter is mathematically described
as

(1)
Where,
𝑉𝑜 = output voltage

𝑉𝐹𝑆 = full scale output voltage

K = scaling factor usually adjusted to unity

𝑑1 𝑑2……. 𝑑𝑛 = n-bit binary fractional word with the decimal point located at the left
𝑑1 = most significant bit (MSB) with a weight of 𝑉𝐹𝑆/2
𝑑𝑛 = most significant bit (MSB) with a weight of 𝑉𝐹𝑆/2n

There are various ways of implementing DAC

 Weighted-Resistor DAC
  2R ladder DAC
 PWM type DAC

3.1 WEIGHTED RESISTOR DAC

One of the simplest circuits is shown in Figure uses a summing amplifier with a binary
weighted resistor network. It has n- electronic switches 𝑑1 𝑑2……. 𝑑𝑛 controlled by binary
input word. These switches are single pole double throw (SPDT) type. If the binary input to a
particular switch is 1, it connects the resistance to the reference voltage (-𝑉𝑅). And if the input
bit is 0, the switch connects the resistor to the ground. From Figure (a) the output current 𝐼𝑜 for
an ideal op-amp can be written as

The output voltage

(2)
Comparing equation (1) with (2) it can be seen that if 𝑅𝑓 = R then K = 1 and 𝑉𝐹𝑆= 𝑉𝑅 .
The circuit shown in Figure uses a negative reference voltage. The analog output
voltage is therefore positive staircase as shown in Figure for a 3-bit weighted resistor DAC. It
may be noted that
 Although the op-amp in Figure is connected in inverting mode, it can also be connected
in non-inverting mode.
 The op-amp is simply working as a current to voltage converter.
 The polarity of the reference voltage is chosen in accordance with the type of the switch
used. For example, for TTL compatible switches, the reference voltage should be = 5
V and the output will be negative.

The accuracy and stability of a DAC depends upon the accuracy of the resistors and the
tracking of each other with temperature. There are however a number of problems associated
with this type of DAC. One of the disadvantages of binary weighted type DAC is the wide
range of resistor values required. It may be observed that for better resolution, the input binary
word length has to be increased. Thus, as the number of bit increases, the range of resistance
value increases. For 8-bit DAC, the resistors required are 20R, 21 R, 22 R… 27 R. the largest
resistor is 128 times the smallest one for only 8-bit DAC. For a 12-bit DAC, the largest
resistance required is 5.12 MΩ if the smallest is 2.5 kΩ. The fabrication of such a large
resistance is IC is not practical. Also the voltage drop across such a large resistor due to the
bias current would also affect the accuracy. The choice of smallest resistor value as 2.5 kΩ is
reasonable; otherwise loading effect will be there. The difficulty of achieving and maintaining
accurate ratios over such a wide range especially in monolithic form restricts the use of
weighted resistor DACs to below 8-bits.

Fig.12 (a)A simple weighted resistor DAC (b) Transfer characteristics of a 3-bit DAC

3.2 R-2R LADDER DAC

Wide range of resistors are required in binary weighted resistor type DAC. This can be
avoided by using R-2R ladder type DAC where only two values of resistors are required. It is
well suited for integrated circuit realization. The typical value of resistor ranges from 2.5kΩ to
10kΩ.
For simplicity, consider a 3-bit DAC as shown in Figure, where the switch position
𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 corresponds to the binary word 100. The circuit can be simplified to the equivalent
form of Figure (b) and finally to Figure (c). then, voltage at node C can be easily calculated by
the set procedure of network analysis as
 Fig.13 (a) R-2R ladder DAC (b) Equivalent circuit of (a), (c) Equivalent
circuit of (b)

The output voltage

The switch position corresponding to the binary word 001 in 3 bit DAC is shown in
Figure (a). The circuit can be simplified to the equivalent form of Fig(b). The voltages at the
nodes (A,B,C) formed by resistor branches are easily calculated in a similar fashion and the
output voltage becomes
 Fig.14 (a) R-2R ladder DAC for switch positons 001 (b) Equivalent circuit
In a similar fashion, the output voltage for R-2R ladder type DAC corresponding to
other 3-bit binary words can be calculated.

Digital Voltmeter

An instrument used to measure potential difference between two ends of a conductor and
display result in digital form.

Types:
Ramp type DVM

Advantages:
1. Errors on account of parallax and approximations are entirely eliminated
2. Operating speed is increased
3. Data can be fed to memory devices for storage and future computation.
4. Size reduced after the advent of ICs and easily portable.
Ramp Type DVM

Principle:
Input voltage is converted into digital equivalent by counting the time taken for the ramp wave to
decrease from the magnitude of input voltage to 0V.
Construction:
The block diagram of the Ramp-type ADC can be
divided into two sections as follows:
1. Voltage to time conversion section
2. Time measurement section
Voltage to time conversion section
In the voltage to time conversion section, the analog input voltage is fed to the attenuation
circuit. The attenuated signal is compared with the the ramp signal generated by the ramp generator
given in the block diagram by the input comparator 'C1'. Similarly, The ramp signal generated is
compared with 0V via a zero- crossing detector 'C2'. A sample rate multivibrator is connected to the
ramp generator whose purpose is to provide an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start the
next ramp voltage for the next measurement. It is also used to reset the counter before generating the
next ramp voltage
Time measurement section
In the time measurement section, there is counter which is triggered by a gating pulse.
The inputs of the gating pulse are (i) Output of 'C1' (ii) Output of 'C2' (iii) Clock pulse from the
oscillator. The counter is reset after each successful completion of time measurement by
a control signal from the sample rate multivibrator. The count produced is displayed by connecting
suitable display device..

Operation
Initially, the attenuated signal is compared with a negative going ramp signal generated by the ramp
generator. When the ramp voltage coincides with the input signal, the output of 'C1' becomes low.
This point is called coincidence point. This initiates the counting process ( start of count ). The
counter continues to count until the ramp voltage reduces and crosses zero (0V). This is detected by
zero crossing detector 'C2'. The output of 'C2' becomes high which ends the counting process (end of
count).

DVM
Merits:

Demerits:
accuracy of output greatly depends on linearity of the ramp.(since only one ramp is used)
Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Block Diagram
The block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the Fig.

Ø The input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section.

Ø The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as used in the
conventional oscilloscopes.
Ø The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier.
Ø To digitize the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used.
Ø The output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D
converter section.
Ø The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most oftenly used in the digital storage
oscilloscopes.
Ø The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration & the waveform
to be recorded.
Ø Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it.
Ø The signal is then captured in the memory.
Ø Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as memory can be
readout without being erased.
Ø The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes:

1. Roll mode
2. Store mode
3. Hold or save mode.

Advantages
i) It is easier to operate and has more capability. ii) The storage time is
infinite.
iii) The display flexibility is available. The number of traces that can be stored and recalled
depends on the size of the memory.
iv) The cursor measurement is possible.
v) The characters can be displayed on screen along with the waveform which can indicate
waveform information such as minimum, maximum, frequency, amplitude etc.
vi) The X-Y plots, B-H curve, P-V diagrams can be displayed.
vii) The pretrigger viewing feature allows to display the waveform before trigger pulse.
viii) Keeping the records is possible by transmitting the data to computer system where the further
processing is possible
ix) Signal processing is possible which includes translating the raw data into finished information
e.g. computing parameters of a captured signal like r.m.s. value, energy stored etc.

5.5 DATA LOGGER

Definition
Data logger is an electronic device that records data over time or in relation to location either with a
built in instrument or sensor.
Components
Ø Pulse inputs
Counts circuit closing
Ø Control ports
Digital in and out
Most commonly used to turn things on and off
Can be programmed as a digital input
Ø Excitation outputs
Though they can be deployed while connected to a host PC over an Ethernet or
serial port a data logger is more typically deployed as standalone devices. The term data logger (also
sometimes referred to as a data recorder) is commonly used to describe a self-contained, standalone
data acquisition system or device. These products are comprised of a number of analog and digital
inputs that are monitored, and the results or conditions of these inputs is then stored on some type of
local memory (e.g. SD Card, Hard Drive).
 Examples

Examples of where these devices are used abound. A few of these examples are shown below:

Ø monitoring temperature, pressure, strain and other physical phenomena in aircraft flight tests (even
including logging info from Arinc 429 or other serial communications buses)

Ø Monitoring temperature, pressure, strain and other physical phenomena in automotive and in-vehicle
tests including monitoring traffic and data transmitted on the vehicles CAN bus.

Ø Environmental monitoring for quality control in food processing, food storage, pharmaceutical
manufacturing, and even monitoring the environment during various stages of contract assembly or
semiconductor fabrication

Ø Monitoring stress and strain in large mechanical structures such as bridges, steel framed buildings,
towers, launch pads etc.

Ø Monitoring environmental parameters in temperature and environmental chambers and test facilities.

Ø A data logger is a self-contained unit that does not require a host to operate.

Ø It can be installed in almost any location, and left to operate unattended.

Ø This data can be immediately analyzed for trends, or stored for historical archive purposes.
Ø Data loggers can also monitor for alarm conditions, while recording a minimum number of samples,
for economy.
Ø If the recording is of a steady-state nature, without rapid changes, the user may go through rolls of
paper, without seeing a single change in the input.
Ø A data logger can record at very long intervals, saving paper, and can note when an alarm condition
is occurring. When this happens, the event will be recorded and any outputs will be activated,
even if the event occurs in between sample times.
Ø A record of all significant conditions and events is generated using a minimum of recording
hardcopy
Ø The differences between various data loggers are based on the way that data is recorded and stored.
Ø The basic difference between the two data logger types is that one type allows the data to be stored
in a memory, to be retrieved at a later time, while the other type automatically records the data
on paper, for immediate viewing and analysis.
Ø Many data loggers combine these two functions, usually unequally, with the emphasis on either the
ability to transfer the data or to provide a printout of it
Advantages
 Ø A data logger is an attractive alternative to either a recorder or data acquisition system in
many applications. When compared to a recorder, data loggers have the ability to accept a
greater number of input channels, with better resolution and accuracy.

Ø Also, data loggers usually have some form of on-board intelligence, which provides the user
with diverse capabilities.

Ø For example, raw data can be analyzed to give flow rates, differential temperatures, and other
interpreted data that otherwise would require manual analysis by the operator the operator
has a permanent recording on paper,

Ø No other external or peripheral equipment is required for operation, and

Ø Many data loggers of this type also have the ability to record data trends, in addition to
simple digital data recording
.

VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION
It is the use of customizable software and modular measurement hardware to create user-defined
measurement systems.

• Virtual instrumentation is an inter disciplinary field that merges sensing, hardware and
software technologies in order to create flexible and sophisticated instruments for control
and monitoring applications
• Virtual Instrumentation is the use of customizable software and modular measurement
hardware to create user defined measurement systems called virtual instruments.
• Virtual instrument provides all the software and hardware needed to accomplish the
measurement or control task
Definition for VI:

“Virtual instrumentation combines mainstream commercial technologies, such as the PC, with
flexible software and a wide variety of measurement and control hardware.”

➢ Engineers use virtual instrumentation to bring the power of flexible software and PC
technology to test, control and design applications making accurate analog and digital
measurements.
➢ . Industries with automated processes, such as chemical or manufacturing plants use
virtual instrumentation with the goal of improving system productivity, reliability, safety,
optimization and stability.

National Instruments LabVIEW, a premier virtual instrumentation graphical development

environment, uses symbolic or graphical representations to speed up development. The
software symbolically represents functions. Consolidating functions within rapidly
deployed graphical blocks further speeds up development.

Virtual Instrument Architecture

• A virtual instrument is composed of the following blocks:
➢ Sensor Module,
➢ Sensor Interface,
➢ Information Systems Interface,
➢ Processing Module,
➢ Database Interface, and
➢ User Interface.

The sensor module detects physical signal and transforms it into electrical form, conditions the
signal, and transforms it into a digital form for further manipulation. Through a sensor interface,
the sensor module communicates with a computer. Once the data are in a digital form on a
computer, they can be processed, mixed, compared, and otherwise manipulated, or stored in a
database. Then, the data may be displayed, or converted back to analog form for further process
control.
a) Sensor module

• The sensor module performs signal conditioning and transforms it into a digital form for
further manipulation.
• Once the data are in a digital form on a computer, they can be displayed, processed,
mixed, compared, stored in a database, or converted back to analog form for further
process control.
• The database can also store configuration settings and signal records.
• The sensor module interfaces a virtual instrument to the external, mostly analog world
transforming measured signals into computer readable form.
A sensor module principally consists of three main parts:
· the sensor,
· the signal conditioning part, and
· the A/D converter.
The sensor detects physical signals from the environment. If the parameter being measured is not
electrical, the sensor must include a transducer to convert the information to an electrical signal,.

The signal-conditioning module performs (usually analog) signal conditioning prior to AD

conversion, such as . This module usually does the amplification, transducer excitation,
linearization, isolation, or filtering of detected signals. The A/D converter changes the detected
and conditioned voltage into a digital value

b) Sensor interface

• There are many interfaces used for communication between sensors modules and
the computer
• According to the type of connection, sensor interfaces can be classified as wired
and wireless.

Wired Interfaces are usually standard parallel interfaces, such as General Purpose Interface Bus
(GPIB), Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI), system buses (PCI eXtension for
Instrumentation PXI or VME Extensions for Instrumentation (VXI), or serial buses (RS232 or
USB interfaces)
Wireless Interfaces are increasingly used because of convenience. Typical interfaces include
802.11 family of standards, Bluetooth, or GPRS/GSM . Wireless communication is especially
important for implanted sensors where cable connection is impractical or not possible
c) Processing Module

• Integration of the general purpose microprocessors/microcontrollers allowed flexible

implementation of sophisticated processing functions.
• As the functionality of a virtual instrument depends very little on dedicated hardware,
which principally does not perform any complex processing, functionality and
appearance of the virtual instrument may be completely changed utilizing different
processing functions.
• Broadly speaking, processing function used in virtual instrumentation may be classified
as analytic processing and artificial intelligence techniques.

i) Analytic processing

• Analytic functions define clear functional relations among input parameters. Some of the
common analyses used in virtual instrumentation include spectral analysis, filtering,
windowing, transforms, peak detection, or curve

ii) Artificial intelligence techniques

• Artificial intelligence technologies could be used to enhance and improve the efficiency,
the capability, and the features of instrumentation in application areas related to
measurement, system identification, and control .
• These techniques exploit the advanced computational capabilities of modern computing
systems to manipulate the sampled input signals and extract the desired measurements.
• Artificial intelligence technologies, such as neural networks, fuzzy logic and expert
systems, were applied in various applications, including sensor fusion to high-level
sensors, system identification, prediction, system control, complex measurement
procedures, calibration, and instrument fault detection and isolation
• Various nonlinear signal processing, including fuzzy logic and neural networks, are also
common tools in analysis of biomedical signals

d) Database interface

• Computerized instrumentation allows measured data to be stored for off-line processing,

or to keep record as a part of the patient record There are several currently available
database technologies that can be used for this purpose
 e) Information system interface

• Virtual instruments are increasingly integrated with other medical Information

systems,.
• They can be used to create executive dashboards, supporting decision support, realtime
alerts and predictive warnings .
Biomedical Applications of Virtual Instrumentation

Virtual instrumentation is being increasingly accepted in biomedical field. In relation to the role
of a virtual instrument, we may broadly classify biomedical applications of virtual
instrumentation in four categories

➢ Examination, where a physician does online or off-line examination of patient

measurements,
➢ Monitoring, which can be used as a basis for real-time alerts and interactive alarms,
➢ Biofeedback, where measured signals are presented back to a patient in real-time, and
➢ Training and education, where a virtual instrument may simulate or playback earlier
measured signals.
• .
 GRAPHICAL PROGRAMMING AND TEXTUAL PROGRAMMING

• Graphical programming is a visually-oriented approach to programming.

• Graphical programming is easier and more intuitive to use than traditional textual
programming.
• Textual programming requires the programmers to be reasonably proficient in the
programming language.
Virtual instrumentation is not limited to graphical programming but can be implemented
using a conventional programming language.
INTRODUCTION TO LabVIEW

❖ LabVIEW (Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench) is a graphical

programming environment which has become prevalent throughout research labs,
academia and industry.
❖ It is a powerful and versatile analysis and instrumentation software system for
measurement and automation. Its graphical programming language called G
programming is performed using a graphical block diagram that compiles into machine
code and eliminates a lot of the syntactical details.
❖ LabVIEW offers more flexibility than standard laboratory instruments because it is
software based.
❖ Using LabVIEW, the user can originate exactly the type of virtual instrument needed and
programmers can easily view and modify data or control inputs.
LabVIEW programs are called virtual instruments (VIs), because their appearance and
operation imitate physical instruments like oscilloscopes
 ADVANTAGES OF LabVIEW
The following are the advantages of LabVIEW:
● Graphical user interface: Design professionals use the drag-and-drop user interface library by
interactively customizing the hundreds of built-in user objects on the controls
palette.
● Drag-and-drop built-in functions: Thousands of built-in functions and IP including analysis
and I/O, from the functions palette to create applications easily.
● Modular design and hierarchical design: Run modular LabVIEW VIs by themselves or as
subVIs and easily scale and modularize programs depending on the application.

Programmable Logic Controller

 PLC Ladder diagram for Timers
We can use the Generate-ON-delay or ON delay timer instruction to delay the
setting of the Q output by the programmed duration PT. The instruction is
started when the result of the input IN changes from 0 to 1 (positive edge).

You can monitor the current time value at the ET output of the Timer block.
The timer value starts at T#0s and ends when the value of duration PT is
reached. The ET output is reset as soon as the signal state at the IN input
changes to 0

We can use the Generate off-delay or off-delay timer instruction to delay

resetting of the Q output by the programmed duration PT.

The Q output is set when the result of the logic operation (RLO) at input IN
changes from 0 to 1 (positive signal edge).
Timer Example
Consider the short ladder logic program in Figure for control of a heating oven. The system
is started with a Start button that seals in the Auto mode. This can be stopped if the Stop button
ispushed. (Remember: Stop buttons are normally closed.) When the Auto goes on initially the
TON timer is used to sound the horn for the first 10 seconds to warn that the oven will start,
and after that the hornstops and the heating coils start. When the oven is turned off the fan
continues to blow for 300s or 5 minutes after.
Counter Example
The program in Figure is used to remove 5 out of every 10 parts from a conveyor with a
pneumatic cylinder. When the part is detected both counters will increase their values by
1. When thesixth part arrives the first counter will then be done, thereby allowing the
pneumatic cylinder to actuate for any part after the fifth. The second counter will
continue until the eleventh part is detected and then both of the counters will be reset.
Instrument Standards
These standards play a crucial role in maintaining the quality and consistency of instrumentation
systems, facilitating their integration and interoperability, and ensuring their compliance with regulatory
requirements. They provide a common language and framework for manufacturers, users, and regulators,
helping to reduce technical uncertainties, promote innovation, and enhance the competitiveness of the
instrumentation industry.
A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known accurate measure of
physical quantity is termed as standard. These standards are used to determine the accuracy of other physical
quantities by the comparison method.
Example, the fundamental unit of mass in the International System is the Kilogram and defined as the
mass of a cubic decimetre of water at its temperature of maximum of density of 4oC.
Different standards are developed for checking the other units of measurements.
and all these standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and Measures at Serves, Paris.

Classification of Standards
Standards are classified into four types, based on the functions and applications.
1) International standards
2) Primary standards
3) Secondary standards
4) Working standards
1) International Standard International standards are defined and established upon internationally. They are
maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and measures and are not accessible to ordinary users for
measurements and calibration. They are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in
terms of fundamental units of physics.
International Ohms It is defined as the resistance offered by a column of mercury having a mass of
14.4521gms, uniform cross sectional area and length of 106.300cm, to the flow of constant current at the
melting point of ice.
2) Primary Standards
Primary standards are maintained by the National Standards Laboratories (NSL) in different parts of the
world. The principle function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of secondary standards.
They are not available outside the National Laboratory for calibration. These primary standards are absolute
standards of high accuracy that can be used as ultimate reference standards.

3.Secondary Standards
These standards are basic reference standards used in industrial laboratories for calibration of instruments.
Each industry has its own secondary standard and maintained by same industry. Each laboratory periodically
sends its secondary standard to the NSL for calibration and comparison against the primary standards.
Certification of measuring accuracy is given by NSL in terms of primary standards.

4.Working Standards
The working standards are used for day-to-day use in measurement laboratories. So this standard is the
primary tool of a measurement laboratory.These standards may be lower in accuracy in comparison with
secondary standard. It is used to check and calibrate laboratory instruments for accuracy and performance.
Example, a standard resister for checking of resistance value manufactured.
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