UNIT 1

Chapter 2: Network Models

Network Models
Computer network models are responsible for establishing a connection among the sender and
receiver and transmitting the data in a smooth manner respectively. The networking mode
describes the
Architecture, components, and design used to establish communication between the source and
destination systems.

Protocols
Protocol is a set of standard rules that the communicating parties – the sender the receiver,
and all other intermediate devices need to follow. We know that the sender and receiver can be
parts of different networks, placed at different geographic locations. Besides. The data transfer
rates in different networks can vary, requiring data to be sent in different formats
We need flow control for different reasons such as flow Control, access Control, addressing, etc.
Flow control is required when the sender and receiver have different speeds of sending and
receiving the data. Let us consider that Computer A 1s sending data at the speed of 1024 Mbps
and computer B is receiving data at the speed of 512 Mbps. In this case, Computer B must be
able to inform computer A about the speed mismatch s so that computer A can adjust its data
transmission rate. Otherwise some data will be lost.
Access control is required to decide which nodes in a communication channel will access
otherwise, the transmitted data through the same link the link shared among them at a particular
instant of time.
Simultaneously packets will collide if computers are sending data resulting in the loss or
corruption ofdata.

The Key Elements of a Protocol are

1. Syntax 2. Semantics 3. Timing
1. Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data
o be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest
of the stream to be the message itself.
2. Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message?

3. Timing: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how
fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can
Process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will
 be lost.
4. Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in
today’s marketplace and international communications.
Layered tasks
The grouping of relevant communication functions into different hierarchical sets is known as
layering. Every batch of operations is a separate layer. As an example, let us consider two friends
who want to communicate through postal mail.

Layered Architecture
Enabling two or more devices to communicate effectively across the network is extremely
comp There must be a high degree of cooperation between the two computer systems A
systematic strategy is necessary for data transmission to occur for two or more users to send
data from one to the both This method allows users to communicate and send data in an
efficient and orderly manner It implemented in computer networks using layers, which are
referred to as layered architectures.
  The major goal of layered architecture is to break down transmitting and receiving
data into smaller, more manageable activities.
 Each lower layer contributes to the top layer, resulting in a comprehensive collection of
services for managing communications and running applications. These levels are
interconnected, with each layer providing and receiving data from its immediate upper
and lower layers.
 Dividing a model into layers simplifies the structure, making it easier to see a problem if it
arises.
 The objective of each layer is to offer the service from a lower to a higher layer while
masking the specifics of how the services are performed from the layers.
 It provides modularity and explicit interfaces, allowing subsystems to interact with one
another.
 It ensures layer independence by offering services from the lowest to the highest layer
without specifying how the services are implemented. As a result, any changes made to
one layer do not affect the other levels.
 The number of levels, functions, and contents of each layer will differ from one
network to the next.
 Network architecture is a collection of these layers and protocols.

With layered architectures, communications between two corresponding layers requires a

unit of data called a protocol data unit (PDU). A PDU can be a header added at the beginning
of a message or a trailer appended to the end of a message. Data flows downward through the
layers in the source system and upwards at the destination address. As data passes from one
layer into another, headers and trailers are added and removed from the PDU. This process of
adding or removing PDU information is called encapsulation/decapsulation. Between each
pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The interface defines which primitives operations
and services the lower layer offers to upper layer adjacent to it. A set of layers and protocols is
known as network architecture. A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per
layer, is called protocol stack.

Components of Layered Architecture

The core components of the layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces:
• Service: It is a set of actions that a laver provides to the higher layer.
• Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a laver uses to exchange information with a peer entity.
These rules mainly concern both the contents and order of the messages used.
• Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer
Features and Functions of Layered Architecture
• Each layer performs a subset of different functions required for communication.
• Each layer provide the services of its functions to the next higher layer in the hierarchy
•No data is transmitted from one machine's layer n to another machine's layer n. Instead the
lowest layer is reached; each layer transmits the data to the one directly below it.
• The physical channel via which real communication takes place is located underneath layer 1.
 • Unmanageable activities are split into smaller, more manageable jobs in a layered architecture
• Data is sent from the upper layer to the bottom layer via an interface.
•A layered design provides a clear interface so that only the most important information
communicated across levels.
• It also assures that one layer's implementation may be readily changed by another.
Communication in Layered Architecture
There are two types of communication in the layered
architecture.

1 Hierarchical communication:
• Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately below it.
• The sender at the higher layer uses the services of the middle layer.
• The middle layer uses the services of the lower layer and the lower layer uses the service
of the carrier. (Physical medium).
• Each layer adds control information to the data. This extra information is called a header
• The header added by a layer is processed by the corresponding layer on the destination machine.
•
2. Peer-to-peer communication :

• Communication between the corresponding layers in the two systems is called as peer
to-peer communication.
• The same set of layered function must exists in both the communicating parties.

Advantages of Layered Architecture:

1. Modularity: Breaks down a system into manageable layers, each with a specific function.
2. Maintainability: Easier to update and maintain since changes in one layer typically don’t
affect others.
3. Scalability: Facilitates system expansion by allowing layers to be modified or replaced
independently.
4. Reusability: Layers can be reused across different projects or systems.
5. Isolation: Each layer only interacts with adjacent layers, which simplifies debugging and
testing.

Disadvantages of Layered Architecture:

1. Overhead: Multiple layers can introduce additional processing and communication overhead.
2. Complexity: Can become complex to design and manage as the number of layers increases.
3. Performance: Layer boundaries can sometimes create performance bottlenecks.
4. Dependency Management: Ensuring correct dependencies and interactions between layers
can be challenging.
5. Rigid Structure: Changes in one layer may necessitate changes in other layers, affecting
flexibility.
Protocol Layering
A protocol are the rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to
follow be able to communicate effectively. When communication is simple, we may need only
one simple protocol; when the communication is complex, we need a protocol at each layer, or
protocol layering
• A Single-Layer Protocol: communication will be so simple that it can occur in only
one layer. Example speaking in the phone
• A Multi-Layer Protocol (Protocol Layering) : When the communication is complex, we
must divide the task between different layers, so, we need to follow a protocol at each layer, this
technique we used to call protocol layering. This layering allows us to separate the services
from the implementation.
Each layer needs to receive a set of services from the lower layer and to give the services to the
upper layer. The modification done in any one layer will not affect the other layers.

Two Principles of Protocol Layering:

 The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to layer
so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
 The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two
objects each layer at both sites should be identical.
Types of Computer Network Models
Computer network models are responsible for establishing a connection among the sender receiver
and transmitting the data in a smooth manner respectively. There are two computer network
models

1. OSI Model
2. TCP/IP Model
 OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer
systems use to communicate over a network. It was the first standard model for network
communications, adopted byall major computer and telecommunication companies in the year
1984 by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO).

The term “Open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the referend
model and associated standards. The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving
information between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more
manageable problem The seven layers are:

1. Physical Layer

The Physical Layer is the first layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. It is
responsible for the actual transmission of raw binary data (bits) over a physical medium. This layer
converts data into signals that can be transmitted over the network medium, such as electrical signals
over copper cables, light pulses over fiber optics, or radio waves for wireless communication.
Working:

1. Signal Conversion: Translates digital data from the higher layers into physical signals
suitable for the transmission medium. This includes electrical signals, light pulses, or radio
waves.
2. Transmission Medium: Defines the characteristics of the medium used for transmission,
including types of cables (e.g., twisted pair, coaxial) or wireless technologies.
3. Bit Synchronization: Ensures that the sender and receiver are synchronized in their timing so
that the transmitted bits are correctly interpreted.
4. Signal Encoding: Applies encoding schemes to prepare data for transmission, which helps in
error detection and optimizing the signal for the medium.
5. Medium Access Control: While not directly involved in network access control, the physical
layer influences how data is physically transmitted, which can affect medium access strategies.

Advantages:

1. Standardization: Provides standardized methods for signal transmission, ensuring

compatibility between different devices and technologies.
2. Physical Medium Flexibility: Supports various types of media (copper cables, fiber optics,
wireless) to suit different communication needs.
3. Basic Error Detection: Contributes to basic error detection by defining signal characteristics
and tolerances for noise and interference.
4. Foundation for Higher Layers: Acts as the groundwork for all other OSI layers, enabling
data transmission and reception for the entire network.

Disadvantages:

1. No Error Correction: Does not handle error correction; errors detected at the physical layer
must be addressed by higher layers.
2. Susceptibility to Interference: Physical signals can be affected by noise and interference,
which can degrade performance and data integrity.
3. Limited Functionality: Focuses only on the transmission of bits without providing advanced
features like data compression, encryption, or complex error handling.
4. Hardware Dependence: Performance and reliability are highly dependent on the quality and
type of hardware used for transmission, which can increase costs and complexity.

2. Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. It is
responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating logical links between network devices, and
ensuring that data is transferred reliably over the physical layer. It handles error detection, correction,
and framing of data.

Working:

1. Framing: Encapsulates raw data from the Physical Layer into frames, which include the
necessary control information (headers and trailers) to manage data transmission.
2. Error Detection and Correction: Implements error detection mechanisms, such as
checksums and cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), to identify and correct errors that occur
during data transmission.
3. Flow Control: Manages data flow between devices to prevent overwhelming a receiver with
too much data too quickly. Techniques like acknowledgments and buffering are used.
4. Addressing: Uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to identify devices on the same
network segment, ensuring that data frames are delivered to the correct device.
5. Access Control: Determines how devices on a shared medium (e.g., Ethernet) access the
network. Protocols like CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
are used in Ethernet networks to manage access and resolve collisions.

Advantages:

1. Error Handling: Detects and corrects errors in data transmission, enhancing reliability.
2. Efficient Data Transfer: Manages the framing and sequencing of data, which ensures
efficient and orderly data transfer.
3. Flow Control: Prevents data overload by managing the rate of data transmission, ensuring
smooth communication between devices.
4. Addressing: Provides MAC addressing to uniquely identify devices on a network segment,
facilitating accurate data delivery.

Disadvantages:

1. Overhead: The addition of headers and trailers to data frames increases the amount of
overhead, which can reduce effective data throughput.
2. Limited Error Handling: While it can detect and correct certain errors, it does not address
higher-level issues or ensure data integrity end-to-end.
3. Collision Management: In networks with many devices, managing collisions and access to
the medium can become complex and affect performance.
4. Scope Limitation: Operates only within a single network segment or local area network
(LAN), and does not handle routing or communication across different network segments.

1. Network Layer
The Network Layer is the third layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. It is
responsible for routing data packets across different networks, determining the best path for data to
travel from the source to the destination, and managing logical addressing and network traffic.

Working:

1. Routing: Determines the optimal path for data packets to travel from the source to the
destination across multiple network segments or intermediate devices (routers). Routing
algorithms and protocols (like OSPF, BGP) are used for this purpose.
2. Logical Addressing: Assigns logical IP addresses to devices, allowing them to be identified
and located on a network. This addressing enables communication between devices across
different networks.
3. Packet Forwarding: Receives packets from the Data Link Layer, encapsulates them in IP
packets, and forwards them to the next hop or destination based on routing decisions.
4. Fragmentation and Reassembly: Splits large packets into smaller fragments to accommodate
the maximum transmission unit (MTU) of the network and reassembles them at the
destination.

Advantages:

1. Inter-network Communication: Facilitates communication between devices across different

networks, enabling data transfer over the Internet and large enterprise networks.
2. Dynamic Routing: Adapts to changes in network topology and traffic conditions by using
routing protocols to find the best path for data.
3. Logical Addressing: Uses IP addressing to provide a unique identifier for each device,
allowing for efficient data routing and delivery.
4. Scalability: Supports the expansion of networks by managing addressing and routing across
large and complex network infrastructures.

Disadvantages:

1. Complex Routing Protocols: The complexity of routing protocols and algorithms can lead to
issues with network performance and configuration.
2. Overhead: Adding IP headers and managing routing information increases network overhead
and may affect performance.
3. Addressing Limitations: The limited number of available IP addresses (especially in IPv4)
can constrain network growth, though IPv6 addresses this issue.
4. Routing Loops: Improper routing configurations can create loops, causing network
congestion and inefficiencies.

2. Transport Layer
The Transport Layer is the fourth layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. It is
responsible for providing end-to-end communication services for applications by managing data
transfer between devices and ensuring reliable, error-free delivery of data.

Working:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides large data from the application layer into smaller
segments for transmission and reassembles them at the destination.
2. Connection Management: Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between
applications on different devices. This includes setting up a connection (e.g., TCP handshake),
managing data transfer, and gracefully closing the connection.
3. Error Detection and Recovery: Ensures data integrity by detecting errors during
transmission and retransmitting lost or corrupted segments.
4. Flow Control: Regulates the rate of data transmission between sender and receiver to prevent
the receiver from being overwhelmed by too much data at once.
5. Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to use the network simultaneously by
distinguishing between different data streams or sessions on the same connection.

Advantages:

1. Reliable Data Transfer: Provides error detection and recovery mechanisms, ensuring that
data is delivered accurately and completely.
2. Flow Control: Prevents data overload by managing the rate of data transmission, enhancing
communication efficiency.
3. Connection-Oriented Communication: Supports connection-oriented protocols like TCP,
which establish a reliable connection before data transfer.
4. Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to share the same network connection without
interference.

Disadvantages:

1. Overhead: The mechanisms for ensuring reliable communication, such as error checking and
retransmissions, add overhead to the data transfer process.
2. Complexity: Connection management and error recovery processes can increase the
complexity of network communication.
3. Performance Impact: The additional overhead for reliability and flow control may impact the
performance of high-speed networks or applications requiring minimal latency.
4. Resource Consumption: Managing multiple connections and sessions requires additional
resources, which can affect system performance.
 3. Session Layer

The Session Layer is the fifth layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. It is
responsible for managing sessions between applications on different devices, facilitating
communication and data exchange by establishing, maintaining, and terminating sessions.

Working:

1. Session Establishment: Initiates, maintains, and terminates connections (sessions) between

applications on different devices. This includes establishing parameters for communication
and negotiating session properties.
2. Session Management: Manages ongoing sessions by coordinating and synchronizing data
exchange between applications, ensuring that data is sent and received in the correct sequence.
3. Dialog Control: Provides mechanisms for controlling the dialog between applications,
including full-duplex or half-duplex communication, and managing the flow of data within a
session.
4. Synchronization: Implements checkpointing and recovery mechanisms to ensure that data
exchange can be resumed from the last checkpoint in case of interruptions or failures.

Advantages:

1. Session Management: Manages and maintains communication sessions, ensuring smooth and
continuous data exchange between applications.
2. Dialog Control: Supports various communication modes (e.g., full-duplex, half-duplex) and
manages the direction of data flow within a session.
3. Synchronization: Provides mechanisms for resuming sessions from checkpoints, enhancing
reliability and fault tolerance.
4. Session Establishment and Termination: Handles the setup and teardown of sessions,
simplifying application communication management.

Disadvantages:

1. Complexity: Adding session management introduces additional complexity to application

communication, which can impact system performance.
2. Overhead: The processes for managing and controlling sessions add overhead, which may
affect the efficiency of data exchange.
3. Resource Consumption: Managing multiple sessions requires additional system resources,
which can affect performance, especially in high-traffic scenarios.
 4. Limited Scope: Primarily focuses on session management and does not handle data
encryption or end-to-end reliability, which are managed by other layers.

4. Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer is the sixth layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model.
It is responsible for translating data between the application layer and the network format. This layer
ensures that data is presented in a format that the application layer can understand, performing tasks
such as data translation, encryption, and compression.

Working:

1. Data Translation: Converts data between different formats used by the application layer and
the network. This includes transforming data into a standard format that can be understood by
both sending and receiving applications (e.g., converting between character encoding schemes
like ASCII and EBCDIC).
2. Data Encryption and Decryption: Ensures data security by encrypting data before
transmission and decrypting it upon receipt. This helps protect data from unauthorized access
and tampering.
3. Data Compression: Reduces the size of data to optimize network bandwidth and speed up
data transfer. Compression techniques are used to minimize the amount of data that needs to
be transmitted.
4. Data Representation: Handles the representation of data structures and formats (e.g.,
converting between binary and text formats) to ensure compatibility between different systems
and applications.

Advantages:

1. Data Translation: Ensures compatibility between different data formats and systems,
allowing for seamless communication between heterogeneous applications.
2. Data Security: Provides encryption and decryption services to protect data during
transmission, enhancing security.
3. Data Compression: Reduces data size to improve transmission efficiency and reduce network
bandwidth usage.
4. Standardization: Facilitates the use of standardized data formats, which simplifies
interoperability between different systems and applications.
Disadvantages:

1. Processing Overhead: Data translation, encryption, and compression add processing

overhead, which can impact performance and increase latency.
2. Complexity: Adds complexity to data handling and communication, as multiple data formats
and encryption schemes need to be managed.
3. Resource Consumption: Encryption and compression require additional computational
resources, which can affect system performance, especially in resource-constrained
environments.
4. Limited Scope: Focuses on data representation and does not address end-to-end
communication reliability or session management, which are handled by other layers.
 5. Application Layer

The Application Layer is the seventh and topmost layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model. It provides network services directly to end-user applications and facilitates communication
between software applications over a network. This layer is responsible for network services such as
file transfers, email, and network management.

Working:

1. Application Services: Provides network services and interfaces directly to end-user

applications, enabling them to communicate over a network. Examples include email, file
transfer, and web browsing.
2. Protocol Implementation: Implements network protocols and services such as HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol), and more, allowing applications to communicate using standardized protocols.
3. Data Representation: Ensures that data is formatted in a way that is understandable by both
the sending and receiving applications. This includes data encoding, translation, and session
management.
4. Network Access: Provides mechanisms for applications to access network resources and
services, such as connecting to web servers, accessing databases, and interacting with other
networked services.

Advantages:

1. User Interaction: Directly interfaces with end-user applications, enabling users to perform
tasks like sending emails, transferring files, and browsing the web.
2. Protocol Support: Implements various application protocols (e.g., HTTP, FTP, SMTP) that
facilitate standard communication services across different applications and platforms.
3. Service Provision: Offers a range of network services tailored to specific application needs,
such as file sharing, messaging, and remote access.
4. Data Formatting: Ensures that data is properly formatted and presented to applications,
facilitating smooth communication and data exchange.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited Security: Security features are often minimal at this layer, relying on lower layers or
additional protocols for comprehensive security measures.
2. Protocol Dependence: Application-specific protocols may introduce compatibility issues or
require updates and maintenance to ensure continued interoperability.
3. Overhead: Handling application-specific tasks and services can introduce additional
overhead, potentially impacting performance.
4. Complexity: The diversity of applications and services supported can lead to increased
complexity and challenges in managing network communications.

Characteristics of OSI Model Layers

1. It is a reference model that allows various communication systems to communicate vía a

network.
2. It is divided into seven layers, and each layer performs different tasks. Each layer
performs its function independently.
3. Each layer depends on the data from the previous layer to perform its primitive
functions. Each layer provides services to the next higher layer.
4. The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories:

a. Upper Layers: The upper layers of the 0SI model deal with application issues and
generally are implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer,
is closest to the end user. Both users and application layer processes interact with
software applications that contain a communications component. The term upper
layer is sometimes used to refer to any layer above another layer in the OSl model.
b. Lower Layers: The lower layers of the 0SI model handle data transport issues. The
physical layer and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and software.
The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the
network cabling, for example) and is responsible for actually placing information on
the medium.

Advantage of OSI Model

The 0SI Model being one of the most widely used computer network models does posses some
advantages which makes it so popular These are :
 1. It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect other layers, provided that the
interfaces between the layers do not change drastically.
2. Each layer has its definite structure and functionality which makes OSI model simple and
easy to use.
3. It is a general purpose reference model that can be used to develop any network model
4. The OSI model works as a standard model in data communication.
5. It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols. Hence, it is flexible in nature.
Protocols in each layer can be replaced very conveniently depending upon the nature of
the network.
6. Connection oriented and connection-less services are supported.
7. Connection between any type of devices or host or hardware or software is possible.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

1. The 0Sl model is a theoretical model and does not offer appropriate solutions for
practical implementation of the networks.
2. The implementation of the OSI model is slow and costly.
3. The OSI model is a very complex model.
4. Many companies were initially reluctant to use this OSI model due to the popularity of
TCP/IP model. The TCP/IP model were in use much before the ISO model. Therefore,
companies were not ready to accept this adaptation.
5. There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like addressing, flow
controla error control are offered by multiple layers.
6. Some of the layers like the session layer and presentation layer have very little
functionality when practically deployed.

TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of

communication protocols that makes data exchange between two devices possible. As compared
to the OSI model which is a theoretical model, TCP/IP is an application and practical model.
The Internet is based on the TCP/IP model. Therefore, it is also referred to as the TCP/IP
Protocol Suite.

TCP/IP started as one of many internet protocols created by DARPA (the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency in the United States) in the 1970s. The TCP/IP model was introduced
before the OSI model. This model helps users understand how a specific computer should be
connected to the internet and how data can transmit between them. TCP/IP is used more
compared to the OSI model for providing communication between computers over the internet.

What is TCP/IP Model?

• The TCP/IP model is Created to allow communication over long distances possible between
two devices. It also assists in how the data between two devices is transmitted over the
internet.

• TCP/IP specifies how the data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and
received on a network by providing end-to-end communication.

• TCP specifies how applications will establish communication channels across a network. It also
controls how a message is split into multiple data packets, sent over the internet, and
reassembled in order at the destination address.

• IP specifies how each packet should be addressed and routed to ensure thatit arrives at its
destination. To identify where the message should be forwarded, each gateway computer on
the network verifies this IP address.

• TCP handles the flow of data and also handles errors in data transmission, while IP provides a
unique address to each device in the network.

Layers of TCP/IP Model :The TCP/IP model consists of4 layers, i.e., the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, and data link layer. Each layer is responsible for a particular task
strictly according to the protocols.
 1. Network Access Layer

The Network Access Layer (also known as the Link Layer or Data Link Layer in the TCP/IP model)
is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It is responsible for defining how data is physically
transmitted over a network medium and how it interacts with the network hardware. This layer
encompasses the functions of both the Data Link Layer and the Physical Layer in the OSI model.

Working:

1. Framing: Encapsulates data into frames suitable for transmission over the physical network
medium. This includes adding headers and trailers to data packets to ensure correct delivery
and error detection.
2. Physical Transmission: Defines the physical aspects of network communication, including
the electrical, optical, or radio signals used to transmit data over various media (e.g., Ethernet
cables, fiber optics, wireless).
3. Addressing: Uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to uniquely identify devices on the
same network segment. This allows for accurate data delivery to the intended recipient within
a local network.
4. Error Detection and Handling: Implements error detection mechanisms (e.g., CRC - Cyclic
Redundancy Check) to identify and correct errors that occur during data transmission.

Advantages:

1. Data Framing: Ensures that data is properly framed for transmission over the network,
enhancing data integrity and delivery.
2. Physical Medium Support: Provides support for various physical network media and
transmission technologies, facilitating versatile network setups.
3. MAC Addressing: Uses MAC addresses for unique device identification on local networks,
enabling precise data delivery.
4. Error Detection: Implements mechanisms for detecting and correcting transmission errors,
improving data reliability.

Protocols Used in the Network Access Layer

1. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): Commonly used in wired LANs for framing and addressing,
supporting various speeds and collision management.
2. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Manages wireless communication in LANs, operating in 2.4 GHz and
5 GHz bands, and supports multiple standards for different wireless needs.
3. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): Facilitates direct communication over serial links, offering
support for authentication, encryption, and compression.
4. High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC): Provides bit-oriented framing and error detection
for data links, applicable in both point-to-point and multipoint setups.
5. Media Access Control (MAC): Manages how devices access the network medium using
MAC addresses and access methods like CSMA/CD for Ethernet and CSMA/CA for Wi-Fi.
6. Virtual LANs (VLANs): Segments a physical network into multiple logical networks, using
VLAN tagging (e.g., IEEE 802.1Q) to enhance management and security.
 2. Internet Layer

Protocols Used in the Network Access Layer

1. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3): Commonly used in wired LANs for framing and addressing,
supporting various speeds and collision management.
2. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Manages wireless communication in LANs, operating in 2.4 GHz and
5 GHz bands, and supports multiple standards for different wireless needs.
3. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): Facilitates direct communication over serial links, offering
support for authentication, encryption, and compression.
4. High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC): Provides bit-oriented framing and error detection
for data links, applicable in both point-to-point and multipoint setups.
5. Media Access Control (MAC): Manages how devices access the network medium using
MAC addresses and access methods like CSMA/CD for Ethernet and CSMA/CA for Wi-Fi.
6. Virtual LANs (VLANs): Segments a physical network into multiple logical networks, using
VLAN tagging (e.g., IEEE 802.1Q) to enhance management and security.

3. Transport Layer or Host to Host Layer

The Transport Layer is the third layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It is responsible for providing
end-to-end communication services for applications, ensuring reliable data transfer and error
recovery.

Key Protocols:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o Function: Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication. It ensures data is
delivered accurately and in the correct order, using mechanisms like error detection,
retransmission of lost packets, and flow control.
o Features: Establishes connections using a three-way handshake, manages data
integrity, and performs congestion control.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
o Function: Offers connectionless communication with minimal overhead. It allows for
faster data transfer but does not guarantee delivery, order, or error recovery.
o Features: Used for applications where speed is critical and some loss of data is
acceptable (e.g., streaming, gaming).

Working:

 Data Segmentation: Breaks data into segments (TCP) or datagrams (UDP) for transmission,
ensuring that large messages can be sent efficiently.
 Connection Management: TCP establishes and maintains a connection between sender and
receiver, managing the flow of data and ensuring reliable delivery.
 Error Handling: TCP provides error detection and correction, while UDP does not; UDP
relies on higher layers or applications for error handling.
Advantages:

1. Reliability (TCP): Guarantees data delivery, order, and integrity with mechanisms for
retransmission and error checking.
2. Speed (UDP): Offers faster data transmission with lower overhead, suitable for real-time
applications.
3. Flow Control (TCP): Manages the rate of data transmission to avoid overwhelming the
receiver.

Disadvantages:

1. Overhead (TCP): Adds additional overhead for error checking, connection management, and
data reassembly, which can impact performance.
2. No Reliability (UDP): Lacks built-in mechanisms for error recovery and data integrity,
making it less reliable for critical data transmission.
3. Complexity (TCP): More complex due to connection management and congestion control,
compared to the simpler UDP.

4. Application Layer

The Application Layer is the topmost layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It provides network
services directly to end-user applications, facilitating communication between software applications
over a network.

Key Protocols:

1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

o Function: Facilitates web browsing by defining how web servers and browsers
communicate. It is used to request and transmit web pages and resources.
o Features: Stateless protocol; supports methods like GET, POST, PUT, DELETE for
different types of requests.
2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
o Function: Enables file transfer between systems over a network. It supports uploading
and downloading files.
o Features: Uses separate channels for command and data transfer, supports
authentication.
3. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
o Function: Handles the sending of email messages between servers. It defines how
emails are transmitted from the sender to the recipient's mail server.
o Features: Text-based protocol; uses commands and responses to manage email
delivery.
4. Post Office Protocol (POP3) and Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
o Function: Used for retrieving and managing email messages from a mail server. POP3
downloads emails to the client, while IMAP allows for remote management of emails
on the server.
o Features: POP3 is simpler with a focus on downloading, IMAP supports more features
for managing and organizing emails.
5. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
 o Function: Automatically assigns IP addresses and other network configuration
parameters to devices on a network.
o Features: Simplifies network configuration by dynamically assigning addresses and
reducing manual management.

Working:

 Service Provision: Offers network services to applications, such as web browsing, file
transfer, and email communication.
 Protocol Implementation: Implements various application-layer protocols to enable specific
functionalities and interactions between applications.
 Data Formatting: Ensures that data is correctly formatted for transmission and understood by
both sender and receiver applications.

Advantages:

1. User Interaction: Directly supports end-user applications, enabling functionalities like web
browsing, file transfer, and email.
2. Protocol Variety: Implements a range of protocols to support different types of applications
and services.
3. Ease of Use: Provides user-friendly services and interfaces for interacting with network
resources.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited Security: Basic application protocols may lack comprehensive security features;
additional measures are often required.
2. Protocol Dependence: Applications are dependent on specific protocols, which may lead to
compatibility issues or require updates.
3. Overhead: The complexity and variety of supported protocols can add overhead to network
communications.

Highlights of TCP/IP Model Layers

1. Application Layer: This layer is responsible for node-to-node communication and

controls user-interface specifications. HTTP, SMTP, TELNET, etc, are some of its essential
protocols

2. Transport Layer : This layer specifies how much data should be sent, when, and where:
what rate. TCP and UDP are two significant protocols of this Layer.

3. Internet Layer: The Internet layer’s primary function is to send packets from the source
orcomputer to their destination, regardless of their route. IP and ARP are two significant
protocols of this layer.

4. Network Access Layer: It handles data transmission between two adjacent devices on t same
network.
Advantages of TCP/IP Model

• It’s a set of open protocols. It can be used by anybody or any group.

• It’s a client-server architecture and highly scalable. It allows the addition of new network
without disrupting existing services.

• It’s an industry-standard model that can be used to solve real-world networking problems

• It is interoperable, allowing two different systems to communicate via a heterogeneous

network

• It assigns a unique IP address to each device in a network such that each device has its ow
unique identity over the Internet.

• It is challenging for humans to remember the numerical values compared to alphabetical

names. So to solve this, TCP/IP models also provide DNS service to provide resolution
betweenalphabetical domain names and IP addresses.

Disadvantages of TCP/P Model

• The concepts like “services,” “interfaces and “protocols” are not distinguished. As a result,
describing new technologies in new networks is not appropriate.
• This model was created to be used in wide-area networks. It is not designed for tiny networks
such as LANs and PANs (pervasive area networks) (personal area networks).

• It’s not generic. As a result, it can’t represent any protocol stack other than TCP/1P. It cannot,
for example, define a Bluetooth connection.

• It is not easy to replace protocols.

 Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.

OSI model has been developed by ISO (International It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research
Standard Organization). Project Agency Network).

It is an independent standard and generic protocol used It consists of standard protocols that lead to the
as a communication gateway between the network and development of an internet. It is a communication
the end user. protocol that provides the connection among the hosts.

The transport layer does not provide the surety for the
In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a
delivery of packets. But still, we can say that it is a
guarantee for the delivery of the packets.
reliable model.

This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.

In this model, the session and presentation layer are

In this model, the session and presentation layers are
not different layers. Both layers are included in the
separated, i.e., both the layers are different.
application layer.

It is also known as a reference model through which

various networks are built. For example, the TCP/IP
It is an implemented model of an OSI model.
model is built from the OSI model. It is also referred to
as a guidance tool.

In this model, the network layer provides both The network layer provides only connectionless
connection-oriented and connectionless service. service.

Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and can be

In this model, the protocol cannot be easily replaced.
easily replaced when the technology changes.

It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

OSI model defines the services, protocols, and In the TCP/IP model, services, protocols, and
interfaces as well as provides a proper distinction interfaces are not properly separated. It is protocol
between them. It is protocol independent. dependent.
The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.

It provides standardization to the devices like router, It does not provide the standardization to the devices.
motherboard, switches, and other hardware devices. It provides a connection between various computers.