GRADE 7 AND 8 NOTES OF HISTORY unprivileged classe in France.

By 1789, France
was a class-based society with high levels of
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789 - 1799
inequality. It had three classes also referred to as
What was the French Revolution?
Estates
A revolution refers to a fundamental or complete
change that takes place in the political, social and • The 1st Estate: This included the key
economic spheres of a society. A revolution can be members of the Clergy – Church leaders. The
peaceful or violent where changes are realized clergy were members of the Catholic Church
through force. The French revolution of 1789 was a but were also divided into the Upper
violent uprising of the masses against the existing (Bishops and Archbishops) and the Lower
government in France. clergy (Priests and monks- who did much of
the Church work).
By 1789, France was under a monarchy (kingdom) • The 2nd Estate: This was made up of the
which had ruled France for over a period of over four Nobles – Princes and Princesses (Royals). The
hundred years and because of that long period of time, Nobility was divided into the Greater, Lesser
the regime was referred to as the Ancient Regime. The Nobility and Nobility of the Robe. Nobility of the
rulers of this regime were from a family that was Robe were adopted Nobles i.e admitted into the
known as the Bourbons and that’s why the Noble ranks because their parents or grandparents
government was at times referred to as the Bourbon had done great things for the state.
Monarchy. Several kings served this regime including • The 3rd Estate: This comprised of the peasants and
Henry IV, Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV and by the middle class men (bourgeoisie).
1789, the king of France was known as Louis XVI. The first two Estates were the natural leaders and
most privileged in France. It was difficult to cross
The French revolution broke out on 5th May 1789
from one Estate to another
when King Louis XVI summoned or called the
Estates General which failed. On 14th July 1789 The Influence of the Philosophers
mobs of hungry and angry people, mostly peasants
➢ The 17th century was an age of enlightenment in
stormed Paris which was the capital of France and
Europe which gave rise political Philosophers in
the king could not stop their violent actions. As a
result, a revolution that caused fundamental changes European countries including France. These were
in France had to continue for several years up to intellectuals or great thinkers who wrote books
1799 which contained literature and this literature was
interpreted by the educated people in France. They
include
THE CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
OF 1789 1. Voltaire (1694 – 1778)
• The social class system in France. ➢ He lived between 1694 and 1778. He wrote a
• The influence of the Philosophers. book known as “Letters on the English”. In
• The nature of the French system of government this book, he attacked the Catholic Church in
(Ancient Regime). France. For example, that this Church did
• The role of the Catholic Church. not allow religious freedom.
• The character of King Louis XVI.
• The influence of the Queen. 2. Montesquieu (1689 – 1755)
• The influence of England. ➢ His book was known as “The Spirit of
• The American war of independence. Laws” in which he put his views. In this
• The financial crisis or bankruptcy. book, he expressed the ideas of equality,
• The bad weather / famine. liberty and fraternity if people were to have
• The summoning and failure of the Estates General. good life on this earth. Liberty referred to
freedom, equality meant equal treatment while
The social class system or struggle in france fraternity meant brotherhood.

• The French revolution of 1789 was a result of the 3. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778)
class struggle between the privileged and
➢ He wrote a book known as the “Social Contract” in The american war of independence, 1776-1783
which he expressed that “though man is born free is ➢ The period 1776 to 1783 witnessed a rebellion of
ever in chains”. That man was born to enjoy natural the American British colonies against Britain
freedoms like the right to live, freedom of worship, demanding for their independence. The French
freedom of expression, freedom of association and government under King Louis XVI extended
the right to own property among others but the financial and military assistance to the Americans
rulers denied these rights to their people because he wanted to revenge against Britain
which had defeated France during the Seven Years
The French system of government (ancient regime) of War of 1756 to 1763

➢ By 1789, France was under a government known Bad weather (severe winter)
as the Ancient Regime. This regime was very ➢ Between 1787 and 1788, France was hit by bad
unfair with a lot of weaknesses e.g the system of weather. Severe winter destroyed the crops and
government was based on hereditary leadership this led to very poor harvests and therefore there
as a form of succession was terrible famine in France. Crowds of hungry
and desperate masses left the rural areas and went
The role of the Catholic Church to Paris (capital of France) hoping to find food.
➢ By 1789, the Catholic Church as a religious
institution had a lot of power and weaknesses in
France eg there was no religious tolerance or THE COURSE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
freedom in France during the Ancient Regime. It OF 1789
was only the Catholic faith that was allowed to be
practiced in France The course of the French revolution has a number of
events and history bases on these events to show that
The character of king louis xvi, 1774 -1793 there were fundamental changes in France and it is
➢ He assumed the throne in 1774. The French true that these changes contributed to the collapse of
revolution broke out in 1789 during his regime and the Ancient Regime by 1793
he was executed or killed in 1793. Generally,
King Louis XVI was weak in character eg He was • The summoning of the Estates General (May 1789)
an autocratic or despotic King and therefore all the and the formation of the National Assembly, June
powers were in his hands 17th 1789.
• The Tennis Court Oath, 20th June 1789.
The influence of the queen of France, Marie • The Royal Session, 23rd June 1789.
Antoinette • The fall of the Bastille, July 1789.
➢ Marie Antoinette was the wife of King Louis XVI. • The declaration of the rights of man (August –
She was an Austrian and two got married in 1770, September 1789).
before Louis XVI became King of France Queen • The March of the women to Versailles (October
Marie Antoinette contributed to the outbreak of 1789).
the 1789 French revolution eg French people hated • The Nationalization of Church Property, November
her to the extent of organizing a revolution 1789 and the Assignats.
• The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, July 1790.
against the government because of her Austrian
• The emergence of Émigrés.
origin
• The death of Mirabeau, April 1791.
The influence of England • The King’s flight to Varennes, June 1789.
➢ As a French neighbor, England provided a practical • The French Constitution of September 1791.
example of what Frenchmen demanded for. • The creation of political parties (political clubs) in
France.
Politically, the English system of government
• The creation of a Republic, September 1792.
and its institutions were admired by many
• The execution of Louis XVI, January 1793.
Frenchmen by 1789. For example, though England
• Revolutionary France at war with the rest of
was a monarchy or Kingdom like France, the
Europe (1792 – 1794).
English monarchy was constitutional.
• The Reign of Terror in France, 1792 – 1794.
 over the responsibility of appointing
The summoning of the estates general (5th Archbishops, Bishops and Priests
may 1789) and the formation of the national The Death of Mirabeau, April 1791
assembly (17th june 1789) • Count Mirabeau had served as the President
of the National Assembly from 1789 when
• the estates general that was summoned by king louis the revolution started in France. He desired
xvi on 5th may ended in failure. The king insisted on a peaceful revolution where the monarchy
the traditional fashion of holding separate meetings had to be preserved but the monarchy could
for the three estates and voting on class basis which also accept fundamental changes in France.
the third estate rejected.
The King’s Flight to Varennes, June 1791
The tennis court oath, 20th june 1789 • In 1791, King Louis XVI who was scared that
• On 20 June 1789, the Third Estate members went
th the revolutionaries would kill him escaped
to their usual meeting place but they found the hall from Paris together with his wife. They
closed in preparation for the Royal Session. The moved towards the state of Luxemburg from
Third Estate was not given prior notice and for a where he thought they would cross to Austria.
moment, they were confused He disguised himself as a lady in dressing but
the royal couple was recognized before they
The fall of the bastille, 14th july 1789 could cross the boarder town of Varennes.
They were arrested and taken back to Paris,
• The mob in Paris became exited and they organized
imprisoned and were labelled as traitors to the
an uprising in support to the revolution. Louis XVI
revolution.
sent his troops to suppress the riot (demonstration).
However, the revolutionaries disarmed the troops
The establishment of the French constitution,
and the next step was to invade the Bastille. Bastille
September 1791
was the major state prison in Paris where many
• In September 1791, the revolutionaries with
innocent Frenchmen had been imprisoned, tortured
the help of the National Assembly produced
and others killed while others faced long term
a constitution for France. This constitution
imprisonment on the orders of the King.
among other things reduced the powers of the
monarchy. For example, the King could no
The declaration of the rights of man (august –
longer appoint senior officers in the army
september 1789)
and civil servants without the approval of the
• This document was drafted by Lafayette and
Assembly.
passed by the National Assembly. It outlined the
basic rights of man in a free and just society. In The Emergence Of Political Clubs (Parties) In
summary, the document provided for freedom of France
man from all forms of oppression or suffering.
• Three main political clubs or parties were
The nationalisation of church property and formed in the course of the French revolution.
the assignats, november 1789 These clubs had different and rival political
• The National Assembly dealt with the Roman interests and their competition led to
Catholic Church in France. With the strong support violence. The first political party to be
of Mirabeau, the church estates or properties were formed was that of the JACOBINS and they
nationalized in order to raise state revenue. opened up many branches in parts of France.
Their leader was known as ROBESPIERRE.
the civil constitution of the clergy, july 1790 The Jacobins wanted force to apply
• In July 1790, the Roman Catholic Church which
was one of the major causes of the revolution • The second political party was the
CORDELLIERS which represented the
suffered another setback. A document that reduced
views of Lafayette and it was led by
its power and regulated the behaviours of the clergy
DANTON. They greatly supported a
known as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was constitution for France and they believed in
established by the National Assembly. By this democracy. However, they were not well
document, the revolutionary government took organized and therefore they soon lost their
 influence to the JACOBINS club. regime e.g. the Pillnitz Declaration and the
Brunswick Manifesto.
• The third were the GIRONDINS formed • The rise of the Convention Government in
and led by ROLAND and his wife France in and the formation of the Republic in
MADAME ROLAND. They wanted a
1792.
Republic and favoured war with other
countries and indeed, they put pressure on the • The rise of the Paris Mob/mob justice.
King to appoint Roland as a War Minister. • The rise of personalities like Danton,
Robespierre.
The execution of king Louis xvi, January 1793 • The King’s flight to Varennes leading to his
• In January 1793, the Republican Convention execution.
government organized a trial of King Louis • The American War of Independence.
XVI. He was charged for treason. They used • Failure of the army to support the monarchy.
the evidence of the correspondences with the • Role of England.
émigrés they had found in his office following • Role of political philosophers undermined the
his abortive or failed attempt to escape from Ancient Regime.
France in June 1791. • The King’s collaboration with the Émigrés
e.g. documents found his office drawer
The Formation of the Revolutionary Committees
showed evidence of this.
In 1793, the Convention government set up three • The March of the Women from Paris to
committees to spear head the success of the Versailles.
revolution. These committees were The Committee of • The calling of the Estates General, 5th May
Public safety, The Committee of General Security,
1789.
The Revolutionary Tribunal:
• The execution of King Louis XVI in 1793.

REASONS WHY THE ANCIENT REGIME THE REIGN OF TERROR IN FRANCE OR

COLLAPSED BY 1793 REVOLUTIONARY VIOLENCE, 1792 – 1794
The Reign of Terror was a period in France during the
• The weaknesses of Louis XVI i.e. his course of the 1789 French revolution which was
inconsistence, extravagancy etc. characterized by a struggle for political power, tension
• The nature of the Ancient Regime i.e. it was as well as fear in the whole country
There were also widespread executions and
characterized by conservatism, nepotism and
massive destruction of property. Generally,
gross abuse of human rights. there was bloodshed or violence at the time
• The negative role/character of Queen Marie when the Convention Government was
Antoinette. controlling France and this period which is
• Failure of Louis XVI to hijack the revolution. known as the “Reign of Terror” stretched from
• The rise of the National Assembly. 1792 to 1794.
• Declaration of the rights of man.
• The civil constitution of the clergy. CAUSES OF THE REIGN OF TERROR IN
FRANCE
• The fall of the Bastille.
1. The weak character of King Louis XVI led to
• The death of Mirabeau. the reign of terror in France. He was very weak
• The enactment of the first French constitution and unable to provide leadership to the French
on 5th September 1791. revolution which would have made it to move
• The rise of political parties / clubs (Girondins, smoothly
Cordelliers and Jacobins) weakened the 2. The hostility of Europe towards revolutionary
monarchy. France caused terror in the country. Following
• The hostility of European monarchs the outbreak of the French revolution
towards the French revolution made the European countries like Austria and Prussia
revolutionaries violent towards the Ancient turned against France
3. The growing threats of the émigrés in the 11. The rise of violent political clubs or parties in
neighbouring countries led to war. These were France caused terror. A number of political
members of the privileged classes who had fled clubs were formed during the course of the
into exile following the outbreak of the revolution like the Jacobins, the Girondins and
revolution. the Feuillants among others with divergent
4. The initial defeat of France by Austria and political interests.
Prussia led to terror in France. The two 12. The rise of the Paris mob caused the reign of
countries were very hostile to revolutionary terror in France. As a result of the harsh
France since the success of the revolution in conditions in France like famine, disgruntled
France threatened the survival of their groups of hungry and energetic men moved
absolute regimes from the rural areas to the urban centres and
5. The creation of internal and external enemies formed the Paris Mob.
by the National Convention Government 13. The attempt by Louis XVI to escape from
contributed to revolutionary violence in France in 1791 contributed to terror in France.
France. In 1791, King Louis XVI who was scared
6. The declaration of the rights of man of August – of the revolutionaries attempted to escape
September 1789 also led to the outbreak of to Austria. Unfortunately, he was arrested near
terror in France. This was a document that the border town of Varennes.
was drafted by Lafayette and passed by the 14. The formation of state terrorist organs or
National Assembly in August – September revolutionary committees contributed to terror
1789. in France. These included the Committee of
7. The civil constitution of the clergy of July 1790 Public Safety, the Committee of General
also led to terror in France. This was a Security and the Revolutionary Tribunal.
document that was issued by the French 15. The execution of King Louis XVI in January
revolutionaries in the National Assembly in 1793 and later his wife Queen Marie
July 1790 to reduce the power of the Clergy Antoinette in October 1793 caused the reign of
and also regulate their behaviours. terror in France
8. The storming of the Bastille in July 1789 16. The rise of radical political leaders or
contributed to terror in France. Bastille was extremists caused the reign of terror or violence
the major state prison in Paris where many in France. These people included Robespierre,
innocent Frenchmen had been imprisoned, Danton, Marat and Herbert among others.
tortured and others killed during the Ancient 17. The economic crisis in France also caused the
Regime reign of terror in France. Since 1788, France
9. The death of Count Mirabeau in April 1791 led was characterized by poor harvests, a depression
to the reign of Terror in France. Count and unemployment among other economic
Mirabeau was one the French revolutionary hardships.
leaders who had served as the President of 18. The presence of the conservative nobles and
the National Assembly from 1789 when it clergy during the revolution contributed to
was set up. He wanted to preserve monarchy the outbreak of revolutionary violence.
and monarchy to accept changes by peaceful These were people who refused to accept
means. reforms.
10. The discovery of the guillotine machine 19. The rise of Republicanism in France also caused
accelerated the Reign of Terror in France. the reign of terror. Republicanism was a
This was a device for carrying out executions political ideology which opposed monarchism.
by decapitation (cutting off people’s heads). It It also emphasized people’s right to elect
was named after a French Physician and heads of the government.
politician Dr. Josef Guillotine who discovered 20. The emergence of a new religion known as
this machine during the course of the French the “Worship of Reason” under the
revolution of 1789. leadership of Herbert contributed to terror in
France. Herbert wanted to destroy Christianity
 throughout France and therefore he violently repressive or harsh laws so as to counter the rise
attacked the Catholic Church. of extremism in their countries
21. The introduction of the “Law of Suspect” 11. The period of terror taught a lesson to the
increased terror in France. This law was passed French society and Europe as a whole about
on 17th September 1792 by the National the weaknesses of the Republican system of
government which was characterized by
Convention Government led by Robespierre.
violence,
By this law, mere suspicion by the
12. It later led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to
revolutionary government would lead to a power in France who later influenced European
conclusion that one was against the revolution. affairs up 1815 and beyond.
22. The weakness of the National Convention
Government also led to terror in France. This MAXIMILIEN ROBESPIERRE
was a government that was established in ➢ He was a member of the Jacobins who ruled
France immediately in 1792 after France as a dictator. He increased terror in
overthrowing King Louis XVI. France and during his regime he eliminated his
political opponents like the Girondins and the
Cordeliers.
THE IMPACT OF THE REIGN OF TERROR
1. It led to the end of the Monarchy in France. ➢ In 1794, Robespierre organized a cult (kind of a
Because of the reign of terror, the monarchy religious sect) and this cult was named the
was abolished and a republic was established “Supreme Being.” This was opposed to
in 1792. Christianity and he stated that the proper
2. The Reign of Terror led to great loss of lives. methods of worshipping the Supreme Being
Many important and innocent Frenchmen included duties like hatred to betrayal, defending
were victimized and eventually killed the helpless, punish the traitors and to treat no one
3. It strained or worsened relations between France unjustly.
and her neighbours like Austria and Prussia.
The violent activities of the revolution such as ➢ Robespierre wanted to please the Frenchmen
the execution of King Louis XVI and his wife that whatever he was doing were for their own
led to open hostility and war against France good such that those who were arrested and
4. It unified the Frenchmen behind the revolution killed deserved those punishments because they
by silencing the internal opposition. The were traitors to the revolution and the Supreme
internal enemies of the revolution were either Being in particular.
killed or they fled France
5. Economic activities like agriculture and
THE DIRECTORY GOVERNMENT, 1795-1799
industrialization came to a standstill in
The Directory Government was the new government
France as production was cut down
or committee that was established in 1795 in France
6. It increased the problem of refugees or
to replace the National Convention Government. It
émigrés. The increasing terror in France
was formed after the end of the Reign of Terror and
forced many people to flee to the neighbouring
the fall of Robespierre in July 1794. It ruled France
countries like Prussia and Austria
four years from November 1795 to November 1799
7. The Reign of Terror led to massive destruction
when it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in a
of property in France. Buildings, bridges,
coup
industries and farms were all destroyed.
8. The Reign of Terror brought in new religions in
The Directory was a five-member executive body,
France. For example, the Herbertists introduced
elected by the Council of Five Hundred (the lower
a new religion in France which was known as
houseof the National Convention) and the Council
the “Worship of Reason”.
of Ancients(the upper house). The members of the
9. It led to the formation of a new government in
Directory were known as "directors" and held office
France known as the Directory Government.
for a term of three years. They were responsible for
In 1795, the Frenchmen who were disgusted
the administration of the country and the execution
with the reign of terror agreed to formation
of laws passed by the National Convention.
of the Directory Government
10. It influenced the European kings to pass more
The Directory government was characterized by
its moderate policies and efforts to restore order private enterprise and the establishment of
and stability to the country. It sought to promote a stable currency.
a strongcentral government, a stable economy, 7. To maintain the territorial integrity of France
and a strong military. However, the government andto expand the frontiers of the Republic
was plagued by through military campaigns and diplomacy
corruption, political infighting, and economic
difficulties, and it failed to address the needs and ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE DIRECTORY
concerns of the population. GOVERNMENT
1. The Directory government managed to end the
The Directory government also faced several Reign of Terror in France. This was through
challengessuch as the foreign and domestic wars, abolishing the Jacobins club, a party that had led to
uprisings and rebellions, that contributed to the terror in France.
weakening of the government and the rise of 2. The Directory Government restored democracy
competing factions. and promoted constitutional rule in France
3. The Directory government expanded the boarders
The Directory government was eventually overthrown or frontiers of France. This was achieved when
ina coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799, marking Napoleon Bonaparte led the French army against
the end of the Directory and the beginning of the Austria and captured the Italian states through the
Consulate,which eventually led to the establishment Italian campaign of 1796 – 1797.
of the First French Empire under Napoleon.
4. The Directory government tried to improve the
economy of France. This was done through
What were the aims and objectives of the developing industries, promoting trade as well as
directorygovernment agriculture
5. The Directory government re-organized the once
The main aims and objectives of the disorganized French army. Many soldiers had been
Directorygovernment were: killed while others had deserted the national army.
6. The Directory Government also kept alive the spirit
1. To restore order and stability to France after of the revolution that had started in May 1789 as
thetumultuous years of the Reign of Terror well as spreading the revolutionary ideas to other
and theJacobin government. This included parts of Europe through the wars it fought.
restoring therule of law and the functioning 7. The Directory Government promoted
of the legal and judicial systems. reconciliation in France. This was done by
2. To promote a strong central government and
releasing many political prisoners who had been
a stable economy. This included efforts to
captured during the Reign of Terror
reducegovernment spending, to lower taxes,
and to stabilize the currency. 8. The Directory Government restored glory for
3. To build and maintain a strong military. The France. A country like Austria had
Directory government sought to maintain and previously defeated France during the
expand the territorial gains of the Revolution revolutionary wars.
andto protect France from foreign invaders. 9. The Directory Government saved France from the
4. To promote moderate, constitutional restoration of the Ancient Regime. This was done
republicanism. The Directory government through the crushing of an uprising or rebellion that
soughtto move away from the radical had been staged in October 1795 by the royalists
Jacobinism of theearlier years of the against the Directory Government
Revolution and to establish a more moderate, 10. The Directory Government was successful in
stable form of government. making peace with other European countries.
5. To maintain the gains of the revolution such
There had been hostility between European
as civil rights, equality before the law, and
countries and revolutionary France between 1792
the abolition of feudal privileges, in order to
ensurethe continuity of the revolution. and 1794
6. To promote internal economic 11. The Directory Government also succeeded in
development, through the protection of suppressing the socialists. Under the leadership
private property, theencouragement of of François Babeuf, the socialists wanted to take
 over power in France and put in place a regime organized elections for those who were to go to
that would control the factors of production like the parliament
land 11. The Directory government increased hostility
12. The government is also credited for defending the from other European powers towards France.
state against the external invaders The government organized military campaigns
13. The Directory also laid foundation for the rise of against European powers which generated hatred
Napoleon Bonaparte to power who rescued the from those countries towards France
French society from anarchy by 1799. 12. The Directory Government narrowed the
Franchise. The 1795 constitution that was set
up by Directory Government gave the voting
WEAKNESSES OR FAILURES OF THE rights only to those who had wealth and were
DIRECTORY GOVERNMENT paying taxes.
1. The directory government failed to solve the
social-economic crisis in France. Famine, 13. The government failed to control the high crime
unemployment and inflation persisted up to the rates especially in southern France where high way
end of the regime robbery was rampant
2. The Directory government failed to stop 14. The Directory government lacked confidence in
corruption in the French society. By 1799, it was itself and instead over relied on Napoleon
proved beyond doubt that the directors were the Bonaparte for its success and existence
most corrupt administrators in the history of 15. The Directors were not united due to power
France struggles among themselves and other reasons.
3. The Directory government was very extravagant in For example, as early as 1795, some Directors
its expenditure. For example, it established a very wanted the continuation of the war policy that had
large French army of more than one million men worked during the reign of terror while others
and a lot of money was spent on maintaining this opposed this
army.
4. The Directory Government also made a mistake PEACE TREATIES IN EUROPE OF 1814 - 1815
of releasing many political prisoners or royalists
which displeased the revolutionaries since such How were the peace treaties in Europe
people were against the revolution Maintained?
5. The government failed to reconcile the state and the
Catholic Church in order to restore law and order in The peace treaties in Europe that brought an end to
the catholic dominated provinces. conflicts such as the Napoleonic Wars and World
6. There was lack of harmony between the Directors War I
and the two councils which formed the parliament
of France. were maintained through a combination of
7. It failed to provide total peace in the French diplomaticefforts and military force.
society. The reign of the Directory government
One key aspect of maintaining peace was the
was characterized by occasion insecurity from
establishment of international organizations such as
various groups especially the Jacobins, royalists,
theCongress of Vienna (1815) and the League of
the socialists. Nations (1920) following the end of the Napoleonic
8. The Directory government failed to protect the Wars and World War I, respectively. These
gains of the revolution and the territories acquired organizations were designed to promote cooperation
in the earlier campaigns and resolve disputes between nations through
9. The government failed to promote equality of all diplomatic means.
the Frenchmen before the law, vote and political
representation. It was only the rich middle class to VIENNA CONGRESS OF 1814 - 1815
vote or to be voted. The poor peasants were left What was the Vienna Congress?
out
10. The Directory Government rigged elections in The Vienna Congress was an international meeting
France. In 1797, the Directory government that took place in Vienna the Capital of Austria and it
was thefirst meeting of its kind in Europe. The
Congress was called by the victorious powers of the what were the achievements of the Vienna congress
Napoleonic Wars to reestablish peace and stability in
Europe after years ofconflict. The Congress of Vienna achieved several
importantgoals:
It was held from 1st November 1814 up to 8th
June 1815. All European states attended this 1. Restored peace and stability in Europe: The
congress except Turkey or Ottoman Empire. Congress successfully reestablished peace
However, the negotiations and decisions were and stability in Europe after the Napoleonic
dominated by the representatives of the four Wars andthe French Revolution.
major powers who included Prince 2. Redrew the map of Europe: The Congress
METTERNICH of Austria, Lord redrewthe map of Europe, restoring the
CASTLEREAGH of Britain, Tsar borders and political structures that existed
ALEXANDER I of Russia and King before the French Revolution and the
FREDRICK WILLIAM III of Prussia. France Napoleonic Wars.
which was the defeated nation was represented at 3. Balanced the power between nations: The
this congress byBishop TALLEYRAND. Congress balanced the power between the
European nations in order to prevent any
What were the objectives of the Vienna Congress?
one nation from becoming too dominant.
This was achieved through a series of
The main objectives of the Congress of Vienna were:
territorial adjustments and the creation of
new independentstates.
1. To reestablish peace and stability in Europe 4. Restored old monarchies: The Congress
afterthe Napoleonic Wars and the French helped torestore old monarchies, and
Revolution. promoted the spread of conservative values,
2. To redraw the map of Europe, restoring the such as the restoration of the Catholic
borders and political structures that existed Church and the suppression of revolutionary
beforethe French Revolution and the ideals and movements.
Napoleonic Wars. 5. Established a system of alliances and
3. To balance the power between the European international relations: The Congress
nations in order to prevent any one nation established a system of alliances and
from becoming too dominant. This was international relations toensure the stability
achieved through a series of territorial and security of Europe.
adjustments and thecreation of new 6. Promoted the idea of legitimacy and the
independent states. principleof legal continuity: The Congress
4. To restore the old monarchies, and to promote promoted the idea of legitimacy and the
thespread of conservative values, such as the principle of legal continuity, which stated
restoration of the Catholic Church and the that the Congress's decisions would be based
suppression of revolutionary ideals and on pre-revolutionary laws and practices, and
movements. that the Revolution wouldbe treated as if it
5. To prevent the spread of revolutionary ideals never happened.
andmovements.
6. To provide compensation to the What were the weaknesses of the Vienna Congress
victoriouspowers of the Napoleonic
There were several weaknesses of the Congress
Wars.
ofVienna:
7. To establish a system of alliances and
international relations to ensure the stability
1. Ignored the desires of the people: The
andsecurity of Europe.
Congress was primarily focused on the
8. To promote the idea of legitimacy and the
interests of the ruling aristocracy and not
principle of legal continuity, which stated
taking into account the desires of the people.
that theCongress's decisions would be based
Many of the decisions madeat the Congress
on pre- revolutionary laws and practices, and
were seen as unjust by the general population.
that the Revolution would be treated as if it
2. Unable to prevent the spread of revolutionary
never happened.
ideals: Despite the Congress's efforts to
 suppressrevolutionary ideals and movements, Alliance of 1815.The treaty was signed on 20th
they were not able to prevent the spread of November 1815 and it was signed on the same
these ideas. day with the second treaty of Paris which
3. Created a fragile peace: The Congress of punished France following the defeat of
Viennacreated a fragile peace that was Napoleon I at the Battle of Waterloo of 1815.
dependent on thecooperation of all the
European powers. If one power broke the
terms of the treaty, it could cause the entire Among other things, the quadruple alliance
system to collapse. stated that “the four kings, united for the
4. Failed to address the economic and social good of the world, have agreed to continue
problems: The Congress failed to address meeting “. Because those countries were to take
the underlying economic and social a collective effort in handling European matters,
problems that had contributed to the French then the Congress System came to be known as
Revolution. As aresult, these issues the “Concert of Europe”
continued to fester and contributed to future OBJECTIVES OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM
conflicts. • To ensure that the signatories (those
5. Legitimacy and legal continuity were not powers that had signed the alliance)
always upheld: The Congress promoted the continued to cooperate and
idea of legitimacy and the principle of legal therefore theaim was to promote
continuity, which stated that the Congress's international cooperation.
decisions would be based on pre-
revolutionary laws and practices,and that the • The four countries i.e. Austria,
Revolution would be treated as if it never Russia, Britain and Prussia agreed
happened. However, these were not always to exclude theBonaparte dynasty or
upheld in practice. family from the political affairs of
6. Some of the borders created were unstable: France and Europe.
The Congress of Vienna redrew the map of • To ensure that the terms of the Second
Europe, restoring the borders and political Treaty of Paris of November 1815
structures thatexisted before the French were implemented.
Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.
However, some of the borderscreated were • To maintain peace in Europe. The
unstable and led to future conflicts. aim here was to avoid other wars
7. The Congress failed to create a lasting balance similar to
ofpower among European states: The the “Napoleonic Wars” which would
Congress of Vienna established a balance of disturbEuropean Peace.
power among European states, but it was not
• To protect and maintain the power
lasting. The congress created a fragile peace
of thelegitimate rulers in Europe.
that was dependent on the cooperation of all
the Europeanpowers. If one power broke the • To maintain all the decisions that had
terms of the treaty, it could cause the entire beenagreed upon in the Vienna
system to collapse settlement that was signed in June
1815.
THE CONGRESS SYSTEM OR THE THE COMPOSITION OF THE
CONCERTOF EUROPE, 1818-1830 CONGRESSSYSTEM

The Congress System was a series of periodic

meetings or congresses of the European powers
intended to solve European problems
diplomatically and it stretched between 1818
and 1830. The congress system was born out of
a treaty or alliance between four countries i.e.
Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia. This treaty
or alliance was known as the Quadruple
The Congress System was composed of the Paris of 1815 and the army of occupation had to be
following congresses named after the places removed from France.
where they were held;
• The congress of Aix – la – chapelle of 1818 The congress system led to the implementation of
the terms of the Second Treaty of Paris of 1815. For
• The congress of Troppau of 1820
example, France was forced to pay war damages to
• The congress of Laibach of 1821 the victorious nations after which an army of
occupation was to be removed from France with
• The congress of Verona of 1822 in a period of three years. Therefore, the government
• The congress of St. Petersburg of 1825. in France was compelled to pay large amounts of
money to the victorious nations by the Congress
System and consequently the army of occupation
that had been stationed in France from 1815 was
NOTE: The congress of Vienna was not part of part
of the Congress System because it ended its work on withdrawn.
9th June 1815 and the Congress System was bornout
of the Quadruple Alliance on 20th November 1815,
several months after the Vienna Congress hadended The congress system maintained the political map of
its work. Europe as it had been decided or redrawn at the
Vienna congress of 1814 to 1815. For example, the
boundaries of France were maintained as they had
been reduced to those that France had in 1790. In
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE CONGRESS addition, it maintained the buffer states which had
SYSTEM been formed to guard against further French
aggression. For example, the Kingdom of
The congress system maintained peace in Europe. Netherlands in the North and the German
The members of the system for example Prince Confederation in the East were maintained.
Metternich of Austria and Tsar Alexander I of
Russia were able to suppress revolts in 1820, 1821
and 1823 in Spain, Portugal and Naples. Therewas The system maintained and protected the old rulers
no major war that involved all the great European who had been restored by the Vienna settlement of
powers until the outbreak of the Crimean War of 1815. In Spain for example, King Ferdinand VII was
1854 to 1856 when Russia fought against Britain, saved from being overthrown bythe revolutionaries
France and Turkey. by France and Austria because they did not support
changes brought about by revolutions. In Naples,
King Ferdinand I was also saved by Austria from
It gave birth to European diplomacy. This was being overthrown by the revolutionaries and the
promoted through the holding of congresses to settle decision to protect the restored rulers was taken at
conflicts other than going for war. For example a the Congress of Troppau of 1820.
number of congresses were held between1818 and
1825 which included the congress of Aix- la-
chapelle of, Laibach, Verona and the aborted St. The congress system kept the family of Napoleon I
Petersburg. out of the politics of Europe. At the Congress of
Aix-la-Chapelle of 1818 for example, the
congressmen agreed on the security measures that
It led to the reconciliation of the victorious nations prevented Napoleon I from escaping all the way
with the defeated nation which was France. In 1818 from the island of St. Helena to return to France the
for example at the congress of Aix-la-chapelle, way he had escaped from the island of Elba and
France was allowed to join the Quadruple alliance ruled France again for one hundred years. It
by the Great powers. They did not want France only became possible for a member of the
to remain a permanent enemy most especially that Bonaparte dynasty to rule France in 1848 when
France had fulfilled the terms of Second treaty of
the congress system was no more. The system failed to promote unity and international
cooperation in Europe. This was so because the
representatives had different views on some of the
The system maintained a constitutional monarchy in major issues. For example, at the Congress of
France. Louis XVIII had been restored in France Verona of 1822, the congressmen were divided
with a constitution and among other things the over the issue of the Greek revolt which was being
constitution provided for a parliament and personal supported by Britain while Austria wanted the revolt
freedoms like freedom of worship, press and to be crashed. At the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle of
association. This was important because Louis 1818, the powers also disagreed on the issue of slave
XVIII could not impose his own rule on the trade in which Britain wanted to take over full
Frenchmen the way Louis XVI had done before he control over the suppression or abolition of slave
was overthrown by the revolutionaries. trade which was not accept by other countries like
Prussia and Russia.

The system maintained the balance of power in

Europe. At the Congress of Aix-la-chapelle of 1818 The Congress System ignored the forces of
for example, Prussia had suggested the creationof an nationalism. This was so because it maintained
international army so as to fight against the Sea foreign rule in some of the European countries. For
pirates that were operating on the Mediterranean example, it maintained Austrian control in the
Sea. The proposal was rejected because Russia Italian and German states and it also maintained the
wanted to get the opportunity of stationing her control of the Belgians by the Dutch. Consequently,
soldiers in other countries and therefore Russia there were nationalistic revolutions that challenged
would gain a lot of influence in those countries the Congress System between 1820 and 1830 and
which would have led to upsetting of the balance of eventually led to its collapse by 1830.
power. However, the Russian proposal was rejected
by other powers like Britain which therefore helped
to maintain balance of power in Europe. The congress system ignored forces of liberalism.
Unlike in France where Louis XVIII was restored
with a constitution which provided for freedom of
The system contributed to economic co-operation in expression, a parliament, freedom of worship and
Europe. The system for example allowed free association among other liberties, it was not the
navigation on the international water ways like the same case in some of the European countries. In the
Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, River Rhine case of Naples and Spain for example, the
and River Danube among others. Navigation had congressmen overthrew popular liberal
been disorganized by the continental system of constitutions that had been granted to people andrestored
Napoleon I and therefore this was a major unconstitutional governments of the Ferdinands.
achievement. Consequently, there were liberal revolutions that
challenged the Congress System between 1820 and 1830
and eventually led to its collapse by 1830.
The Congress System laid a foundation for other
world international bodies in future. The success of
the Congress System for example contributed to the The Congress System undermined the interests of
formation of the League of Nations in 1920 after the small powers. The small states had majority of
World War I as well as the formation of the United the people in Europe but the major issues in Europe
Nations Organization in 1945 after WorldWar II. under the Congress System were always discussed
All these organizations were intended to resolve and resolved by the five major powers of the
international conflicts peacefully without going to Quintuple alliance i.e. Britain, France, Prussia,
war. Austria and Russia.

THE FAILURES OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

The Congress System maintained despotic
monarchs or leaders in Europe who caused untold
suffering to the people they governed. In Spain and and the spirit of cooperation declined.
Naples for example, King Ferdinand VII and
Ferdinand I respectively conducted arbitrary arrests, The congress system lacked resources andtherefore
imprisonment, torture and killing of suspected it was bound to collapse. The system for example
opponents and the Congress System always did not have a secretariat to run its day to day
protected these unpopular monarchs from being business. It also lacked funds because the member
over thrown. countries did not contribute financial resources.
This undermined the operation of the congress
The Congress System contributed to unrest or system.
instability in Europe. Many revolutions broke outin
an attempt to over throw the unpopular regimes The death of the founding members led to the
which were being maintained by the congress collapse of the congress system. For example, Lord
system for example in Spain, Naples and Belgium. Castlereagh of Britain died in August 1820 and was
Countries like France, Russia and Austria were succeeded by George Canning. Tsar Alexander I of
committed to crash the revolutionaries in those Russia also died in 1825 and was succeeded by Tsar
countries and maintained the legitimate rulers. Nicholas I. Those who succeeded lacked
practical political experience in the European
affairs and they were not committed enough to see
The members failed to agree on the major the survival of the system they did not labour to put
revolutions which finally changed the work of the in place.
Vienna settlement which they were to protect. For
example, in 1821 a revolution broke out in Greece
in which the Greeks revolted against the Turkish rule At the congress of Verona of 1820 for example there
and in 1832 with the support of some European was disagreement between Britain and other
countries like Britain, the Greeks were given full members as Britain opposed intervention in the
independence. In 1830, the Belgians staged a affairs of other states while the others supported it
nationalistic revolution against the Dutch and and as a result George Canning made this statement,
surprisingly Britain and France supported the “Things were getting to the wholesome state
Belgians and in 1839, the Belgians got full again,every nation for itself and God for all of
independence. Therefore, these revolutions showed us”.This statement meant that there was no more
that some of the European countries supported international cooperation as every nation was to be
undoing the work of the Vienna settlement while on its own.
others did not support changing the work of the
Vienna settlement especially Austria and Russia.
It lacked an international army to implement its
REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE resolutions. The armies of individual countries were
CONGRESS SYSTEM used to crash revolutions between 1820 and 1830.
The problem with this was that no single country
would raise enough force to guard against
The threat of Napoleon I was no longer an issue by
successful revolutions in Europe. For example,
1830 and this contributed to the collapse of the
when the revolution broke out in Belgium in 1830,
congress system. The congress men had succeeded
Russia and Austria could not send their soldiers to
in keeping Napoleon I away from Europe following
Belgium because Russia had taken her soldiers to
his defeat in 1815 and he had died in 1821. The
fight in Poland while Austria had her forces fighting
aggression by Napoleon I had been a unifying factor
against the revolutionaries in the Italian and German
because it was a threat to the survival of the
states.
European monarchs for example in Britain, Russia
and Austria. The death of Napoleon I in 1821
therefore created conditions of lack of a factor to
keep the European powers together because There was mistrust among the member states and
thereafter what was a threat to Austria like a this contributed to the collapse of the congress
revolution in Italy was not seen as a treat to Britain
system. At the congress of Aix-la-chapelle in 1818 from slave trade was not giving them a chance to deal
for example, Tsar Alexander I of Russia proposed in the same trade.
the creation of an international army to suppress the The outbreak of the Greek war of independence in
sea pirates or robbers on the Mediterranean Sea. The 1821 also led to the collapse of the system. The
army was also to be used to protect the legitimate congress of Verona was called in 1822 to discuss
rulers against revolutions. This proposal was this revolution of the Greeks against Turkish rule.
rejected by Britain and Austria as they feared that However, without consulting other members,
Russia was to take advantage of stationing her Britain, France and Russia supported the Greek
forces in countries of Western Europe which was to rebels and this caused a conflict between Austria,
be followed by Russia gaining more influence. Prussia and other countries because the Russian
Therefore, Britain and Austria refused to cooperate intervention in the Greek affairs was an expansion of
with Russia whichwidened the gap between Russia the Russian influence in Eastern Europe. The Greek
and the abovepowers and led to the collapse of the revolution therefore divided the congress system
congress system by 1830. and eventually led to its collapse by 1830

Britain’s isolationist policy also contributed to the The congress became very unpopular because it
collapse of the congress system. Britain for example maintained unpopular regimes in Europe. In 1820s
refused to attend some of the congresses for for example, King Ferdinand VII of Spain and
example that of Verona of 1822 and St.Petersburg Ferdinand I of Naples were threatened by
of 1825 because she did not agree with the policy of revolutions. Under the congress system, the
intervening in the domestic affairs of other states to revolutionaries were defeated and the despotic
protect unpopular regimes. Ferdinands were restored to full control in Spain and
Naples.

Britain also undermined the spirit of international

cooperation by indirectly supporting the Spanish The congress system was also short lived because of
colonies in South America to get independence.For the ideological differences between the
example, George Canning of Britain encouraged conservatives (no change) and the liberals. Britain
President James Monroe of USA tostop any attempt for example, believed in liberalism i.e.
by Spain and her allies like Russia, France, and constitutional governance and respect for human
Austria to go to South America and defeat the freedoms like freedom of worship and press.
revolutionaries in the Spanish colonies and Therefore, when the liberal revolutions were staged
consequently members of the congress system for example in Naples and Spain, Britain gave them
feared going to South America and the colonies got support yet the conservatives like Austria and
their independence. Russia did not support changes brought about by the
revolutions. It’s not surprising therefore that Britain
did not support the Protocol of Troppau of 1820
The selfish interests of the congressmen and their which supported fighting against all revolutions in
countries also undermined the spirit of international Europe that threatened the survival of autocratic
cooperation hence leading to the collapse of the congress regimes.
system. Britain for example did not want to commit her
soldiers to die in foreign countries for the purpose of
maintaining the Vienna settlement of 1815 yet in those The system lacked clear guiding principles and
countries Britain did not have economic interests. therefore could not live for a long time as an
Another example is shown by the proposal to abolish organization. Besides lack of a secretariat, the
slave trade. There was disagreement because Britain system did not have a constitution, no work plan or
wanted to search the ships of other nations in case they programme and many times lacked a proper agenda.
carried slaves. The other nations refused that this was It was not very clear as to what was to be considered
violation of their independence while on the other hand as a crisis to call a congress and it was not stated
they questioned as to why Britain which had benefited clearly as to who was that congressman to call a
meeting and therefore the congress men were
crisis managers. France supported the Belgians which was against
the wishes of the conservatives like Austria and
Russia. Britain called a congress in London in 1839
The congress system ignored the small nations. The where the Belgian independence and neutrality
system was based on discussions and resolutions of were. Therefore, the Belgian revolution of divided
the members of the Quintuple alliancethat consisted the member states of the congress system leading
Austria, Russia, Britain, France and Prussia. to its collapse.
Therefore, the smaller states refused to accept the
resolutions of the congress system and instead they
worked for the downfall of the congresssystem. The rise of liberalism also led to the collapse of the
congress. The example of the success of the French
revolution of 1789 had demonstrated that the
The “Metternich System” was very unpopular and European people were disgusted with absolute rule
this led to the collapse of the congress system. This and they preferred constitutional governance,
system was put in place by Prince Klemens freedom of the press, association, parliamentary
Metternich who was the Chancellor of the Austrian democracy, equality before the law etc. however, the
Empire up to 1848. It included an efficient spying congress system became very unpopular because it
network in those states where Austria had control was protecting absolute rulers from being
like the Italian and German states, reading of overthrown for example in Spain, Naples and
correspondences or mails and the brutal suppression Austria.
of revolutions among others. This system was linked
to the congress system because Metternich had
declared that it was not necessary to accept changes The lack of past experience by the congress system led
from the majority people of Europe and especially to its collapse. The congress system was the first of its
if those people revolted against their rulers. He kind in the history of Europe to be established. It
wanted the status quo to be maintained. This system therefore lacked a foundation from where to draw
therefore led to theoutbreak of liberal revolutions to examples. As a result, it operated on an experimental
challenge it and these revolutions divided up the basis which eventually led to 1830 revlution.
members of the congress system leading to its
collapse. THE 1830 REVLOUTION IN EUROPE
What were the causes of 1830 revolution in Europe
The rise of nationalism in Europe contributed to the The 1830 revolution in Europe, also known as the July
collapse of the system. The congress system tried to Revolution, was caused by a combination of factors,
maintain foreign rule among some European people including:
yet people wanted to get independence which forced
them to rise up demanding for independence. For 1. Political: The Bourbon monarchy, which had been
example, the Greeks fought against Turkish rule in restored in France following the fall of Napoleon,
1821. The Italians also fought against Austrian rule was seen as ineffective and unpopular. King Charles
in 1830 and the Belgians fought against the Dutch X's heavy-handed attempts to suppress political
and all these nationalistic revolutions discredited the opposition, such as censorship and the dissolution of
work of the congress in an attempt to protect the the National Guard, led to widespread discontent.
Vienna settlement because the revolting people 2. Economic: The French economy was suffering from
were able to get independence. high unemployment, high taxes, and a financial
crisis. The rural population was hit particularly hard
by the economic downturn, and many were calling
The Belgian revolution of 1830 led to the collapse for economic reform.
of the congress system. The Belgians revolted 3. Nationalism: The rise of nationalism sentiment in
against the Dutch demanding for independence. Europe was a major cause of the 1830 revolution.
This was to undo the work of the Vienna settlement Many people were calling for the formation of
of 1815 which the congress system had an independent nation-states, and were dissatisfied with
obligation to protect. However, Britain and the existing political boundaries.
4. Social: The gap between the rich and the poor was ➢ In Belgium, the revolution led to the separation of
growing, and many people were calling for a more Belgium from the United Kingdom of the
equal distribution of wealth and power. Netherlands and the establishment of an
5. Inspiration: The 1830 revolution was inspired by the independent, Catholic and neutral Belgium.
successful revolutions that had occurred in the United ➢ In Poland, the revolution was unsuccessful in
States and in Latin America in the late 18th and early achieving its main goal of independence from
19th centuries. These revolutions had shown that it Russia, however, it led to the Great Emigration of
was possible to overthrow an established government Polish citizens, which had a significant impact on
and establish a new one based on the principles of the cultural and political development of Poland.
democracy and freedom. ➢ While the 1830 revolution did not achieve all of
6. Demographic: The population of Europe was rapidly its goals, it did result in some important changes.
growing in the early 19th century, and many people It led to the establishment of constitutional
were migrating from rural areas to urban areas in monarchies in France and Belgium, and inspired
search of better opportunities. This led to increased similar movements for national independence and
competition for jobs and housing, and contributed to constitutional reform in other European countries.
social unrest. ➢ It also marked the beginning of a new era of
7. Ideological: The ideas of liberalism and nationalism political instability in Europe, as well as the
were gaining popularity in Europe during this time. emergence of a new political force: the
Many people were calling for greater political and bourgeoisie, which played a significant role in the
economic freedoms, as well as the establishment of politics of the continent.
independent nation-states.
8. Intellectual: The Enlightenment and the Industrial There are several other reasons why the 1830
Revolution had led to a proliferation of new ideas revolutions were only partially successful:
and schools of thought. Many intellectuals were
calling for the overthrow of the existing order and the 1. Lack of unity among revolutionaries: The
establishment of a new society based on reason and different groups and individuals involved in the
progress. revolution had different goals and ideologies.
9. Military: The military played a significant role in the This lack of unity made it difficult for them to
1830 revolution. Many officers and soldiers were achieve their shared goal of overthrowing the
dissatisfied with the Bourbon monarchy, and were existing order.
willing to support the revolution. 2. Limited support from the working class: While
10. International: The revolution in France in 1830, was the revolutions were sparked by the discontent of
seen as an inspiration for similar movements in other the middle and upper classes, they did not have
European countries, particularly in Belgium and the support of the working class. This limited the
Poland, who also sought for independence and ability of the revolutionaries to mobilize large
constitutional reforms. numbers of people to support their cause.
3. Limited support from the military: While some
Were the 1830 revolutions successful? officers and soldiers supported the revolution, the
military as a whole was not fully behind the
revolution. This made it easier for the existing
The 1830 revolutions in Europe, also known as the July
government to put down the rebellion.
Revolution, were partially successful.
4. Limited international support: The revolutions
were largely confined to France, Belgium and
➢ In France, the revolution led to the overthrow of
Poland, and did not receive much support from
King Charles X and the establishment of a
other countries. This made it more difficult for
constitutional monarchy under King Louis-
the revolutionaries to achieve their goals.
Philippe. The new government implemented
5. Strong opposition from existing government: The
some important reforms, such as the
existing government, especially the monarchy
establishment of a free press and the right to trial
and the nobility, had a vested interest in
by jury. However, it failed to address many of the
maintaining the status quo and were willing to
underlying social and economic problems, and
use force to suppress the revolution.
the new regime was seen as being just as corrupt
and ineffective as the old one.
 6. Lack of clear post-revolutionary plan: While the 6. Great Emigration of Polish citizens: The
revolutionaries had a clear goal of overthrowing revolution in Poland was unsuccessful in
the existing order, they did not have a clear plan achieving its main goal of independence from
for what to do after the revolution. This made it Russia, but it led to the Great Emigration of
difficult for them to establish a stable and Polish citizens, which had a significant impact on
effective government after the overthrow of the the cultural and political development of Poland.
old regime. 7. Political instability: The 1830 revolution marked
7. Economic and social problems: The revolutions the beginning of a new era of political instability
were driven in part by economic and social in Europe, as well as the emergence of a new
problems such as poverty, unemployment, and political force: the bourgeoisie, which played a
inequality, which were not addressed by the new significant role in the politics of the continent.
governments that came to power.

What were the effects of 1830 revolution in Europe? THE 1848 REVOLUTION IN FRANCE

The 1830 revolution in Europe had several effects: How did the revolutions of 1848 start

1. Political: The most significant political change The Revolutions of 1848, also known as the "Spring of
was the overthrow of King Charles X in France Nations," began as a result of a combination of social,
and the establishment of a constitutional economic, and political grievances that had been
monarchy under King Louis-Philippe. The new building up throughout Europe. Some of the key factors
government implemented some important that contributed to the outbreak of the revolutions
reforms, such as the establishment of a free press include:
and the right to trial by jury. However, it failed to
address many of the underlying social and 1. Economic grievances: The years leading up to
economic problems, and the new regime was 1848 were marked by widespread poverty and
seen as being just as corrupt and ineffective as the unemployment, as well as food shortages and
old one. In Belgium, the revolution led to the high prices. These economic conditions led many
separation of Belgium from the United Kingdom people to demand economic reform and relief
of the Netherlands and the establishment of an from their suffering.
independent, Catholic and neutral Belgium. 2. Political grievances: The revolutions of 1848
2. Social: The revolution led to the rise of the were also fueled by political grievances. Many
bourgeoisie as a new political force. Middle-class people were frustrated with the absolutist systems
citizens, who had been previously excluded from of government that dominated Europe at the time,
politics, became more politically active and and demanded greater political freedom and
gained more power and influence. representation.
3. Economic: The revolution had a limited impact 3. Nationalistic aspirations: Nationalistic aspirations
on the economy. The new government did not also played a role in the outbreak of the
address the underlying economic problems, such revolutions. Many people began to demand
as poverty and unemployment, that had greater autonomy and self-rule for their
contributed to the revolution. respective nations, as they sought to break free
4. Nationalism: The revolution helped to fuel the from the traditional systems of government that
growing sense of nationalism in Europe. The idea had dominated Europe for centuries.
of a nation united by common culture and 4. The influence of the French Revolution: The
language became more popular, and people began French Revolution of 1789 had a lasting impact
to demand greater autonomy and self-government on Europe, and served as an inspiration for many
for their nations. of the people who participated in the revolutions
5. International: The revolution had a limited impact of 1848. The liberal and democratic ideals of the
on international relations, but it did inspire French Revolution had a profound influence on
similar movements for national independence and the political, social, and cultural development of
constitutional reform in other European countries. Europe.
 5. The influence of the Industrial revolution: The 5. Importance for the future: The Revolutions of
industrial revolution was also an important factor. 1848 had a lasting impact on the political, social,
The increased urbanization led to the emergence and cultural development of Europe, and served
of an industrial working class that was as a precursor for future movements such as the
dissatisfied with the social and economic Paris Commune and the First and Second
conditions of the time. International. They also influenced the idea of
nationalism movements, liberal democracy and
The Revolutions of 1848 began in France, where a series socialism.
of protests and uprisings led to the overthrow of King 6. Economic impact: The Revolutions of 1848 were
Louis Philippe and the establishment of a new, fueled, in part, by economic grievances. The
democratic government. This event served as a spark that widespread poverty and unemployment of the
ignited similar revolutions throughout Europe, as people time led many people to demand economic
in other countries began to demand similar changes. reform. In some cases, the revolutions led to the
introduction of measures such as price controls
and the creation of public works programs.
Were the Revolutions of 1848 important? 7. Cultural impact: The Revolutions of 1848 also
had a significant impact on the cultural landscape
The Revolutions of 1848, also known as the "Spring of of Europe. The emergence of nationalistic and
Nations," were a series of political upheavals that liberal ideas led to a renewed interest in literature,
occurred throughout Europe in response to a variety of art, and music that reflected these ideals.
social, economic, and political grievances. They were 8. Impact on colonialism: The Revolutions of 1848
important for several reasons: also had an impact on European colonialism and
imperialism. The idea of nationalism and self-rule
1. Political change: The revolutions of 1848 resulted that emerged during the revolutions also inspired
in the overthrow of several European monarchies movements for independence and self-
and the establishment of new, liberal determination in colonized countries around the
governments. This marked a significant shift world.
away from the absolutist systems of government 9. Impact on women's rights: The Revolutions of
that had dominated Europe for centuries. 1848 also had a significant impact on women's
2. Nationalism: The revolutions of 1848 also saw rights. Women were active participants in the
the emergence of nationalism movements across revolutions and played a key role in many of the
Europe, as people began to demand greater political, social and cultural changes that
autonomy and self-rule for their respective emerged. The Revolutions of 1848 marked the
nations. These movements would continue to first time that women publicly demanded the
play a major role in the shaping of the continent right to vote, the right to education, and the right
in the following decades. to work.
3. Social change: The revolutions of 1848 led to the 10. Impact on Europe's neighboring countries: The
implementation of a number of social reforms, Revolutions of 1848 also had a significant impact
such as the extension of voting rights and the on Europe's neighboring countries. The idea of
introduction of measures to improve working nationalism and self-rule that emerged during the
conditions. These changes laid the groundwork revolutions also inspired movements for
for further social progress in the years to come. independence and self-determination in Europe's
4. Failure: The Revolutions of 1848 had a profound neighboring countries such as Ottoman Empire
impact on the political landscape of Europe, but and Russia.
most of the liberal and nationalist aspirations
were not fulfilled. Many of the new governments Explain the causes of 1848 revolution in France
established during the revolutions were short-
lived, and many of the reforms implemented were The causes of the 1848 revolution were complex and
later rolled back. In many cases, the old order multifaceted, stemming from a combination of social,
was restored with the help of foreign economic, political, and ideological factors. Some of the
intervention. key causes of the 1848 revolution include:
 1. Economic grievances: The years leading up to 1. Economic grievances: The years leading up to
1848 were marked by widespread poverty and 1848 were marked by widespread poverty and
unemployment, as well as food shortages and unemployment, as well as food shortages and
high prices. These economic conditions led many high prices. These economic conditions led many
people to demand economic reform and relief people to demand economic reform and relief
from their suffering. from their suffering.
2. Political grievances: The revolutions of 1848 2. Political grievances: The revolutions of 1848
were also fueled by political grievances. Many were also fueled by political grievances. Many
people were frustrated with the absolutist systems people were frustrated with the absolutist systems
of government that dominated Europe at the time, of government that dominated Europe at the time,
and demanded greater political freedom and and demanded greater political freedom and
representation. representation.
3. Nationalistic aspirations: Nationalistic aspirations 3. Nationalistic aspirations: Nationalistic aspirations
also played a role in the outbreak of the also played a role in the outbreak of the
revolutions. Many people began to demand revolutions. Many people began to demand
greater autonomy and self-rule for their greater autonomy and self-rule for their
respective nations, as they sought to break free respective nations, as they sought to break free
from the traditional systems of government that from the traditional systems of government that
had dominated Europe for centuries. had dominated Europe for centuries.
4. The influence of the French Revolution: The 4. The influence of the French Revolution: The
French Revolution of 1789 had a lasting impact French Revolution of 1789 had a lasting impact
on Europe, and served as an inspiration for many on Europe, and served as an inspiration for many
of the people who participated in the revolutions of the people who participated in the revolutions
of 1848. The liberal and democratic ideals of the of 1848. The liberal and democratic ideals of the
French Revolution had a profound influence on French Revolution had a profound influence on
the political, social, and cultural development of the political, social, and cultural development of
Europe. Europe.
5. The influence of the Industrial revolution: The 5. The influence of the Industrial revolution: The
industrial revolution was also an important factor. industrial revolution was also an important factor.
The increased urbanization led to the emergence The increased urbanization led to the emergence
of an industrial working class that was of an industrial working class that was
dissatisfied with the social and economic dissatisfied with the social and economic
conditions of the time. conditions of the time.
6. Political unrest: There was also a lot of political 6. Political unrest: There was also a lot of political
unrest across Europe in the years leading up to unrest across Europe in the years leading up to
1848. Many people were dissatisfied with the 1848. Many people were dissatisfied with the
way their countries were being ruled and with the way their countries were being ruled and with the
lack of political representation. This led to a lack of political representation. This led to a
general sense of discontent among the population. general sense of discontent among the population.
7. Ideological factors: The ideas of republicanism, 7. Ideological factors: The ideas of republicanism,
democracy, and nationalism had gained traction democracy, and nationalism had gained traction
among the population. The idea of constitutional among the population. The idea of constitutional
monarchy, parliamentary democracy, and monarchy, parliamentary democracy, and
national unity had become very popular among national unity had become very popular among
the population and they were eager to see these the population and they were eager to see these
ideas translated into practice. ideas translated into practice.
8. Interconnectedness: The revolutions of 1848 were
Why were there so many revolutions in 1848? interconnected and mutually reinforcing. The
success of the revolution in one country often
There were multiple reasons why there were so many inspired people in other countries to rise up
revolutions in 1848. Some of the main reasons include: against their own governments. The events in
France and the fall of Louis Phillipe in February,
 for example, inspired the revolutions in other unemployment, led to the discontent of the
countries. population.
2. Political grievances: Italy at the time was divided
into several small states, each with its own
government. The people of Italy were tired of
Explain the nature of revolutions in 1848, and the living under the rule of foreign powers and the
influence of liberalism and nationalism lack of representation in the government. They
wanted a united Italy with a single government.
The revolutions of 1848 were a series of political 3. Nationalism: The idea of a united Italy was a
upheavals that occurred throughout Europe in response major driving force behind the revolution. People
to a variety of social, economic, and political grievances. across Italy sought to unite their respective
These revolutions were characterized by a strong liberal regions under a single government and break free
and nationalist sentiment, as people across Europe from the traditional systems of government that
demanded greater political freedom, economic reform, had dominated Europe for centuries.
and self-rule for their respective nations. 4. Intellectual and cultural influences: The ideas of
the French Revolution, especially those of
• Liberalism was a key ideology behind the freedom, equality, and democracy, had a
revolutions of 1848. Liberalism emphasizes profound impact on Italy. Many Italian
individual rights, democracy, and constitutional intellectuals and politicians were inspired by
government, and many of the people who these ideas and believed that they could be
participated in the revolutions of 1848 were applied in Italy to bring about political and social
motivated by a desire to see these ideals change.
translated into practice. They sought to overthrow 5. Social grievances: The gap between the rich and
the absolutist systems of government that poor was large and the population was tired of the
dominated Europe at the time and establish injustices and inequalities in society. They
constitutional monarchies with elected wanted to improve their living conditions and
parliaments. have more rights.
• Nationalism also played a significant role in the 6. Institutional weakness: The various Italian states
revolutions of 1848. Nationalistic aspirations led had weak institutions, and the government was
many people to demand greater autonomy and ineffective in addressing the needs of the
self-rule for their respective nations. They sought population. This led to a lack of confidence in the
to break free from the traditional systems of government and a desire for change
government that had dominated Europe for
centuries and establish independent nation-states. Did the revolutions have anything in common?
The idea of a united Italy and Germany was also
a major driving force behind the revolution, as Yes, the revolutions of 1848 had several things in
people across Italy and Germany sought to unite common. Some of the main similarities between the
their respective regions under a single revolutions include:
government.
1. Liberal and nationalist sentiment: The revolutions
what were the causes of 1848 revolution in Italy of 1848 were characterized by a strong liberal
and nationalist sentiment. People across Europe
The causes of the 1848 revolution in Italy were complex demanded greater political freedom, economic
and multifaceted, and included a combination of reform, and self-rule for their respective nations.
economic, social, and political factors. Some of the main 2. Calls for constitutional government: The people
causes of the revolution in Italy were: who participated in the revolutions of 1848
sought to overthrow the absolutist systems of
1. Economic grievances: Italy at the time was government that dominated Europe at the time
primarily an agricultural economy, and the and establish constitutional monarchies with
majority of the population was poor. The elected parliaments.
economic crisis caused by the failure of the 3. Economic grievances: Many of the people who
harvest in 1846, the high food prices and participated in the revolutions of 1848 were
 motivated by economic grievances, such as high 7. Lack of clear goals: Some of the revolutions were
food prices, unemployment, and poor living not able to establish clear and achievable goals,
conditions. which made it difficult for them to sustain
4. Political grievances: Many people were tired of momentum and achieve success.
living under the rule of foreign powers and the 8. Failure to address social and economic issues:
lack of representation in the government. They Many of the revolutions failed to address the
wanted to establish independent nation-states. underlying social and economic issues that had
5. Influence of the French Revolution: The ideas of led to the discontent of the population, which
the French Revolution, especially those of made it difficult for them to maintain popular
freedom, equality, and democracy, had a support.
profound impact on the revolutions of 1848.
Many intellectuals and politicians were inspired Did 1848 revolutions change anything?
by these ideas and believed that they could be
applied in their respective countries to bring The revolutions of 1848 did bring about some changes,
about political and social change. although they largely failed in achieving their ultimate
6. Spread rapidly: The revolutions of 1848 spread objectives. Some of the key changes that occurred as a
rapidly across Europe and were not confined to a result of the revolutions include:
single country or region.
1. Political changes: The revolutions led to the
Why did most of the revolutions fail? overthrow of several absolutist monarchies and
the establishment of constitutional monarchies in
Most of the revolutions of 1848 failed for a variety of several countries. This led to the introduction of
reasons, including: more representative forms of government and
greater political freedom in some places.
1. Lack of unity: The revolutionaries were not able 2. Nationalism: The revolutions of 1848 played a
to form a united front and their goals and tactics significant role in the development of nationalism
often varied widely. This made it difficult for sentiment across Europe. This led to the
them to achieve their objectives and maintain emergence of new nation-states and the
momentum. unification of Italy and Germany.
2. Insufficient support: Many of the revolutions 3. Economic changes: The revolutions led to the
were not able to gain the support of the majority introduction of some economic reforms, such as
of the population. Without popular support, it was the abolition of feudalism and the creation of
difficult for the revolutionaries to overcome the more egalitarian land ownership systems in some
resistance of the government and the ruling elite. countries.
3. Lack of organization: Many of the revolutions 4. Social changes: The revolutions led to the
lacked organization and effective leadership. This introduction of some social reforms, such as the
made it difficult for them to coordinate their granting of political rights to certain groups, such
efforts and achieve their goals. as Jews and workers, and the introduction of
4. Lack of resources: The revolutionaries often had compulsory education in some places.
limited resources and were not able to effectively 5. Intellectual changes: The revolutions of 1848 had
mobilize and sustain their movements. a profound impact on the intellectual climate of
5. Strong opposition: The governments and ruling Europe. They led to the flourishing of new ideas
elite of the countries where the revolutions and movements, such as socialism, feminism, and
occurred had the resources and power to suppress anarchism, which would have a significant
the movements. They also had support of the influence on future developments.
military, which made it difficult for the 6. International relations: The revolutions led to
revolution to succeed. changes in the balance of power in Europe, and
6. International factors: Some of the revolutions the rise of nationalism movements in Europe
failed because they faced opposition from other which led to the formation of new nation-states.
European powers, which intervened to restore
order and protect their own interests. ITALIAN UNIFICATION OF 1815-1870
How was Italy unified?
Italy was unified in the 19th century through a series of north, Genoa as well as Nice and Savoy to the
events and the efforts of various individuals and groups, extreme west, all recovered from France. Sardinia
the most notable of which was the leader of the Kingdom was a very poor or barren island. This kingdom was
of Piedmont-Sardinia, Camillo di Cavour and the governed at Turin in Piedmont by King Victor
military campaigns led by the general Giuseppe Emmanuel I who was restored by the Vienna
Garibaldi. settlement and it was free from the Austrian
influence.
The process of Italian unification, also known as the b) To the East; were Lombardy and Venetia
Risorgimento, began in 1815 with the Congress of which were combined together in a new kingdom in
Vienna, which reorganized the political map of Europe 1815 and put under the direct control of Austria.
after the defeat of Napoleon. However, Italy at the time Lombardy was the most fertile province in Italy
was not a single country but a collection of small states while Venetia was the richest trading centre.
and kingdoms. Therefore, the two were the richest provinces of
Italy.
In 1848, a wave of revolutions swept through Europe,
and the people of the Italian states began to demand c) The Popal States or States of the Church.
political change and unification. However, these These were ruled by the Pope. They were among the
revolutions were quickly suppressed and the status quo worst governed states of Italy. There was no
was maintained. freedom of expression; the Pope killed and
imprisoned the Italian nationalists and it was
In 1852, Cavour became the Prime Minister of difficult for the nationalists to operate from these
Piedmont-Sardinia, and he began to pursue a policy of states. Besides, they had the highest level of
economic modernization and military expansion. He also illiteracy on the Italian Peninsular.
began to forge alliances with other European powers, d) At the centre of Italy were three
particularly France, with the aim of weakening Austria's independent Duchies of MODENA, PARMA
hold over northern Italy. AND TUSCANY. The duchies were relatively
better governed than the Popal States and the two
In 1859, Piedmont-Sardinia, with the support of France, Sicilies. The ruler of Parma was Marie Louise, the
declared war on Austria, and in a series of quick and second wife of Napoleon I. The rulers of Parma and
decisive battles, the Austrians were defeated. As a result, Tuscany were both Austrian Hapsburgs, while the
the northern Italian states were annexed to Piedmont- ruler of Modena was married to one. The three
Sardinia, creating a united Italy under the rule of Victor duchies were too dominated by Austria.
Emmanuel II.
e) To the South was the Kingdom of the two
In 1860, Garibaldi led a volunteer army, known as the Sicilies i.e. NAPLES AND SICILY. These were
"Thousand", in a campaign to conquer the Kingdom of very poor, highly infested with armed robberies and
the Two Sicilies, which was the last major state in Italy ruled badly by King Ferdinand I, a member of the
not under Piedmontese control. He succeeded in his Spanish Bourbon ruling House of Spain who was
campaign, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was restored by the Vienna settlement of 1815. Though
annexed to Piedmont-Sardinia, completing the process of initially independent of each other, King Ferdinand
Italian unification. I brought the two kingdoms together into one single
state which he ruled as one state.
The final act of Italian unification was the capture of
Rome in 1870, which completed the unification of Italy
Why was Italy not unified in 1848 to 1849?
as a nation-state.
Italy was not unified in 1848 to 1849 because the various
By the Vienna settlement of 1815, Italy was left with
states and kingdoms that made up the Italian peninsula at
the following divisions which fell in five broad
the time did not have a strong central government or a
groups;
shared sense of national identity. Additionally, the
a) To the West; the Kingdom of Sardinia later to powerful neighboring states of Austria and France
become Piedmont-Sardinia. This included the state
(island) of Sardinia in the south, Piedmont in the
 opposed Italian unification and worked to a sense of shared identity and a desire for a
suppressrevolutionary movements. unified Italian nation.
2. Influence of Enlightenment Ideas:
There are several reasons why Italy was not Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality,
unified in1848 to 1849: and nationalism spread across Europe,
including Italy. These ideas inspired Italian
1. Lack of leadership: There was no clear intellectuals and activists to advocate for
leader who could bring the various Italian political and social reforms.
states togetherand guide the unification 3. Role of Intellectuals and Activists: Italian
process. intellectuals, such as Giuseppe Mazzini and
2. Economic disparities: The different Camillo Cavour, played a significant role in
regions of Italy had varying levels of promoting nationalist ideas and mobilizing
economic development and wealth, which support for Italian unification. They used
made it difficultfor them to come to a their writings, speeches, and organizational
common agreement. skills to galvanize the movement.
3. Political divisions: The Italian states were 4. Revolutions of 1848: The wave of
ruled by different political systems, such revolutions that swept across Europe in
as monarchy,republic, and papal states, 1848 had a profound impact on Italian
which made it difficultfor them to unification. The uprisings in various Italian
cooperate and unite. states, though ultimately suppressed,
4. Military power: The Austrian Empire and highlighted the desire for change and sowed
the Kingdom of Sardinia, two of the most the seeds of discontent.
powerful states in Italy, were opposed to 5. Diplomacy and Foreign Support: Skillful
the idea of Italianunification and had the diplomacy and alliances with foreign
military power to suppress any powers played a crucial role in Italian
revolutionary movements. unification. Count Camillo Cavour, the
5. Cultural differences: The various regions Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia,
of Italyspoke different languages and had skillfully maneuvered diplomatic relations
distinct cultural traditions, which made it to gain support from France, particularly
difficult for them to form a cohesive under Napoleon III.
nation. 6. Military Campaigns and Leadership: The
6. The role of religion: The Catholic military campaigns led by figures like
Church and Papal States played a major Giuseppe Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II
role in Italy and thePope and the Catholic were instrumental in achieving Italian
Church opposed the ideaof Italian unity unification. Their military prowess, strategic
under a secular government. decision-making, and charismatic leadership
inspired and mobilized nationalist forces.
Factors that contributed to Italian
7. Role of Piedmont-Sardinia: The Kingdom of
unification of 1815 - 1870 Piedmont-Sardinia, led by the House of
Savoy, emerged as a leading force for Italian
Italian unification, also known as the Risorgimento, unification. Under the leadership of Cavour
was a complex and multifaceted process that and Victor Emmanuel II, Piedmont-Sardinia
involved various factors. Here are ten key factors gradually expanded its influence and power,
that contributed to the unification of Italy: paving the way for unification.
8. Support from the Catholic Church: The
1. Nationalist Sentiment: The rise of Catholic Church's support for Italian
nationalist sentiment played a crucial role in unification was not consistent, but some
Italian unification. Italians began to develop influential clergy and religious figures
embraced the nationalist cause. This support
 helped to rally the Catholic population in opposed the idea of Italian unity under a
favor of unification. secular government.
9. Economic Factors: Economic development
and industrialization played a significant KEY IMPORTANT FIGURES IN ITALIAN
role in fostering a sense of shared interests UNIFICATION
among Italians. The growth of industries How important was Garibaldi’s contribution to
and trade, particularly in northern Italy, unifying Italy?
created economic interdependencies that
supported the unification movement. Giuseppe Garibaldi, an Italian general and
10. Fall of Foreign Dominance: The weakening nationalist, played a crucial role in the unification of
of foreign powers' control over Italian Italy during the 19th century. Here are ten key roles
territories was a crucial factor in Italian he played in the unification process:
unification. The decline of the Austrian
Empire's influence and the withdrawal of 1. Military Leadership: Garibaldi was a skilled
French troops from Rome created military leader and played a pivotal role in
opportunities for Italian nationalists to assert several military campaigns that contributed
their control. to Italian unification. He led volunteer
forces known as the "Redshirts" in various
There are several reasons why Italy was not battles across Italy.
unified in 1848 to 1849: 2. Expedition to Sicily: In 1860, Garibaldi
embarked on a campaign to liberate Sicily
1. Lack of leadership: There was no clear from Bourbon rule. His successful conquest
leader who could bring the various Italian of the island garnered support and inspired
states together and guide the unification other regions of Italy to join the cause.
process. 3. Battle of Calatafimi: Garibaldi's victory at
2. Economic disparities: The different regions the Battle of Calatafimi in 1860 against the
of Italy had varying levels of economic Neapolitan forces was a significant turning
development and wealth, which made it point. It allowed him to gain control over
difficult for them to come to a common western Sicily and gather more support for
agreement. the nationalist cause.
3. Political divisions: The Italian states were 4. Conquest of Naples: After his triumph in
ruled by different political systems, such as Sicily, Garibaldi led his forces to the
monarchy, republic, and papal states, which mainland, capturing Naples in 1860. This
made it difficult for them to cooperate and conquest weakened the Bourbon hold on
unite. southern Italy and furthered the cause of
4. Military power: The Austrian Empire and unification.
the Kingdom of Sardinia, two of the most 5. Donation of the Thousand: Garibaldi's
powerful states in Italy, were opposed to the legendary expedition, known as the
idea of Italian unification and had the "Expedition of the Thousand," began in
military power to suppress any 1860. With only a thousand volunteers, he
revolutionary movements. sailed from Genoa to Marsala in Sicily,
5. Cultural differences: The various regions of sparking a revolution that ultimately
Italy spoke different languages and had contributed to the unification of Italy.
distinct cultural traditions, which made it 6. March on Rome: In 1867, Garibaldi led a
difficult for them to form a cohesive nation. march on Rome, which was still under the
6. The role of religion: The Catholic Church control of the Papal States. Although the
and Papal States played a major role in Italy march did not succeed in capturing the city,
and the Pope and the Catholic Church it brought attention to the cause of Italian
unification.
 7. Cession of Venetia: Garibaldi recognized a democratic republic. He believed that a
the political realities of Italian unification republican form of government would best
and voluntarily ceded his control over serve the interests of a unified Italy and
Venetia to the Kingdom of Italy, led by actively promoted this vision.
King Victor Emmanuel II. This act allowed 4. Journalistic Efforts: Mazzini utilized his
for the formal unification of Italy in 1866. skills as a journalist to spread his nationalist
8. Role in the Expedition of the Thousand: ideas and rally support for the unification
Garibaldi's personal involvement and cause. He established and wrote for various
leadership in the Expedition of the newspapers and publications to mobilize
Thousand were instrumental in capturing public opinion.
key territories and garnering support from 5. Role in the Revolutions of 1848: Mazzini
various regions, ultimately leading to the played an active role in the revolutionary
unification of Italy. uprisings that swept across Europe in 1848.
9. Symbolic Figure: Garibaldi became a He was involved in the revolutionary
symbol of Italian nationalism and unity movement in Milan and supported
during the unification process. His charisma, insurrections in other Italian states.
military exploits, and dedication to the cause 6. Formation of the Roman Republic: In 1849,
inspired many Italians to join the nationalist Mazzini played a significant role in the
movement. establishment of the Roman Republic. The
10. Influence on Italian Politics: Garibaldi's role republic, with Mazzini's involvement, aimed
extended beyond the battlefield. He actively to unify Italy under a republican
participated in Italian politics and was a government, but it was short-lived due to
vocal advocate for a unified Italy. His French intervention.
influence helped shape the political 7. Advocate for National Volunteer Armies:
landscape of the newly formed nation Mazzini believed in the importance of
national volunteer armies to fight for Italian
Roles played by Giuseppe Mazzini in unification unification. He emphasized the need for
of Italy citizens to actively participate in the armed
struggle for independence.
Giuseppe Mazzini was an influential Italian 8. Inspiration for Young Activists: Mazzini's
politician, journalist, and nationalist who played a ideas and writings inspired a generation of
crucial role in the unification of Italy during the young Italians to join the nationalist
19th century. Here are ten key roles he played in the movement. His passionate advocacy for
unification process: Italian unity resonated with many,
particularly among the youth.
1. Ideological Visionary: Mazzini formulated 9. Diplomatic Efforts: Despite his republican
the ideology of Italian nationalism and ideals, Mazzini engaged in diplomatic
unification. He advocated for the efforts to gain international support for the
establishment of a democratic republic and Italian cause. He sought alliances and
believed in the idea of a unified Italy as a support from foreign governments and
nation-state. individuals sympathetic to the nationalist
2. Founding "Young Italy": In 1831, Mazzini movement.
founded the secret society "Young Italy" 10. Long-Term Influence: Mazzini's ideas and
(Giovine Italia) with the aim of promoting principles had a lasting impact on Italian
Italian independence and unification. The politics and nationalism. Even though his
organization became a crucial platform for vision of a republican Italy was not fully
nationalist activism and recruitment. realized, his contributions laid the
3. Promoter of Republicanism: Mazzini's groundwork for the unification process and
political philosophy centered on the idea of
 influenced subsequent generations of Italian capital of Piedmont. Born to a respectable
leaders. aristocratic family, a son of a Piedmontee
nobleman, Camillo Cavour trained as a soldier
ROLES OF CAMILLO CAVOUR IN ITALIAN and served in Piedmont’s army but later resigned
UNIFICATION after conflicting with the army authorities for
The emergence of Count Camillo Cavour was having supported the French revolution of 1830
also vital in the unification of Italy. Count against Charles X.
Camillo Cavour was born in 1810 in Turin, the
In 1848, he became a member of the Piedmont ✓ Cavour improved the transport and
parliament. In 1850, King Victor Emmanuel II communication systems of Piedmont. He built
appointed him as Minister of Commerce and several railway and road networks in
Agriculture. He was later made Minister of Navy and Piedmont.
Finance. In 1852, he was made Prime Minister of
Piedmont. ✓ Cavour also signed free commercial or trade
treaties with European countries like Britain,
In 1847, he founded a newspaper in Piedmont
France and Belgium. These commercial treaties
known as “ILRISORGIMENTO’’ meaning a
encouraged international trade which enabled
“resurrection” movement for the Italian unification. Its
articles advocated for independence and unity from the Piedmont to get the industrial European goods
Austrian rule and a constitutional government. which were very much needed

ROLES ✓ He made political reforms in Piedmont which

✓ Cavour provided a strong and determined boosted the unification struggle. For example,
leadership that was necessary leadership for in his capacity as Prime Minister, Cavour
the Italian unification. More than any Italian maintained the parliamentary system and
nationalist, it was Cavour as the Prime Minister constitutional government as upheld by King
of Piedmont who led the struggle convincing Victor Emmanuel II
many Italians to rally behind him.
✓ Cavour undertook educational reforms which in
✓ He reduced the influence of the Pope and the turn facilitated the unification struggle. For
Catholic Church in the affairs of Piedmont example, by abolishing church control over
which had been a major obstacle to the education, Cavour was able to open up
unification of Italy. In 1850, Camillo Cavour learning opportunities to all the Italians across
together with King Victor the Peninsular.
✓ Emmanuel II, passed laws that reduced the
influence of the catholic church in the states ✓ Cavour strengthened the Piedmont’s army.
affairs. Having realized that the Italian struggles of
1848 had failed largely due to military
✓ Cavour improved the economy of Piedmont weakness, Cavour created a big and efficient
which sustained the unification struggle. As army to prepare for war.
Minister of Commerce and Agriculture,
Cavour developed the agricultural sector ✓ Cavour worked closely with King Victor
which generated revenue as well as enough Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia. Cavour
food supplies to sustain the unification was an aristocrat by birth and therefore, he
struggle against Austria supported monarchical rule in Italy. This
enabled him to have a close working
 relationship with King Victor Emmanuel II of past, the republicans led by Mazzini and
Piedmont. Garibaldi, the monarchists and the middle class
members had been conflicting with each other
✓ Cavour secured foreign military assistance or and this had contributed to the delay in
aid for the Italians unification. Of all the Italian unification.
Italian nationalists, it was Cavour who realized
the need for foreign assistance in the struggle ✓ Cavour also financed the formation of the
for Italian unification since the Italian Italian National Society in 1857 under the
nationalists had for long tried it alone and leadership of Doctor Manin, Giuseppe La
had failed. Farina and Ferrante Pallavicino. This
nationalistic movement or society sensitized
✓ Cavour provoked Austria to declare war on and mobilized the Italians against the
Piedmont in 1859. In 1859, Cavour mobilized Austrians.
Piedmont’s soldiers and took them at the
border with Lombardy. This provoked ✓ Cavour’s diplomacy also helped to liberate the
Austria which reacted to Cavour’s action by Italian states from foreign rule. For instance,
declaring war on Piedmont. Cavour managed to table the Italian cause
during the Paris Peace Conference of 1856 that
✓ Cavour reconciled the conflicts among the was held in France at the end of the Crimean
Italian freedom fighters. For example in the War of 1854-1856.
✓ Cavour used trickery to liberate the Italian states. because Napoleon III had withdrawn from the
For example, Cavour’s tricks assisted Garibaldi in Austro-Italian War of 1859 prematurely before
the liberation of Naples and Sicily. Cavour the liberation of Venetia from Austria. This
realized that Garibaldi’s careless attack on the retarded the progress of the Italians unification,
above two states would attract other powers like although in early 1860 he returned to power.
France, Britain and Austria. ✓ He gave away the city of Nice and the territory of
Savoy to France in 1860 as a reward for her support
✓ Similarly, Cavour secured the Popal states for to Piedmont against Austria in 1859. Cavour
Italy by restraining Garibaldi from attacking Rom. therefore disappointed other Italian nationalists for
In 1860, he sent Piedmont’s troops into the Popal example Garibaldi who was coming from Nice and
states to prevent Garibaldi from attacking Rome therefore they criticized him a lot because of that.
which was the seat of the Pope. This therefore undermined the struggle for Italian
unification.
2. Explain the weaknesses of Camillo Cavour in the ✓ He pursued different political ideologies that
process of Italian unification. were contrary to those of other Italian
nationalists. For example, as an aristocrat by birth,
Count Camillo Cavour had a number of Cavour favoured monarchical rule as the best form
weaknesses which undermined the Italian
of government in Italy.
unification struggle and these included the
✓ His policies resulted into the over taxation of the
following;
✓ His temporary withdrawal or resignation as a Prime masses especially the peasants and the middle
Minister in 1859 after conflicting with King Victor class.
Emmanuel II over the continuation of the war ✓ Cavour’s initial bias against the Southern Italian
with Austria was a major weakness. He resigned states was a major weakness. Given their economic
 backwardness, Cavour’s initial dream and plan was nation.
to unite only the sates in the Northern Italy which 2. The Crimean War: The Crimean War (1853-
economically better off. 1856) was a conflict between Russia and a
He prevented Garibaldi from conquering Rome in 1860. coalition of European powers, including France
He sent the Piedmont’s troops into the Popal states and Britain. The war had a significant impact on
to stop Garibaldi from attacking Rome which was Italy as it revealed the weakness of the Italian
a setback to the Italian struggle for unification. states and the need for a unified nation.
✓ Cavour didn’t live to witness the total unification 3. The Sardinian government and Cavour: The
Sardinian government, led by Camillo di Cavour,
of Italy. He died on 6th June 1861 before Venetia was one of the most progressive and pro-
and Rome were liberated and therefore, he was unification governments in Italy. Cavour used the
unable to enjoy the fruits of his sweat. Crimean War to advance the cause of Italian
unification by forging alliances with France and
How important was Garibaldi’s contribution to Britain.
unifying Italy? 4. The Plombières Agreement: In 1858, Cavour met
with the French Emperor Napoleon III in
Giuseppe Garibaldi played a significant role in the Plombières, France, to negotiate a secret
unification of Italy in the 19th century. He led several agreement to support the cause of Italian
military campaigns, including the Expedition of the unification. The agreement promised French
Thousand, which helped bring Southern Italy under the military support in exchange for Italian support
control of the northern-based Kingdom of Sardinia and for French interests in Europe.
ultimately led to the formation of a united Italy in 1861. 5. The beginning of the Italian War of Unification:
Additionally, Garibaldi's reputation as a charismatic and The Plombières agreement marked the beginning
heroic figure helped to rally support for the cause of of the Italian War of Unification, a series of
Italian unification among the general population. He is conflicts that eventually led to the unification of
one of the key figure of Risorgimento, the movement Italy in 1861. With the support of France, the
that led to the unification of Italy. Sardinian government was able to defeat the
Austrians and create a unified Italy.
Other notable figures who contributed to the unification
of Italy include Camillo di Cavour, who served as the Why was the Plombières Agreement important?
prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia and played
akey role in diplomatic efforts to unite Italy; Victor The Plombières Agreement was important because it
Emmanuel II, who was the king of Sardinia and later marked a key moment in the Italian Risorgimento
thefirst king of a united Italy; and Alessandro Manzoni, movement and the process of Italian unification. The
a writer whose works helped to promote the idea of a agreement was signed between the French Emperor
unified Italian nation. Additionally, the French Napoleon III and the Sardinian Prime Minister Camillo
Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars had a major di Cavour in 1858 and had several important
impacton the unification of Italy as they weakened the implications:
power ofthe various Italian states and created a power
vacuum that was filled by the Kingdom of Sardinia 1. Provided French military support: The agreement
promised French military support to the cause of
Describe events leading to the Plombières meeting Italian unification, which was a critical factor in
of1858 in Italy the eventual success of the Risorgimento
movement.
The events leading to the Plombières meeting of 1858
inItaly were part of the Italian Risorgimento 2. Advancement of the cause of Italian unification:
movement, which aimed to unify Italy into a single The agreement marked a major step forward in the
nation-state. process of Italian unification and demonstrated the
increasing support for the causefrom European
1. Political turmoil in Italy: In the mid-19th powers.
century,Italy was a collection of small states
with different rulers and government systems.
There was political turmoil and a growing
desire amongthe Italian people for a unified
 3. Strengthening of the Sardinian government: The Cavour's efforts ultimately led to the formation of a
Plombières Agreement solidified the position of united Italy in 1861, with Victor Emmanuel II as its first
the Sardinian government, led by Camillo di king. The Kingdom of Sardinia, under Cavour's
Cavour, as one of the key players in the Italian leadership, played a key role in the creation of the new
Risorgimento movement. Italian state, and Cavour himself is widely considered to
4. Establishment of a strategic alliance: The be one of the leading architects of Italian unification.
agreement established a strategic alliance
between France and Sardinia, which allowed both How important for other European countries were
countries to advance their interests in Europe. moves towards Italian unification?
5. The beginning of the Italian War of Unification:
The Plombières agreement marked the beginning The moves towards Italian unification in the 19th century
of the Italian War of Unification, a series of were of significant importance for other European
conflicts that eventually led to the unification of countries for a number of reasons.
Italy in 1861
Firstly, the unification of Italy had the potential to alter
the balance of power in Europe. The various Italian
Did Cavour help or hinder the unification of Italy states had historically been controlled by foreign powers,
particularly the Austrian Empire, and the emergence of a
Camillo di Cavour, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom united and independent Italy would shift the balance of
of Sardinia, helped to significantly advance the cause of power in favor of the emerging nation.
Italian unification. He is considered to be one of the
leading statesmen of the Risorgimento, the movement Secondly, the Risorgimento movement in Italy was
that led to the unification of Italy. He pursued a policy of closely watched by other nationalistic movements in
diplomatic and military alliances with other European Europe, such as those in Germany and Poland. The
powers to weaken the hold of the Austrian Empire on success of Italian unification could inspire similar
Northern Italy. He also helped to modernize the economy movements in other countries, which could lead to the
and infrastructure of the Kingdom of Sardinia to make it weakening of the existing order in Europe.
a more powerful and attractive model for other Italian
states to follow. Lastly, the Italian unification also had an impact on
international relations. The support of France was crucial
Cavour's strategy was to bring together the various for the Italian unification, and the rising Italian power
Italian states in a federation under the leadership of the was a factor in the alliances made in Europe. For
House of Savoy, the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of example, the Franco-Sardinian alliance, was a key factor
Sardinia. He also understood that it would be difficult to in the Franco-Austrian War of 1859, which resulted in
unify Italy by force alone, and therefore sought to gain the weakening of the Austrian Empire and the emergence
the support of foreign powers, particularly France, to of Italy as a new major power in Europe
help in the effort.
Explain the Italian nationalism and the role of
Mazzini

Italian nationalism refers to the political and social

movement that sought to unify the various Italian states
into a single nation-state in the 19th century. This
movement, known as the Risorgimento, was driven by a
desire to break free from foreign domination and create a
modern, independent and united Italy.

Giuseppe Mazzini was a key figure in the Italian

nationalist movement. He was a political activist and
writer who helped to promote the idea of a unified Italian
nation. He believed that the unification of Italy was
necessary for the moral and spiritual rejuvenation of the
Italian people. He also believed that the creation of a key European powers and the geopolitical situation in
united Italy would lead to the creation of a democratic Europe.
and republic state, free from the influence of foreign
powers.
How was Garibaldi and the invasion of Sicily and
Mazzini founded a number of secret societies, such as Naples?
Young Italy, which aimed to spread the ideas of
nationalism and republicanism throughout Italy. He also Giuseppe Garibaldi led an invasion of Sicily and Naples
played a leading role in organizing revolts and uprisings in 1860 as part of the movement to unify Italy. The
against foreign rule, such as the Five Days of Milan in expedition, known as the Expedition of the Thousand,
1848. began in May of that year when Garibaldi and his
followers, known as the "Redshirts," set sail from Genoa
Mazzini's ideas and actions were influential in shaping with the goal of landing in Sicily and sparking a popular
the nationalist movement in Italy, and his belief in the rebellion against the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two
importance of a united and democratic Italy helped to Sicilies.
rally support for the cause of Italian unification.
Although Mazzini's vision of a republic was not fully The expedition was successful in landing in Sicily and
realized, his ideas laid the foundation for the quickly gaining the support of the local population. The
development of a strong national identity and the Redshirts defeated the Bourbon forces in several battles
emergence of a united Italy in 1861 and, by August, had captured Palermo, the capital of
Sicily. Garibaldi then set his sights on Naples, the capital
‘Garibaldi deserves to be seen as the creator of the of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and in September,
Kingdom of Italy.’ How far do you agree with this the Redshirts captured the city with little resistance.
statement?
The expedition was a significant event in the unification
✓ The statement "Garibaldi deserves to be seen as the of Italy, as it marked the first time that southern Italy had
creator of the Kingdom of Italy" is a matter of come under the control of the northern-based Kingdom
interpretation and debate. While it is true that of Sardinia. The success of the expedition led to the
Garibaldi played a crucial role in the process of formation of a united Italy in 1861, with Victor
Italian unification, it is also important to Emmanuel II as its first king.
acknowledge the contributions of other key figures
and factors. The invasion of Sicily and Naples also had a major
✓ On one hand, Garibaldi led a series of successful impact on the political situation in Europe. The Bourbon
military campaigns, including the Thousand Men Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was a key ally of the
Expedition in 1860, that helped to bring about the Spanish Empire and the Catholic Church, and the
unification of Italy. He was also a charismatic and collapse of the Bourbon regime in southern Italy was a
inspirational leader, and his deeds and reputation major blow to these institutions. Additionally, the
helped to galvanize support for the cause of Italian success of the expedition was closely watched by other
unification. nationalistic movements in Europe, such as those in
✓ On the other hand, it is also important to recognize Germany and Poland, and it helped to inspire similar
the contributions of other key figures in the process movements in other countries.
of Italian unification, such as Camillo di Cavour and
Victor Emmanuel II. Cavour, as Prime Minister of UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
Sardinia, was the architect of the diplomatic strategy
that helped to secure the support of other European Why was Germany not unified in 1848–50?
powers for the cause of Italian unification. Victor
Emmanuel II, as the King of Sardinia, was the first Germany was not unified in 1848-50 due to a
ruler of a united Italy. combination of political, economic, and social factors.
✓ Additionally, the unification of Italy was the result of
a complex set of factors, including economic, social, 1. Political Factors: The German states were divided
and political developments, as well as the actions of into numerous smaller states with different
political systems, interests, and traditions. This
 made it difficult to form a cohesive national Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, played a
identity and find common ground for political key role in bringing about Austria's defeat in the Austro-
unity. Furthermore, the strong tradition of state Prussian War of 1866. Bismarck used a combination of
sovereignty in the German states made it difficult diplomacy and military tactics to achieve this victory.
for any one state to dominate the others.
2. Economic Factors: The German states were also 1. Diplomacy: Bismarck worked to isolate Austria
economically diverse, with some states being from its traditional allies, such as Russia and
more developed and economically powerful than Italy. He formed alliances with other European
others. This made it difficult to find a balance of powers, such as Italy, to counterbalance Austrian
power that would satisfy all the states. power.
3. Social Factors: Germany was also culturally and 2. Military buildup: Bismarck also oversaw a
linguistically diverse, with different regions massive military buildup in Prussia. He
having their own distinct traditions and dialects. modernized the Prussian army and made it one of
This made it difficult to create a shared national the most efficient and powerful in Europe.
identity. 3. Provocation: Bismarck also took steps to provoke
4. International Factors: The influence of other Austria into declaring war. He pushed Austria to
European powers, such as Austria and Russia, take a more aggressive stance towards Prussia,
also hindered German unity. These powers saw a knowing that this would lead to a conflict.
united Germany as a threat to their own interests 4. Quick and decisive action: Once the war began,
and power, and worked to prevent it. Bismarck pushed for a quick and decisive
5. Lack of Leadership: The German states also victory. He instructed the Prussian army to
lacked strong and visionary leaders who could launch a rapid and overwhelming attack on
rally the people around a common cause and Austria, which quickly defeated the Austrian
guide the nation towards unity army and ended the war.
6. Lack of support from the German aristocracy: 5. Strategic alliances: Bismarck worked to build
The German nobility was content with the strategic alliances with other European powers,
existing political system and saw little benefit in such as Italy and Sweden, to counterbalance
supporting a united Germany. Austrian power. This helped isolate Austria and
7. Weakness of the Frankfurt Parliament: The made it more vulnerable to attack.
Frankfurt Parliament, which was elected in 1848 6. Propaganda: Bismarck also used propaganda to
to represent the German states, lacked the power stir up anti-Austrian sentiment in Germany and to
and legitimacy to drive the process of German present Prussia as the defender of German unity
unity. and interests.
8. Failure of the revolutions of 1848: The 7. Skillful negotiations: Bismarck was a skilled
revolutions of 1848 that swept through Europe negotiator and was able to extract concessions
also impacted Germany, but they failed to bring from other European powers that helped weaken
about lasting change. The uprisings were largely Austria and strengthen Prussia.
dispersed, and many Germans were not willing to 8. Manipulation of the press: Bismarck was also
support the idea of revolution. able to manipulate the press to further his goals.
9. Divide-and-conquer tactics by the great powers: He controlled the narrative and presented events
The great powers of Europe, particularly Austria, in a way that favored Prussia and helped to build
used divide-and-conquer tactics to prevent the support for the war.
German states from unifying. 9. Strategic planning: Bismarck was a master
10. Lack of public support: The idea of German unity strategist, and he carefully planned the war with
was not yet widespread among the general Austria. He chose the timing and location of the
population, and many Germans saw little benefit conflict to give Prussia the best possible
in giving up their regional identity for a larger advantage
national one
How did Bismarck bring about France’s defeat of
How did Bismarck bring about Austria’s defeat of 1870
1866
Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, played a effort, and that all resources were directed
key role in bringing about France's defeat in the Franco- towards the conflict.
Prussian War of 1870-71. Bismarck used a combination 9. Influence on the German states: Bismarck was
of diplomacy, military tactics, and propaganda to achieve also able to use his influence over the various
this victory. German states to ensure their support for the war
effort. He made sure that these states contributed
1. Diplomacy: Bismarck worked to isolate France troops and resources to the conflict, and that they
from its traditional allies, such as Britain, and to remained unified and committed to the war
form alliances with other European powers, such
as Austria-Hungary and Russia, to How far was Bismarck responsible for the unification
counterbalance French power. of Germany
2. Provocation: Bismarck also took steps to provoke
France into declaring war. He pushed the French Otto von Bismarck is widely regarded as the key figure
government to take a more aggressive stance in the unification of Germany. He was the Chancellor of
towards Prussia, knowing that this would lead to Prussia from 1862 to 1890 and played a crucial role in
a conflict. bringing together the various German states into a single,
3. Quick and decisive action: Once the war began, unified country.
Bismarck pushed for a quick and decisive
victory. He instructed the Prussian army to Bismarck's contributions to the unification of Germany
launch a rapid and overwhelming attack on include:
France, which quickly defeated the French army
and ended the war. 1. Diplomacy: Bismarck used his diplomatic skills
4. Propaganda: Bismarck also used propaganda to and political savvy to negotiate the creation of a
present the war as a just and necessary conflict to North German Confederation in 1867. This
defend German interests and unity. He controlled served as a stepping stone towards the eventual
the narrative and presented events in a way that unification of Germany.
favored Prussia and helped to build support for 2. Wars of Unification: Bismarck was also
the war responsible for the two wars that resulted in the
5. Reforms in the Prussian military: Bismarck was unification of Germany. The Austro-Prussian
instrumental in modernizing and streamlining the War of 1866 allowed Bismarck to isolate Austria
Prussian military, making it a highly effective and bring about the creation of the North German
fighting force. The Prussian army was well- Confederation. The Franco-Prussian War of
trained, well-equipped, and well-led, and this 1870-71 brought the southern German states into
made it capable of defeating France. the fold and resulted in the establishment of the
6. Effective mobilization: Bismarck also played a German Empire.
key role in ensuring the effective mobilization of 3. Influence over the German states: Bismarck was
the Prussian army. He implemented a able to use his influence over the various German
comprehensive system of conscription and states to ensure their support for the process of
logistics that allowed the Prussian army to unification. He made sure that the different states
quickly and efficiently gather its forces and move were willing to work together towards a common
them to the front lines. goal, and that they were willing to sacrifice their
7. Strategic planning: Bismarck was a master own interests for the greater good.
strategist, and he carefully planned the war with 4. Control of the government: Bismarck was the
France. He chose the timing and location of the most powerful figure in the Prussian government,
conflict to give Prussia the best possible and he used this power to shape the government's
advantage. policies and decisions. He made sure that the
8. Control of the government: Bismarck was the government was fully committed to the process
most powerful figure in the Prussian government, of unification, and that all resources were
and he used this power to shape the government's directed towards this goal.
policies and decisions. He made sure that the 5. Economic integration: The German states were
government was fully committed to the war already experiencing significant economic
integration, and this helped to bring the different
 regions closer together. The establishment of a state. The parliament was unable to overcome the
common market, shared currency, and divisions between the various German states, and it was
standardized rail network made it easier for the unable to secure the support of key political and military
different regions to trade with each other and leaders. Ultimately, the parliament was dissolved in 1849
cooperate. without having achieved its goal
6. Nationalism: Nationalism was a powerful force in
19th-century Europe, and it played a significant What caused the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament?
role in the unification of Germany. People were
increasingly identifying as Germans, rather than The Frankfurt Parliament failed for several reasons,
as members of individual states, and this helped including:
to create a sense of national unity.
7. Support from the middle class: The middle class 1. Lack of Unity: The Frankfurt Parliament was
was a key supporter of the unification process, as composed of representatives from various regions of
it saw the creation of a single, unified Germany Germany, who held differing opinions and interests.
as a way to improve its economic and social This lack of unity made it difficult for the Parliament
status. The middle class provided much of the to reach consensus on important issues, such as the
financial and political support that was needed to structure of a unified German state.
bring the different states together. 2. Opposition from States: The Frankfurt Parliament
8. Defeat of Austria: The defeat of Austria in the faced opposition from the various German states,
Austro-Prussian War of 1866 weakened Austria's particularly the conservative states, which were
influence in the region and allowed Bismarck to opposed to the idea of a unified Germany. This
bring the other German states together under opposition made it difficult for the Parliament to
Prussian leadership. make progress on its goals.
9. Defeat of France: The defeat of France in the 3. Lack of Support from the People: The Frankfurt
Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 marked the Parliament also lacked support from the German
establishment of the German Empire and brought people, who were not fully engaged in the political
the southern German states into the fold process and did not feel a strong sense of national
unity. This lack of public support made it difficult for
How was the setting up of the Frankfurt Parliament the Parliament to achieve its goals.
4. Lack of Authority: The Frankfurt Parliament had
✓ The Frankfurt Parliament was established in 1848 limited authority and was not recognized by the
as part of the Revolutions of 1848 that swept various German states, who saw it as a temporary
across Europe. The parliament was created with body with no real power. This lack of authority made
the goal of unifying the various German-speaking it difficult for the Parliament to enforce its decisions
states into a single, federal state. and carry out its plans.
✓ The Frankfurt Parliament was convened in the 5. Pressure from the Prussian Government: The
Paulskirche in Frankfurt am Main, and it was the Prussian government also exerted pressure on the
first national parliament in German history. It Frankfurt Parliament, seeking to preserve its own
was composed of representatives from the interests and maintain its dominant position in
various German states, and its goal was to draft a Germany. This pressure made it difficult for the
constitution that would unify the country and Parliament to make progress on its goals.
establish a federal system of government.
✓ The Frankfurt Parliament was the result of
growing nationalism and a desire for political Who was Otto Von Bismarck?
reform in the German states. The Revolutions of
1848 had created a sense of urgency among many Otto von Bismarck was a 19th-century German
Germans to establish a unified state, and the statesman who played a central role in the unification of
Frankfurt Parliament was seen as a way to Germany. He served as the Prime Minister of Prussia
achieve this goal.

Despite its best efforts, however, the Frankfurt

Parliament was unable to establish a unified German
from 1862 to 1890, and later as the first Chancellor of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871 and the colonization of
the German Empire from 1871 to 1890. Bismarck was African territories in the late 19th century
known for his political skills, his ruthless pursuit of
power, and his ability to manipulate events to achieve his What is the difference between realpolitik and
goals. He was instrumental in the defeat of Denmark in multipolitik
1864, the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, and the Franco-
Prussian War in 1870-71, which helped to unify the Realpolitik and multipolitik are two distinct political
various German states under the banner of the German ideologies that have been used to guide foreign policy
Empire. Despite the controversy surrounding many of his decisions throughout history.
policies, Bismarck is widely regarded as one of the most
important figures in modern German history and is ✓ Realpolitik is a practical, results-oriented approach to
remembered for his role in the creation of the German foreign policy that is based on the principles of
Empire power and self-interest. In this worldview, nations
pursue their own interests through a ruthless
What were the policies of Bismarck as Prussian calculation of power, seeking to maximize their own
Minister? advantages and minimize their disadvantages in
international relations. Realpolitik emphasizes the
Otto von Bismarck, as Prussian Minister, implemented pursuit of national interests over moral or ideological
several key policies that helped to unify Germany and considerations and often involves making pragmatic
establish Prussia as a major power in Europe. Some of compromises and negotiating with other nations in
these policies include: order to achieve national goals.
✓ Multipolarity, on the other hand, refers to a system in
1. Blood and Iron Policy: Bismarck believed that the which multiple global or regional powers have
unification of Germany could only be achieved roughly equal influence and power. In this system, no
through military force and diplomacy, and single nation is dominant and decision-making is
implemented this "blood and iron" policy to achieve spread among several actors. The multipolar world
his goals. This led to the defeat of Denmark in 1864, view emphasizes the importance of cooperation and
the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, and the Franco- diplomacy, as well as a more equal distribution of
Prussian War in 1870-71. power and influence among nations. The idea behind
2. Realpolitik: Bismarck pursued a policy of multipolitik is to prevent a single nation or bloc of
"realpolitik" in his dealings with other European nations from monopolizing power and decision-
powers, seeking to advance Prussian interests making, which can lead to instability and conflict.
through practical and pragmatic means. This
approach helped to maintain stability in Europe and In summary, realpolitik prioritizes national self-interest
secure Prussian gains. and power, while multipolitik prioritizes cooperation and
3. Kulturkampf: Bismarck implemented a series of balance of power among nations.
measures aimed at suppressing the power of the
Catholic Church in Prussia, known as the What is weltipolitik
"Kulturkampf." This policy helped to reduce the
influence of the Catholic Church in Prussian society Weltpolitik, or "world policy," was a term used in late
and consolidate the power of the Prussian state. 19th-century and early 20th-century Germany to describe
4. Anti-Socialist Policies: Bismarck also implemented the country's foreign policy. It was a response to the idea
anti-socialist policies, seeking to suppress the of Realpolitik, which was characterized by a focus on
growing socialist movement in Prussia and Europe. practical, results-oriented foreign policy, and was instead
This included measures such as the Anti-Socialist marked by a more idealistic and ambitious approach.
Laws of 1878, which aimed to limit the freedom of
speech, assembly, and press for socialist Under Weltpolitik, the German government sought to
organizations. establish the country as a major world power by pursuing
5. Expansion and Conquest: Bismarck was also an active and assertive foreign policy. This involved
committed to the expansion and conquest of new building up the military and pursuing colonies, as well as
territories, and pursued a policy of imperialism to a more aggressive posture in international relations. The
achieve this goal. This included the annexation of goal of Weltpolitik was to secure Germany's place as a
dominant world power and to assert its influence on the Bismarck's foreign policy of 1871 led to the Austro-
global stage. Prussian War as a result of his efforts to consolidate
German national unity and maintain Prussian dominance
Weltpolitik was largely driven by Kaiser Wilhelm II and in the region. He saw the conflict as an opportunity to
his advisors, who sought to transform Germany from a increase Prussian power and weaken the influence of
regional power into a major global actor. However, this Austria, which was seen as a rival to Prussian dominance
aggressive foreign policy ultimately contributed to in Germany.
tensions between Germany and other major powers,
including Britain, France, and Russia, and was a key Bismarck used a combination of diplomacy, propaganda,
factor in the build-up to World War I. After the war, and military threats to provoke a conflict with Austria.
Weltpolitik was discredited and the country's foreign He manipulated public opinion and incited anti-Austrian
policy shifted back towards a more pragmatic and sentiment among the German states to build support for a
restrained approach war. He also worked behind the scenes to secure
alliances with other European powers, including Italy
How was Bismarck’s foreign policy to 1871 in and Russia, to increase the military and political support
Schleswig-Holstein for Prussia.

Bismarck's foreign policy in Schleswig-Holstein in the The conflict between Austria and Prussia began in June
years leading up to 1871 was characterized by a focus on 1866, when Prussia declared war on Austria. The war
maintaining Prussian dominance in the region and lasted only seven weeks and ended with a decisive
consolidating German national unity. This was achieved victory for Prussia. The Austro-Prussian War was a
through a series of diplomatic and military maneuvers major turning point in German history, as it led to the
aimed at gaining control over the duchies of Schleswig establishment of the North German Confederation, which
and Holstein. later became the German Empire, under the leadership of
Prussia.
In 1864, Bismarck launched a war against Denmark over
the control of Schleswig-Holstein, which was followed Bismarck's foreign policy in 1871 was successful in
by a defeat of Austria in the Seven Weeks' War in 1866. consolidating German national unity and establishing
These victories allowed Prussia to gain control over the Prussian dominance, but it also contributed to the
two duchies and to establish its dominance over the growing tensions and instability in Europe leading up to
German Confederation. World War I. His aggressive approach and the success of
Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War set a dangerous
Bismarck then used the Schleswig-Holstein issue as a precedent for the use of military force to achieve political
pretext to unite the various German states into a single and nationalistic aims in Europe
nation-state under Prussian leadership. The key
achievement of Bismarck's foreign policy in Schleswig- How was Bismarck’s foreign policy to 1871
Holstein was the creation of the North German responsible for the creation of the German empire
Confederation in 1867, which formed the basis for the
later establishment of the German Empire in 1871. Bismarck's foreign policy played a crucial role in the
creation of the German Empire in 1871. Bismarck, as the
Bismarck's foreign policy in Schleswig-Holstein was Chancellor of Prussia, aimed to unify the various
characterized by his use of diplomacy, military force, German-speaking states under Prussian dominance and
and cunning tactics to achieve his objectives. His establish a strong and unified German state.
aggressive approach was successful in establishing
Prussian dominance over the German states, but it alsoBismarck's foreign policy of 1871 involved a series of
created tensions with other European powers and military and diplomatic actions aimed at consolidating
German national unity and maintaining Prussian
contributed to the growing instability in Europe leading
up to World War I dominance. This policy led to the Austro-Prussian War
in 1866, which resulted in a decisive victory for Prussia
How did Bismarck’s foreign policy of 1871 lead to the and weakened the influence of Austria, a rival to
Austro–Prussian War Prussian dominance in Germany.
After the war, Bismarck worked to establish the North countries eventually established diplomatic relations
German Confederation, which was later transformed into and signed a number of treaties aimed at improving
the German Empire. He negotiated a series of treaties their relationship and promoting peace and stability
with the German states, which granted them autonomy in Europe.
and ensured that the new empire would be dominated by ▪ This eventually led to the signing of the Entente
Prussia. Cordiale in 1904, a diplomatic agreement between
France and Britain that aimed to resolve long-
Bismarck's successful foreign policy of 1871 was a key standing tensions between the two countries and lay
factor in the creation of the German Empire and helped the foundation for a more cooperative relationship.
to establish Prussia as the dominant power in Germany.
It also helped to lay the foundation for a strong and
unified German state, which played a major role in the
politics and economy of Europe in the late 19th and early After 1850 Germany made steady progress towards
unification
20th centuries
What actions were taken between 1859 and 1862 to
How did Bismarck’s foreign policy to 1871 create
increase the strength of the Prussian army?
relationship with France
Between 1859 and 1862, the Prussian government took
▪ Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of the German
several actions to increase the strength of the Prussian
Empire, implemented a foreign policy aimed at
army. These actions included:
isolating France and preventing it from forming
alliances with other European powers. Bismarck
1. Military Reforms: In 1859, the Prussian
believed that a strong and unified Germany required
government enacted a series of military reforms
the exclusion of France from the affairs of Europe.
that modernized and strengthened the Prussian
▪ In order to achieve this, Bismarck pursued a series of
army. These reforms included the creation of a
diplomatic and military initiatives that ultimately led
new system of conscription, which increased the
to the Franco-Prussian War in 1870-1871. The war
size of the army, and the adoption of new tactics
resulted in the defeat of France and the establishment
and training programs.
of the German Empire.
2. Expansion of the Officer Corps: The Prussian
▪ The aftermath of the war marked the beginning of a
government also expanded the size of the officer
strained relationship between Germany and France.
corps, providing more experienced and capable
Bismarck's aggressive foreign policy and the defeat
leaders to command the army.
of France in the Franco-Prussian War had deepened
3. Increase in Military Spending: To support these
the sense of resentment and mistrust between the two
reforms, the Prussian government increased
countries. Bismarck continued to pursue a policy of
military spending, investing in new weapons and
excluding France from the affairs of Europe and
equipment, as well as training programs and
ensuring its political and military isolation
infrastructure.
▪ Certainly! Bismarck's foreign policy towards France
4. Strengthening of Military-Industrial Complex:
continued to evolve over the years. After the Franco-
The Prussian government also strengthened its
Prussian War, Bismarck worked to isolate France
military-industrial complex, promoting the
politically and economically, by negotiating a series
development of new technologies and the
of alliances with other European powers, including
expansion of existing industries that supplied the
the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, and
military.
the Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882.
5. Reorganization of Military Structure: The
▪ In addition, Bismarck worked to suppress the spread
Prussian government also reorganized the
of French cultural and political influence in
military structure, creating new units and
Germany, through measures such as censorship and
formations, and streamlining the command
the promotion of German national identity.
structure to improve efficiency and
▪ However, despite Bismarck's efforts to isolate
responsiveness.
France, the relationship between the two countries
gradually improved over time, particularly after
Bismarck's fall from power in 1890. The two
Why did Frederick William IV accept the Treaty of 8. Diplomatic Leverage: The Treaty of Olmütz also
Olmütz? provided Prussia with diplomatic leverage,
allowing the Prussian government to exert greater
Frederick William IV, the King of Prussia, accepted the influence in Europe and to participate more fully
Treaty of Olmütz in November 1851 for a combination in the European diplomatic community.
of political, military, and economic reasons.
The most important outcome of the Treaty of Prague
1. Political Pressure: The Prussian government was (1866) was that Schleswig-Holstein became Prussian.’
facing significant political pressure from other How far do you agree with this statement?
European powers, particularly Austria, which was
seeking to preserve its dominant position in The statement that "The most important outcome of the
Germany and prevent the rise of a strong Prussian Treaty of Prague (1866) was that Schleswig-Holstein
state. became Prussian" is partially true but oversimplifies the
2. Military Constraints: Prussia was facing military significance of the treaty.
constraints, as it was unable to maintain a large
enough army to effectively defend its interests in The Treaty of Prague was signed on August 23, 1866,
Germany. The Treaty of Olmütz required Prussia and ended the Seven Weeks' War between Prussia and
to demobilize its army and reduce its military Austria. The treaty resulted in the transfer of the duchies
presence in the German Confederation. of Schleswig, Holstein, and Saxe-Lauenburg from
3. Economic Considerations: The Prussian Austrian control to Prussian control. The acquisition of
government was also facing significant economic these territories was a significant moment in the
difficulties, as it was struggling to maintain its consolidation of German power under Prussian
finances and pay its debts. The Treaty of Olmütz leadership, which ultimately led to the creation of the
provided Prussia with much-needed financial German Empire in 1871.
support and allowed it to stabilize its economy.
4. International Isolation: Prussia was also facing However, it's important to note that the Treaty of Prague
international isolation, as it had become had other significant outcomes beyond just the transfer
increasingly isolated from other European powers of Schleswig-Holstein to Prussian control. The treaty
and was seen as a destabilizing force in the marked the end of the German Confederation and the
region. The Treaty of Olmütz helped to restore beginning of a new era in German politics. The Prussian
Prussia's international standing and allowed it to victory over Austria in the Seven Weeks' War solidified
reestablish its place in the European diplomatic Prussia's dominant position in Germany, and the treaty
community. helped to establish the new balance of power in Europe
5. Strategic Interests: The Treaty of Olmütz was after the war.
also important for Prussia's strategic interests, as
it allowed the Prussian government to maintain AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 1861 – 1865
control over its territories and defend its borders Explain the reasons for the cause of civil war in
against potential threats. United States
6. Domestic Considerations: Frederick William IV
was also concerned with domestic considerations, The American Civil War, fought from 1861 to 1865, was
including maintaining stability within Prussia and caused by a complex set of political, economic, and
avoiding the potential for civil unrest and social factors that ultimately led to a deep divide between
political turmoil. The Treaty of Olmütz helped to the Northern and Southern states. The main causes of the
achieve this by reducing tensions with other Civil War were:
European powers and reducing the risk of
conflict. 1. Slavery: The central cause of the Civil War was
7. Future Opportunities: The Prussian government slavery, and the disagreement over whether slavery
saw the Treaty of Olmütz as a means of would be allowed in the newly acquired territories.
preserving its options for the future, allowing it to The South relied heavily on slavery for their
maintain its military capabilities and resources, economy, while the North was against it.
and to be prepared for potential opportunities for 2. States' rights: The South felt that their rights were
expansion and growth in the future. being violated by the federal government and that the
 North was imposing its political and economic people in the United States were free and equal under
policies on the South. They believed that the states, the law.
not the federal government, had the right to make 2. Reunification of the country: The Civil War resulted
decisions about slavery. in the reunification of the United States, as the
3. Economic differences: The North and South had Southern states were reincorporated into the Union.
different economies. The North was mostly 3. Strengthening of the federal government: The
industrialized and relied on manufacturing and trade, outcome of the Civil War also strengthened the
while the South was primarily agricultural and relied power of the federal government and established it as
on the export of cotton and other crops. These the supreme authority in the country. This led to a
economic differences led to disagreements over more centralized and unified government and helped
tariffs, taxes, and other economic policies. to heal the wounds left by the war.
4. Political differences: The North and South had 4. Economic changes: The end of slavery had a
different political views and priorities. The North profound impact on the Southern economy, and the
was mostly Republican and supportive of a strong region faced significant challenges as it struggled to
federal government, while the South was mostly rebuild and transition to a new economic system.
Democratic and supportive of states' rights. Meanwhile, the Northern economy experienced
5. Cultural differences: The North and South had significant growth, as industry and trade continued to
distinct cultural identities, with the South often expand.
feeling that their way of life and traditions were 5. Political changes: The Civil War also resulted in
being threatened by the North. significant political changes, as the country struggled
6. Disagreements over the Fugitive Slave Act: This law to rebuild and address the long-standing issues that
required citizens to assist in the capture and return of had led to the war. The Reconstruction Era, which
runaway slaves, which was seen by many in the lasted from 1865 to 1877, saw significant reforms
North as a violation of their civil liberties and aimed at rebuilding the South and ensuring equal
constitutional rights. rights for all citizens
7. The growth of the abolitionist movement: This
movement, which aimed to abolish slavery, gained Who was Abraham Lincoln
significant support in the North and further deepened
the divide between the North and South. Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 - April 15, 1865)
8. The election of Abraham Lincoln: The election of was the 16th President of the United States, serving from
Abraham Lincoln in 1860 was seen by many in the 1861 until his assassination in 1865. He is widely
South as a threat to their way of life, as Lincoln was regarded as one of the greatest American Presidents and
an opponent of slavery and supported stronger is often referred to as the "Great Emancipator."
federal control.
9. The impact of the Missouri Compromise: This Lincoln was born in Kentucky and raised in Illinois. He
compromise, which was intended to balance the was a self-taught lawyer and Whig Party politician who
number of slave and free states, was seen by many in quickly rose to prominence in the Illinois state
the South as a violation of their rights and led to legislature. In 1860, he was elected as the first
increased tensions between the North and South. Republican President of the United States, and he is
widely credited with preserving the Union during the
What were the results of A merican civil war American Civil War and ending slavery in the United
States through the issuance of the Emancipation
The American Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to Proclamation.
1865, had significant and far-reaching consequences for
the United States. Some of the key results of the war Lincoln's presidency was marked by his leadership
include: during the Civil War, his efforts to preserve the Union,
and his commitment to ending slavery. He is also
1. Abolition of slavery: One of the most important remembered for his famous speeches, including the
outcomes of the Civil War was the abolition of Gettysburg Address, in which he redefined the Civil War
slavery in the United States. The 13th Amendment to as a struggle for freedom and democracy.
the Constitution, which was ratified in 1865,
officially abolished slavery and ensured that all
After his assassination, Lincoln's legacy as a great leader The North was able to win the American Civil War
and champion of freedom and equality has only grown. (1861-1865) due to several key advantages and factors,
Today, he is widely celebrated for his role in preserving including:
the Union and ending slavery, and for his leadership
during one of the most challenging times in American 1. Superior numbers and resources: The North had a
history. much larger population, a stronger economy, and
greater industrial capacity than the South. This
What was the significance of Lincoln’s election as allowed the North to field a larger army and sustain a
president longer war effort. The North also had a larger navy,
which gave it control of the waterways and made it
The election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the difficult for the South to receive supplies from
United States in 1860 was a significant event in overseas.
American history for several reasons: 2. Effective leadership: The North had a number of
talented military leaders, including Ulysses S. Grant
1. Slavery: Lincoln was an opponent of slavery and and William T. Sherman, who were able to
believed in preserving the Union. This stance was effectively coordinate their efforts and direct the war
seen as a direct threat to the Southern states, where effort. The North also had a strong political leader in
slavery was a central part of the economy and way of President Abraham Lincoln, who provided steady
life. The election of Lincoln was seen as a catalyst and effective leadership throughout the war.
for the American Civil War, as it heightened tensions 3. Better logistics and transportation: The North had a
between the North and South over the issue of more developed transportation infrastructure,
slavery. including railroads, canals, and roads, which made it
2. Secession of the Southern States: The election of easier to move troops and supplies. This gave the
Lincoln led to the secession of several Southern North a major advantage in terms of mobility and
states, as they felt that their rights were being allowed it to quickly respond to events on the
threatened by the federal government. The secession battlefield.
of these states ultimately led to the formation of the 4. Strategic victories: The North was able to achieve
Confederate States of America and the outbreak of several key strategic victories during the war,
the American Civil War. including the Battle of Gettysburg and the capture of
3. Leadership during the Civil War: Lincoln's election Vicksburg, which helped to turn the tide of the war in
and presidency were marked by his leadership during its favor.
the American Civil War. He was widely regarded as 5. Blockade of Southern ports: The North was able to
one of the country's greatest presidents, and his implement a successful blockade of Southern ports,
leadership during the war helped to preserve the which hindered the South's ability to receive supplies
Union and abolish slavery. from overseas and limited its ability to export goods.
4. Emancipation Proclamation: One of Lincoln's most 6. International support: The North also had support
significant acts as President was the issuance of the from Europe, which helped to secure much-needed
Emancipation Proclamation, which declared that all resources and supplies, as well as diplomatic
slaves in Confederate-held territory were to be freed. recognition
This was a turning point in the Civil War and helped
to build support for the Union cause. Did the war change anything
5. Legacy: Abraham Lincoln is widely regarded as one
of the greatest presidents in American history, and Yes, the American Civil War (1861-1865) had far-
his legacy continues to be felt to this day. His reaching consequences and brought about significant
leadership during the Civil War and his role in changes in the United States. Some of the most notable
preserving the Union and ending slavery have had a changes and outcomes of the war include:
profound impact on the country and are widely
celebrated 1. Emancipation of Slaves: One of the most significant
outcomes of the war was the end of slavery in the
Why was the North able to win the war United States. President Abraham Lincoln issued the
Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, declaring that
all slaves in Confederate-held territories were to be
 freed. The 13th Amendment to the Constitution, believed that the federal government was overstepping
which officially abolished slavery, was ratified in its bounds by interfering in the institution of slavery.
1865.
2. Reunification of the United States: The war resulted In response to the election of Lincoln, several Southern
in the reunification of the United States and the states seceded from the Union, leading to the outbreak of
preservation of the Union. The Confederacy, which the Civil War. The election of 1860 was a turning point
sought to secede from the Union, was defeated, and in American history and set the stage for the devastating
the country was restored as a single, united nation. conflict that would divide the country for four years. The
3. Reconstruction and social change: After the war, the outcome of the election had significant consequences for
country underwent a period of Reconstruction, during the future of the United States, as it marked the
which the government worked to rebuild the beginning of a struggle to preserve the Union and end
devastated South and extend civil rights and slavery that would shape the country's political and
economic opportunities to newly freed slaves. This social landscape for generations to come
period of social change had a profound impact on
American society and paved the way for future civil What were reasons for the North’s victory in the
rights movements. American Civil War (1861-1865)
4. Increased federal power: The war resulted in a shift
of power from the states to the federal government. The North's victory in the American Civil War (1861-
The federal government assumed greater authority 1865) was the result of several key factors, including:
over a number of issues, including the regulation of
commerce, the management of the currency, and the 1. Superior resources: The North had a number of
protection of civil rights. advantages that allowed it to outlast and ultimately
5. Development of industry and technology: The war defeat the Confederacy. The North had a larger
led to significant advancements in industry and population, a more developed economy, and more
technology, including the development of new access to resources such as food, weapons, and
weapons and innovations in transportation, supplies. This allowed the North to sustain a longer
communication, and manufacturing. These and more effective war effort.
developments had a lasting impact on the American 2. Strong leadership: Abraham Lincoln, who served as
economy and helped to spur the country's growth and President of the United States throughout the war,
expansion provided strong and effective leadership for the
Union cause. Lincoln's leadership helped to maintain
How did the 1860 election succeed in the Southern public support for the war effort and ensured that the
states North's war strategy was well-coordinated and
focused.
The 1860 presidential election was a significant event in 3. Strategic advantages: The North had several key
the lead up to the American Civil War (1861-1865). In strategic advantages over the Confederacy, including
the Southern states, the election was seen as a a more effective navy, better transportation
referendum on the future of slavery and the power of the infrastructure, and a stronger system of
federal government. The election of Abraham Lincoln, a communication and supply lines. These advantages
Republican and opponent of the expansion of slavery, allowed the North to better coordinate its efforts and
was seen as a direct threat to the interests of slaveholders mount a more effective war effort.
in the South. 4. Control of the Mississippi River: The North's control
of the Mississippi River was a key factor in its
The election of 1860 saw a significant shift in political victory. The river was a major transportation and
power, as Lincoln won the presidency without winning a commerce route, and the North's control of the river
single Southern state. The Southern states, which had gave it a major strategic advantage, allowing it to
traditionally been dominated by the Democratic Party, move troops and supplies more easily and to cut the
were deeply divided over the issue of slavery and the Confederacy in two.
role of the federal government. Many Southern leaders 5. Effective use of technology: The North made
felt that Lincoln's election represented a threat to their effective use of technology during the war, including
way of life and their economic interests, and they the development of new weapons, innovations in
transportation and communication, and
 improvements in medical care. These advances 1. The balance of free states and slave states: The
helped the North to better coordinate its efforts and admission of Missouri as a slave state would upset
mount a more effective war effort. the balance of free states and slave states in the
6. International support: The North received limited United States, and many Northerners were concerned
support from other countries, including Britain and that this would give the South too much political
France, which helped to sustain its war effort and put power in the federal government.
pressure on the Confederacy 2. The spread of slavery: The admission of Missouri as
a slave state would have opened the door to the
How Slavery was a controversial issue for American further expansion of slavery into the West, which
people after 1820. many Northerners believed was a moral evil that
needed to be contained.
Slavery was a controversial issue in the United States 3. The constitutional protection of slavery: The issue of
after 1820, as the country was divided over the morality slavery in Missouri also raised questions about the
and legality of the institution. On the one hand, many extent to which the federal government could
Southerners saw slavery as an essential aspect of their regulate the institution of slavery. Many Southerners
economy and way of life, and they believed that it was argued that slavery was protected by the Constitution
protected by the Constitution. On the other hand, many and that the federal government had no authority to
Northerners saw slavery as a moral evil and believed that restrict it.
it was a stain on the country's founding principles of 4. The question of popular sovereignty: There was also
liberty and equality. a debate over whether or not the people of Missouri
should be allowed to decide for themselves whether
The issue of slavery became increasingly contentious or not slavery would be allowed in the state. This
after 1820, as the country expanded westward and the issue was particularly contentious, as many
number of free states and territories grew. This created a Northerners believed that the spread of slavery was a
political and cultural divide between the North and the national issue that needed to be addressed by the
South, as the North became increasingly hostile to federal government.
slavery and the South became increasingly defensive of
it. Why was the publication of the novel ‘Uncle Tom’s
Cabin’ significant
The issue of slavery came to a head in the 1850s, as the
country was torn apart by the debates over the expansion "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was a novel written by American
of slavery into the newly acquired territories in the West. author Harriet Beecher Stowe and published in 1852. It
This conflict ultimately led to the American Civil War was one of the most influential works of the 19th century
(1861-1865), which was fought in large part over the and had a profound impact on the American public's
issue of slavery. perception of slavery.

After the Civil War, slavery was officially abolished in The publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was significant
the United States with the ratification of the Thirteenth for several reasons:
Amendment to the Constitution in 1865. However, the
legacy of slavery continued to shape American society 1. Raising awareness: The novel brought the issue of
and politics for many years after, as the country slavery to the forefront of public consciousness and
struggled to address the social, economic, and political helped to raise awareness about the human toll of the
inequalities created by the institution of slaver institution. It portrayed slavery in a powerful and
emotional way, depicting the cruelty and violence
What issues arose when Missouri applied to be that slaves endured, and highlighting the toll that
admitted to the Union? slavery took on families and communities.
2. Fueling abolitionist sentiment: The publication of
When Missouri applied to be admitted to the Union in "Uncle Tom's Cabin" helped to fuel the abolitionist
1820, several key issues arose related to the question of movement in the United States, as it provided a vivid
whether or not slavery would be allowed in the state. The and powerful argument against slavery. The novel's
key issues included: portrayal of slavery as a cruel and inhumane
 institution touched the hearts of many readers and resources and territories, and the pursuit of prestige and
inspired them to take action to end the practice. power. The effects of this expansion were widespread
3. Increasing division: The publication of "Uncle Tom's and profound, including the exploitation and
Cabin" also deepened the division between North and enslavement of colonized peoples, the transfer of wealth
South, as many Southerners were deeply resentful of and resources from colonized territories to the colonizing
the novel's portrayal of slavery and the South's way nations, the spread of European culture and religion, and
of life. The novel's impact on public opinion was one the imposition of new systems of governance.
of the factors that contributed to the outbreak of the Additionally, this period of colonization led to the
American Civil War in 1861. creation of new states, the redrawing of borders and the
4. Inspiring other works: "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was reshaping of global power structures, with lasting
widely read and discussed and inspired other writers impacts that are still felt today.
to address the issue of slavery in their own works.
The novel's impact on public opinion was also EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM
reflected in other forms of popular culture, such as What was imperialism?
plays and songs
Imperialism refers to a policy or ideology of extending a
How successful was John Brown in aiding the country's power and influence through colonization, use
abolitionist cause of military force, or other means. It involves a nation
seeking to establish and maintain control over territories
John Brown was an American abolitionist who is best beyond its borders, often for economic, political, or
known for his raid on the federal armory at Harper's cultural reasons. In the 19th and early 20th centuries,
Ferry in Virginia in 1859. While Brown's raid was not imperialism was practiced by many European nations as
successful in its immediate goals, it did play a significant they sought to build overseas empires and extend their
role in the eventual abolition of slavery in the United global influence. This period of imperialism led to the
States. colonization of large parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin
America, and had significant impacts on the colonized
In terms of direct impact on the abolitionist cause, peoples and their societies, including the exploitation of
Brown's raid was not very successful. His plan to spark a resources, the spread of European culture and religion,
slave insurrection was thwarted, and he and his followers and the imposition of new systems of governance.
were quickly captured and executed. However, Brown's Imperialism has been criticized for its negative effects on
raid and the subsequent trial and execution received colonized peoples and for perpetuating power
widespread media coverage and galvanized public imbalances between colonizing and colonized nations.
opinion on both sides of the slavery issue.
What were the motives behind European imperialism?
In the North, Brown's raid was seen as a heroic act of
resistance against slavery and helped to build support for The motives behind European imperialism in the 19th
the abolitionist cause. In the South, it was seen as a century were complex and varied, but can be broadly
dangerous and threatening act of violence and helped to grouped into several categories:
further inflame tensions between North and South.
1. Economic motives: European nations sought to
Overall, John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry was a gain access to new markets, raw materials, and
significant event in the lead-up to the American Civil resources, and to exploit these resources to fuel
War, and it helped to increase the visibility of the their own industrialization.
abolitionist cause and to bring the issue of slavery to the 2. Competition and power: European nations were
forefront of national attention in competition with each other for global
influence and prestige, and imperialism was seen
Why, and with what effects, did Europeans expand as a means to enhance their power and status.
their overseas empires in the nineteenth century? 3. Scientific and cultural motives: Europeans
believed in their cultural and scientific
In the 19th century, European nations expanded their superiority, and imperialism was seen as a way to
overseas empires for several reasons including: spread their civilization and to study and
economic gain, desire for new markets, competition for understand other cultures.
 4. Religious motives: European imperial powers 5. Slavery and forced labor: European imperialism
aimed to spread Christianity and to convert led to the enslavement of millions of Africans,
colonized peoples to their religion. who were forced to work on plantations, mines,
5. Nationalism: Nationalistic ideologies and a desire and other sites across the continent.
to assert national identity and pride also played a
role in imperialism What was the impact of French imperialism on
6. Strategic interests: European powers sought to Africans:
secure strategic territories and access to key
waterways, which would enhance their military The impact of French imperialism on Africa in the 19th
and political power. and early 20th centuries was significant and long-lasting.
7. Security: European powers sought to secure their Some of the most notable impacts include:
colonies and to protect their economic interests in
these territories from other European powers. 1. Political and administrative control: France
8. Ideological motives: Some Europeans believed in established a strong colonial presence in Africa,
the idea of the "white man's burden," which held which involved the imposition of new systems of
that it was their moral duty to bring civilization governance and administration, including the
and progress to colonized peoples. creation of new states and borders that often
9. Psychological motives: European imperial disrupted local political structures and ignored
expansion was also driven by a sense of existing ethnic and cultural divisions.
adventure and a desire for personal achievement 2. Economic exploitation: France extracted vast
and recognition. amounts of resources and wealth from its African
colonies, which fueled the industrialization of
How varied were the impacts of European imperialism France and contributed to the underdevelopment
on Africans of Africa.
3. Cultural impact: French imperialism introduced
The impacts of European imperialism on Africa in the new cultural and religious practices, which often
19th and early 20th centuries were varied and complex. challenged or replaced indigenous cultural
European imperialism brought both positive and negative traditions and values. French also aimed to spread
changes to the continent, but the overall effect was the French language and culture in its African
largely negative. Some of the impacts of European colonies, often at the expense of local languages
imperialism on Africa include: and customs.
4. Health consequences: French imperialism also
1. Economic exploitation: European powers brought new diseases to Africa, which had
extracted vast amounts of resources and wealth devastating impacts on local populations and
from Africa, which fueled the industrialization of contributed to high death rates.
Europe and contributed to Africa's 5. Slavery and forced labor: French imperialism was
underdevelopment. also characterized by the exploitation of forced
2. Political disruption: European imperialism labor and slavery, particularly in West and
brought the imposition of new systems of Central Africa, where millions of Africans were
governance, which often disrupted local political forced to work on plantations, mines, and other
structures and led to the creation of new states sites
and borders that did not reflect existing ethnic
and cultural divisions. What was the impact of British imperialism on
3. Cultural impact: European imperialism Africans:
introduced new cultural and religious practices,
which often challenged or replaced indigenous The impact of British imperialism on Africa in the 19th
cultural traditions and values. and early 20th centuries was significant and long-lasting.
4. Health consequences: European imperialism also Some of the most notable impacts include:
brought new diseases to Africa, which had
devastating impacts on local populations and 1. Political and administrative control: Britain
contributed to high death rates. established a strong colonial presence in Africa,
which involved the imposition of new systems of
 governance and administration, including the 3. Cultural impact: Belgian imperialism introduced
creation of new states and borders that often new cultural and religious practices, which often
disrupted local political structures and ignored challenged or replaced indigenous cultural
existing ethnic and cultural divisions. traditions and values. The Belgians also aimed to
2. Economic exploitation: Britain extracted vast spread the French and Flemish languages and
amounts of resources and wealth from its African culture in the Congo, often at the expense of local
colonies, which fueled the industrialization of languages and customs.
Britain and contributed to the underdevelopment 4. Health consequences: Belgian imperialism also
of Africa. brought new diseases to Africa, which had
3. Cultural impact: British imperialism introduced devastating impacts on local populations and
new cultural and religious practices, which often contributed to high death rates
challenged or replaced indigenous cultural
traditions and values. The British also aimed to How did the Faidherbe French model of assimilation
spread the English language and culture in its and direct rule affect Senegal
African colonies, often at the expense of local
languages and customs. The Faidherbe French model of assimilation and direct
4. Health consequences: British imperialism also rule was a colonial policy implemented in Senegal
brought new diseases to Africa, which had during the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Louis
devastating impacts on local populations and Faidherbe, the governor of Senegal at the time. This
contributed to high death rates. policy aimed to assimilate the indigenous populations of
5. Slavery and forced labor: Although Britain Senegal into French culture and language, and to bring
abolished the transatlantic slave trade in 1807 and them under direct French rule.
slavery in its colonies in 1833, the country's
imperial ambitions in Africa were often linked to The impact of the Faidherbe model on Senegal was
the exploitation of forced labor and indentured mixed. On the one hand, it brought about the spread of
servitude, particularly in South Africa and other French language, culture, and education, and helped to
parts of the continent modernize the country. It also allowed for the
development of a French-educated elite class of
What was the impact of Beligian imperialism on Senegalese people who could serve as intermediaries
Africans: between the French authorities and the local population.

The impact of Belgian imperialism on Africa in the 19th On the other hand, the policy of assimilation also led to
and early 20th centuries was significant and long-lasting. cultural and political oppression of the Senegalese
Some of the most notable impacts include: people. The French authorities sought to impose their
culture and values on the Senegalese, which led to the
1. Political and administrative control: Belgium suppression of local languages, customs, and traditions.
established a strong colonial presence in Africa, In addition, the French authorities applied direct rule in a
particularly in the Congo, which involved the heavy-handed manner, imposing high taxes and
imposition of new systems of governance and regulations on the local population and forcibly
administration, including the creation of new conscripting them into the French army
states and borders that often disrupted local
political structures and ignored existing ethnic How Lugards British was model of indirect rule affect
and cultural divisions. Nigeria?
2. Economic exploitation: Belgium extracted vast
amounts of resources and wealth from its African The British model of indirect rule, implemented by
colony, the Congo, which fueled the Frederick Lugard in Nigeria, was a colonial policy that
industrialization of Belgium and contributed to aimed to govern the country through existing local power
the underdevelopment of the Congo. The Belgian structures and leaders, rather than through direct rule.
exploitation of the Congo was particularly brutal This was seen as a way to reduce the costs and
and included forced labor, widespread violence, difficulties of direct rule, and to maintain stability in the
and widespread human rights abuses. colony.
The impact of indirect rule on Nigeria was significant exploitation of the local population. This resulted in the
and long-lasting. One of the main effects was the death of an estimated 10 million people, or as much as
strengthening and centralization of traditional leaders 80% of the Congo's population, through violence,
and power structures, who were given new disease, and famine.
responsibilities and authority by the British. This allowed
the British to govern the country through these leaders, The legacy of Leopold's private imperialism in the
rather than through direct rule, and gave the traditional Congo continues to shape the country's political and
leaders a new level of prestige and power. economic development, with its impact being felt by
generations of Congolese people. The brutal exploitation
However, indirect rule also resulted in the creation of a and violence of Leopold's rule have left a deep and
class of traditional rulers who were heavily influenced by lasting scar on the country and its people, and have
the British, and who often acted as intermediaries helped to create the complex and troubled political
between the British authorities and the local population. landscape that continues to affect the Congo to this day
This led to a loss of local autonomy and decision-making
power, and to the imposition of British policies and WHAT WAS WORLD WAR I
values on the local population.
World War I (1914-1918) was a global war that involved
In addition, indirect rule also contributed to the most of the world's nations, including all of the great
development of ethnic and regional divisions within powers, organized into two opposing alliances: the Allies
Nigeria, as different ethnic groups and regions were (led by France, Russia and the United Kingdom) and the
governed differently based on their local leaders and Central Powers (led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
traditions. This helped to reinforce existing social and the Ottoman Empire).
cultural differences and to create new ones, and
contributed to the creation of a complex and divided The war began on July 28, 1914, after the assassination
society that continues to influence Nigeria to this day. of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary, which
led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia. The war
How was Leopold II private imperialism affect Congo quickly escalated and became a global conflict as other
nations joined the war on the side of either the Allies or
Leopold II's private imperialism in the Congo had a the Central Powers.
devastating impact on the country and its people.
Leopold, who ruled the Congo as a personal fiefdom The war was characterized by trench warfare, which
rather than as a colony of Belgium, pursued a brutal and involved both sides digging trenches and fortifying them,
exploitative policy towards the local population. making it difficult for either side to make significant
advances. The war also saw the use of new technologies
One of the main effects of Leopold's rule was the and weapons, such as tanks, machine guns, and chemical
widespread exploitation of the Congo's natural resources, weapons, which made it difficult for either side to
particularly its rubber. This was done through forced achieve a decisive victory.
labor, with local populations being forced to collect
rubber for export. The conditions were brutal, with The war resulted in significant loss of life and damage,
severe punishments, including mutilation and death, with an estimated 8.5 million deaths and 21 million
imposed for those who failed to meet their quotas. wounded. The war also had a profound impact on the
world, leading to the collapse of empires, the reshaping
The exploitation of the Congo's resources also resulted in of national borders, and the emergence of new nations.
the widespread destruction of its environment, as large The war also led to the establishment of the League of
areas of forest were cleared for rubber production and Nations, an international organization aimed at
other commercial activities. This had a devastating promoting peace and cooperation among nations.
impact on the local ecosystem and wildlife, and
contributed to widespread famine and disease among the The war officially ended on November 11, 1918, with
local population. the signing of the Armistice of Compiegne between
Germany and the Allies. The peace treaties that officially
Leopold's rule was characterized by a complete disregard ended the war were signed in 1919, most notably the
for human rights, with widespread violence, torture, and
Treaty of Versailles which imposed harsh penalties on Balkan instability was just one part of the larger picture
Germany and held it responsible for causing the war of a Europe on the brink of war.

Why was Italy a member of the Triple Alliance? So while it's not accurate to blame the entire war solely
on the instability in the Balkans, it is fair to say that it
Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance (also known as was a key factor that helped to trigger the conflict.
the Central Powers) from 1882 to 1915 because it sought
to protect its interests and secure its place as a major There were several other reasons why the instability in
power in Europe through a military alliance with the Balkans helped to trigger the First World War:
Germany and Austria-Hungary. The alliance was meant
to guarantee mutual support in the event of an attack by 1. The complex web of alliances: The complex
France or Russia, and it also served to further Italian network of alliances between different countries
territorial and economic aims. made it difficult for any one conflict to be
contained. When Austria-Hungary declared war
Other reasons for Italy's membership in the Triple on Serbia, it quickly drew in other countries, as
Alliance included: they felt obligated to defend their allies.
2. Imperialism and nationalism: The competition for
1. Balance of power: Italy wanted to maintain a colonies and resources, as well as the rise of
balance of power in Europe and the alliance with nationalism and imperialism, made it more
Germany and Austria-Hungary was seen as a way difficult for countries to resolve their differences
to achieve this. peacefully.
2. Territorial expansion: Italy sought to expand its 3. Militarism: The growing arms race and the belief
territory, particularly in Africa, and the alliance in the glory of war made it more likely that
provided support for these ambitions. countries would resort to military action to
3. Economic benefits: The alliance provided Italy resolve their differences.
with economic benefits, including access to 4. Miscalculation and miscommunication: The
German and Austro-Hungarian markets. leaders of the major powers at the time made
4. Diplomatic recognition: Italy's membership in the several miscalculations and miscommunications
Triple Alliance helped to cement its status as a in their attempts to resolve the crisis, which
major power in Europe and enhance its ultimately led to the outbreak of war
international standing.
what were the causes of world war I
‘Instability in the Balkans was to blame for the First
World War.’ How far do you agree with this statement? The causes of World War I were complex and
multifaceted, and included a combination of political,
I would say that the instability in the Balkans was a economic, and social factors. Some of the main causes of
contributing factor to the outbreak of the First World the war were:
War, but it was not the sole cause. The complex web of
alliances, imperialism, and militarism among the major 1. Nationalism: Nationalism, or the belief in the
European powers created a powder keg of tensions that superiority of one's own nation and the desire for
were ready to ignite. The instability in the Balkans, self-determination, was a major factor in the outbreak
specifically the conflict between Austria-Hungary and of the war. Nationalistic movements in various parts
Serbia over the assassination of Archduke Franz of Europe, particularly in the Balkans, led to tensions
Ferdinand, served as the spark that set off the larger between nations and contributed to the outbreak of
conflict. the war.
2. Imperialism: The competition for colonies and
However, it's worth noting that other factors, such as resources among European nations was a major
competition for colonies and resources, tensions between factor in the outbreak of the war. Countries such as
France and Germany, and the growing arms race, all Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy were seeking
played a role in creating the conditions for war. The to expand their empires and gain more territory,
which led to tensions and rivalries among nations.
3. Economic rivalries: Economic rivalries between 3. Russia: Russia's desire to protect its interests in the
nations, particularly between Germany and the Balkans and its support for Serbia were also seen as
United Kingdom, contributed to the outbreak of the contributing to the outbreak of the war. Russia's
war. Germany's rapid industrialization and economic mobilization of its military in 1914 in response to the
growth led to tensions with other nations, particularly crisis in the Balkans was seen as a major factor in the
the United Kingdom, which feared losing its outbreak of the war.
economic dominance. 4. The system of alliances: The system of alliances
4. Alliances: The system of alliances between nations, between nations, particularly the Triple Alliance
particularly the Triple Alliance between Germany, between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy and
Austria-Hungary, and Italy and the Triple Entente the Triple Entente between France, Russia, and the
between France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, United Kingdom, also contributed to the outbreak of
also contributed to the outbreak of the war. These the war. These alliances made it difficult for any one
alliances made it difficult for any one country to back country to back down in a crisis and ultimately led to
down in a crisis and ultimately led to a global a global conflict.
conflict.
5. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of It's important to note that the outbreak of war was not
Austria-Hungary: The assassination of Archduke solely the responsibility of one country or group of
Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo, countries, but the result of a complex web of political,
Bosnia on June 28, 1914, by Gavrilo Princip, a economic, and social factors that contributed to the
member of a Yugoslav nationalist organization, was outbreak of war.
the immediate cause of the war, as Austria-Hungary
declared war on Serbia, which then led to the
outbreak of war. why was world war I not over by December 1914
6. Militarism: The arms race among nations and the
desire to show military strength and readiness for war World War I was not over by December 1914 because
was also a factor in the outbreak of the war. Many the war had become a global conflict that involved
countries had increased their military spending in the multiple nations and alliances. The initial plans of the
years leading up to the war, which led to tensions and warring nations were to quickly defeat the enemy and
a sense of readiness for war among nations. end the war in a matter of months, but the war quickly
escalated and turned into a prolonged and brutal conflict.
who was to blame in world war I?. is it German or
Russia 1. Trench warfare: Trench warfare, which involved
both sides digging trenches and fortifying them,
World War I was a complex conflict involving multiple made it difficult for either side to make
nations and alliances, and it is difficult to assign blame to significant advances. This led to a prolonged
a single country or group of countries. However, several stalemate on the Western Front and made it
factors contributed to the outbreak of the war, and the difficult for either side to gain a decisive victory.
following countries and events have been identified as 2. Mobilization of resources: The warring nations
contributing to the outbreak of the war: mobilized their resources, including their
economies and populations, to support the war
1. Germany: Germany's aggressive foreign policy and effort. This led to a prolonged war as both sides
its desire to become a dominant power in Europe were able to sustain the war effort for longer than
were seen as major factors in the outbreak of the war. initially expected.
Germany's support for Austria-Hungary in its conflict 3. Entangling alliances: The warring nations were
with Serbia and its policy of Weltpolitik (world part of entangling alliances, and the war quickly
politics) were seen as contributing to the outbreak of escalated from a regional conflict to a global one.
the war. This made it difficult for one side to achieve a
2. Austria-Hungary: Austria-Hungary's desire to assert decisive victory and led to a prolonged war.
its dominance in the Balkans and its decision to 4. Naval warfare: Naval warfare played a crucial
declare war on Serbia in 1914 were also seen as role in the war, and the naval blockades of
contributing to the outbreak of the war. Germany, Britain and France helped to cut off
 supplies and resources to the enemy, but also to Paris by 19 September 1914 and secure their hold on
extended the war. the city.
5. Technological advancements: New technologies
and weapons, such as tanks, machine guns, and Which was more responsible for extending the war
chemical weapons, made it difficult for either beyond the end of 1914: the First Battle of Ypres or
side to achieve a decisive victory and led to a Belgian resistance to the Schlieffen Plan?
prolonged war.
It is difficult to determine which event was more
All of these factors contributed to the prolongation of responsible for extending the war beyond the end of
World War I and it was not over by December 1914. The 1914, as both the First Battle of Ypres and Belgian
war would continue to rage for another four years and resistance to the Schlieffen Plan played significant roles
resulted in significant loss of life and damage before the in shaping the outcome of the war.
peace treaty of 1919.
The First Battle of Ypres was a significant battle in 1914,
What happened to the British Expeditionary Force as it marked the end of the German advance towards the
during the first month of the war in August 1914? English Channel and prevented the Germans from
reaching the port of Calais. This prolonged the war, as
During the first month of World War I in August 1914, the Germans were forced to dig in and fight a prolonged
the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was sent to trench warfare campaign.
France to support the French army and defend against the
German invasion. The BEF arrived in France in early Belgian resistance to the Schlieffen Plan was also an
August and was stationed in north eastern France along important factor in extending the war. The Schlieffen
the Belgian border. During the first month of the war, the Plan was a German strategy for quickly defeating France
BEF was involved in several battles, including the Battle and avoiding a two-front war, but it relied on the German
of Mons and the First Battle of the Marne, which were army being able to pass through neutral Belgium. The
part of the larger German push towards Paris. Despite Belgian resistance, which was fueled by the country's
being outnumbered, the BEF, along with French and refusal to allow the German army to cross its borders,
Belgian forces, were able to halt the German advance slowed the German advance and allowed the Allies time
and prevent the fall of Paris. The BEF suffered heavy to mobilize their forces. This resistance, combined with
casualties and experienced a chaotic retreat back to the the First Battle of Ypres, helped extend the war beyond
English Channel, but they were eventually able to the end of 1914.
regroup and prepare for further offensives.
Ultimately, both the First Battle of Ypres and Belgian
Why were the Allied forces able to remove the resistance to the Schlieffen Plan had a lasting impact on
immediate threat to Paris by 19 September 1914? the war and contributed to its prolongation beyond the
end of 1914
The Allied forces were able to remove the immediate
threat to Paris by 19 September 1914 due to a What was the ‘Western Front’?
combination of factors. Firstly, the German army's
supply lines were stretched too thin, which limited their The "Western Front" was a term used to describe the
ability to continue the push towards Paris. Secondly, the main theater of war between the Allies (primarily France,
Allied forces, consisting of the French army and the the United Kingdom, and Russia) and the Central Powers
British Expeditionary Force (BEF), were able to (primarily Germany and Austria-Hungary) during World
coordinate their defences and mount a counterattack War I. It was a line of trenches and fortifications that
against the Germans. Additionally, the Russian army, stretched from the English Channel to the Swiss border
which had been slower to mobilize, was finally able to and defined the military boundary between the two sides
mount a successful offensive against the Germans in the in the conflict. The front was characterized by trench
east, diverting their attention and resources away from warfare and stalemate, with both sides entrenched in
Paris. Finally, the battle of the Marne was a decisive their positions and limited movement for much of the
Allied victory, forcing the Germans to retreat and ending war.
their push towards Paris. These factors combined
allowed the Allied forces to remove the immediate threat
Why was trench warfare made more difficult by the exact level of importance of Belgian resistance in
weather? shaping the outcome of the war

Trench warfare was made more difficult by the weather more ways
because of the harsh and extreme conditions that soldiers
had to endure. The trenches were often flooded with Belgian resistance in 1914 was significant to the
water, mud, and rain, which made it difficult for soldiers outcome of the war in a number of ways:
to move around and carry out their duties. Additionally,
the constant exposure to the elements led to trench foot, a 1. Delay to the German advance: Belgian resistance
debilitating condition that made it difficult for soldiers to to the German invasion of their country delayed
move and perform their duties. The harsh weather also the German advance, which allowed the Allies
made it difficult to maintain the trenches, as the mud and time to mobilize and respond. This delay was
rain often caused them to collapse, leading to further crucial in helping the Allies establish a defense
difficulties and hazards for the soldiers. Overall, the and avoid a quick defeat.
weather was a major challenge in trench warfare and had 2. Influence on public opinion: Belgian resistance
a significant impact on the lives of soldiers on the was widely reported in the international press and
Western Front helped to shape public opinion against Germany.
This was important in terms of galvanizing
‘The most important achievement of the Battle of the support for the Allies and contributing to the
Somme for the Allies was that it saved the French army perception of Germany as the aggressor.
from destruction.’ How far do you agree 3. Inspiration to other resistance movements:
Belgian resistance was an inspiration to other
It is difficult to definitively state the most important resistance movements throughout the war,
achievement of the Battle of the Somme for the Allies, as including the French and Russian armies, and
its impact was multi-faceted and varied in different helped to boost morale among the Allies.
contexts. However, it is widely accepted that the Somme 4. Demonstration of bravery and determination:
did relieve some pressure from the French army, which Belgian resistance showed the world the bravery
was facing a major German offensive on the Verdun and determination of the Belgian people, which
front at the same time. The battle also served as a had a positive impact on Allied morale and
demonstration of the strength and determination of the strengthened the resolve of the Allies to continue
British and Commonwealth forces, and contributed to the fighting.
general weakening of the German army through the 5. Impact on the Schlieffen Plan: The resistance of
heavy casualties it sustained. However, the battle was the Belgian army and the civilians helped to
also characterized by large casualties for the Allies and disrupt the German Schlieffen Plan, which aimed
has been criticized for its high loss of life for limited to quickly defeat the Allies and win the war
gains. Ultimately, the significance of the Battle of the before the Russians could fully mobilize
Somme must be considered in the context of the larger
First World War, and its impact on the outcome of the How significant were the Allies’ improved military
war is subject to ongoing historical debate tactics as a cause of German defeat in 1918?

The Allies' improved military tactics played a significant

How important was Belgian resistance in 1914 to the role in the German defeat in 1918. By the end of the war,
outcome of the war? the Allies had developed new tactics, such as the use of
tanks and mobile warfare, that allowed them to break
Belgian resistance in 1914 was important in delaying the through the heavily fortified German lines and make
German advance towards France, which allowed the significant gains on the battlefield. Additionally, the
Allied forces more time to prepare and strengthen their Allies had made significant improvements in their
defenses. The resistance also helped to galvanize coordination and communication, allowing them to
international support for the Allied cause and effectively coordinate their offensives and bring greater
demonstrate the aggressive nature of Germany's actions. firepower to bear against the Germans. The
However, the outcome of the war was influenced by implementation of these tactics, combined with the strain
many other factors, so it is difficult to determine the of fighting on multiple fronts and the loss of manpower
and resources, contributed to the eventual collapse of the chemical weapons, which had a lasting impact on
German army in 1918. warfare and military strategy.
6. Psychological and social trauma: The war led to
more significances psychological and social trauma, both for soldiers
and civilians, and had a lasting impact on the
Other factors that contributed to the German defeat in mental health of individuals and societies.
1918 include: 7. Political and social changes: The war led to
significant political and social changes, such as
• Loss of manpower and resources due to the the emergence of new political ideologies, such
continuation of the war on multiple fronts as fascism and communism, and the rise of
• Blockade of German ports by the Allies, leading feminist and labor movements.
to shortages of food and supplies 8. Rise of new powers: The war led to the rise of
• Mutinies and strikes among German soldiers and new powers, such as the United States, which
workers, undermining morale and support for the emerged as a leading economic and political
war effort power after the war, and Japan, which emerged as
• Breakdown of the German economy and a major industrial and military power in Asia.
government, resulting in widespread unrest and 9. Creation of the League of Nations: The war led to
loss of support for the war the creation of the League of Nations, an
• Unrest and revolution in Germany, leading to the international organization aimed at promoting
collapse of the German government and peace and cooperation among nations.
acceptance of the armistice. 10. The war also led to the emergence of the United
Nations, an international organization formed
What were the effects of world war I after World War II.

World War I had a profound and far-reaching impact on VERSAILLIES PEACE TREATY 1919-1923
the world, both during and after the war. Some of the
main effects of the war were: The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties
that was signed on June 28, 1919, after World War I. It
1. Loss of life and human suffering: World War I was negotiated and signed at the palace of Versailles
resulted in an unprecedented loss of life, with an near Paris, France, and was the main peace treaty that
estimated 8.5 million deaths and 21 million ended the war between Germany and the Allied powers.
wounded. The war also caused significant human The treaty was signed by representatives of the German
suffering, including injury, illness, and government and the Allied powers, including France, the
displacement. United Kingdom, and the United States.
2. Economic and social disruption: The war resulted
in economic and social disruption, as countries The treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany,
mobilized their resources and economies to including the disarmament of its military, the loss of
support the war effort. This led to inflation, food territory, and the payment of reparations to the victors.
shortages, and unemployment. The treaty also established the League of Nations and
3. Collapse of empires: The war led to the collapse recognized the independence of several new nations,
of several empires, including the Austro- such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman empires. This
reshaped the political landscape of Europe and The treaty was widely criticized for being too harsh on
led to the emergence of new nations. Germany and for failing to address the underlying causes
4. Redrawing of national borders: The war led to the of World War I, which ultimately contributed to the rise
redrawing of national borders, as new nations of Nazi Germany and the outbreak of World War II. The
were established and old empires were dissolved. treaty was also criticized for the lack of enforcement
This reshaped the political and geographical mechanisms, which made it easy for nations to disregard
landscape of Europe and the Middle East. their obligations and refuse to comply with the terms of
5. Emergence of new technologies and weapons: the treaty
The war saw the emergence of new technologies
and weapons, such as tanks, machine guns, and The main aims of peace treaties were:
 1. To settle disputes between nations: The treaties 5. Failure to establish a lasting peace: The treaties
aimed to resolve disputes between nations that failed to establish a lasting peace in Europe, as
had arisen as a result of the war, such as disputes the underlying issues that caused the war were
over territory and reparations. not addressed, and the harsh penalties imposed on
2. To address the economic and social issues: The defeated nations led to widespread resentment
treaties aimed to address the economic and social and bitterness. This ultimately contributed to the
issues that had contributed to the outbreak of war, outbreak of World War II.
such as the economic crisis, high unemployment,
and rising nationalism. what were the achievement of peace treaties of 1919
3. To promote disarmament and peace: The treaties
aimed to promote disarmament and peace among 1. End of World War I: The peace treaties of 1919
nations by imposing disarmament on defeated brought an end to World War I and marked the
nations and promoting cooperation among official conclusion of the conflict.
nations. 2. Disarmament of defeated nations: The treaties
4. To address the issues of minorities: The treaties imposed disarmament on defeated nations, such
aimed to address the issues of minorities, such as as Germany, which helped to prevent them from
ethnic and religious minorities, by protecting rearming and starting another war.
their rights and promoting equality among 3. Creation of new nations: The treaties led to the
nations. creation of new nations, such as Czechoslovakia,
5. To provide a lasting peace: The treaties aimed to Yugoslavia, and Austria, which helped to reshape
provide a lasting peace by addressing the the political landscape of Europe.
underlying causes of World War I, resolving 4. Establishment of the League of Nations: The
disputes, and promoting cooperation among treaties established the League of Nations, an
nations. international organization aimed at promoting
peace and cooperation among nations.
What were the weaknesses of the peace treaties of 5. Reparations for the damage caused by the war:
1923 The treaties imposed reparations on defeated
nations, which helped to compensate the victors
1. Failure to address the underlying causes of World for the damage caused by the war.
War I: The peace treaties of 1923 failed to 6. Protection of minority rights: The treaties
address the underlying causes of World War I, included provisions for the protection of minority
such as imperialism, nationalism, and economic rights, which helped to safeguard the rights of
issues, which ultimately contributed to the rise of ethnic and religious minorities in Europe.
Nazi Germany and the outbreak of World War II. 7. Return of territories: The treaties helped to return
2. Unfair treatment of defeated nations: The treaties territories to their rightful owners, such as
imposed harsh penalties on defeated nations, Alsace-Lorraine to France, and brought an end to
particularly Germany, which was forced to pay colonial occupation.
reparations and accept responsibility for causing 8. Recognition of new states: The treaties
the war. This led to widespread resentment and recognized the independence of new states, such
bitterness among the German population. as Ireland, which helped to reshape the political
3. Lack of enforcement mechanisms: The treaties landscape of Europe.
lacked any effective enforcement mechanisms,
making it easy for nations to disregard their
obligations and refuse to comply with the terms In what ways did the Treaty of Versailles restrict
of the treaties. Germany’s ability to fight a war in the future?
4. Creation of new borders and ethnic tensions: The
treaties redrew national borders, which led to the The Treaty of Versailles, signed at the end of World War
displacement of millions of people and created I, placed significant restrictions on Germany's ability to
new ethnic tensions in Europe. This ultimately fight a war in the future. Some of the key provisions of
contributed to the rise of extremist movements the treaty that had this effect include:
and the outbreak of conflicts in the region.
 1. Disarmament: Germany was required to severely reduced Britain's imperial holdings and influence.
limit its military capabilities, including the size of He felt that some of Wilson's proposals would
its army, navy, and air force, and to destroy many have undermined Britain's global power and
of its weapons. This made it much more difficult interests.
for the country to build up its military forces and 4. Economic Issues: Lloyd George was also
wage a large-scale war. concerned about the economic impact of Wilson's
2. Military Restrictions: Germany was banned from proposals, particularly the demand for free trade,
possessing certain weapons, such as tanks and which he felt would hurt Britain's economy
heavy artillery, and was limited in its ability to
produce others. It was also prevented from ‘The German reaction to the Treaty of Versailles was
having a conscript army, which made it difficult not justified.’ How far do you agree?
for the country to mobilize its forces quickly in
the event of a crisis. As a language model, I don't have personal opinions, but
3. War Guilt Clause: Germany was forced to accept it is possible to analyze the various arguments on both
sole responsibility for the outbreak of World War sides of this issue.
I, which made it difficult for the country to regain
its reputation as a major European power. This On one hand, the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles,
also had the effect of undermining the legitimacy particularly the War Guilt Clause and the large financial
of the German government and making it more reparations imposed on Germany, were seen as
difficult for the country to build strong alliances excessively punitive by many Germans. The treaty also
with other nations. stripped Germany of its overseas colonies, reduced its
4. Reparations: Germany was required to pay military capabilities, and imposed territorial losses,
substantial reparations to the Allies, which which were deeply unpopular with many Germans. In
drained the country's resources and made it more this sense, it is understandable why the German reaction
difficult for it to finance a large-scale military to the treaty was negative and why many Germans felt
build-up that the treaty was unjust.

Why was Lloyd George unhappy with Wilson’s On the other hand, the treaty was a response to the
Fourteen Points? devastation caused by World War I, which was initiated
and prosecuted by Germany. The terms of the treaty
David Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of the United were intended to ensure that Germany could never again
Kingdom during World War I, was unhappy with US pose a threat to Europe and the world. From this
President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points for several perspective, it could be argued that the German reaction
reasons. Some of the main reasons include: was not justified and that Germany should have accepted
the terms of the treaty as the price for its actions in
1. Wilson's idealistic approach: Lloyd George felt starting the war.
that Wilson's Fourteen Points were overly
idealistic and unrealistic, and that they would be In conclusion, whether or not the German reaction to the
difficult to implement in the harsh political reality Treaty of Versailles was justified is a complex and
of post-war Europe. He felt that Wilson was out controversial issue that depends on one's perspective.
of touch with the practical realities of the While it is understandable why many Germans felt that
situation. the treaty was unjust, it is also true that the treaty was a
2. Focus on League of Nations: Lloyd George was response to the devastating consequences of a war that
particularly unhappy with Wilson's emphasis on was initiated and prosecuted by Germany
the League of Nations, which he saw as a threat
to British sovereignty. He felt that the League
would not be effective in maintaining peace and THE LEAGUE OF NATION 1920-1945
that it would diminish Britain's ability to act
independently on the world stage. The League of Nations was an international organization
3. Territorial Issues: Lloyd George was also established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, after
dissatisfied with some of Wilson's territorial World War I. It was the first international organization of
demands, particularly those that would have its kind and was intended to promote peace and
cooperation among nations. The League's main goal was issues such as economic development, social
to prevent another world war by promoting disarmament, welfare, and human rights.
resolving disputes through peaceful means, and 5. To protect minority rights: The League aimed to
promoting cooperation among nations. protect the rights of minorities, such as ethnic and
The League was composed of member states, each of religious minorities, by promoting equality and
which had equal representation in the organization. The non-discrimination among nations.
League's main organs were the Assembly, the Council, 6. To promote economic development: The League
and the Secretariat. The Assembly was the main aimed to promote economic development and
decision-making body of the League and was composed stability among nations by encouraging trade and
of representatives from all member states. The Council economic cooperation.
was responsible for the day-to-day running of the League 7. To provide humanitarian assistance: The League
and was composed of representatives from a smaller aimed to provide humanitarian assistance to
number of member states. The Secretariat was nations in need and to support refugees and
responsible for the administration of the League and was displaced persons.
headed by a Secretary-General.
The League of Nations was initially successful in What was the role of the Permanent Court of Justice
resolving disputes and promoting cooperation among in League of Nation?
nations, but it ultimately failed in its main goal of
preventing another world war. The League was criticized The Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), also
for its lack of enforcement mechanisms, its inability to known as the World Court, was a central institution of
prevent the rise of aggressive powers, and its failure to the League of Nations, established under the League's
address the underlying causes of World War II. The Covenant in 1920. The role of the PCIJ was to provide
League of Nations was dissolved in April 1946, after the binding legal decisions on disputes between states and to
United Nations was established. give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it
by the League, its members, and other international
what were the aims of league of Nation organizations.

The League of Nations was established in 1919 as an other roles

international organization with the aim of promoting
peace and cooperation among nations after the end of the Permanent Court of International Justice also played
World War I. The main aims of the League of Nations other important roles within the League of Nations
were: system. These included:

1. To prevent another world war: The League's main 1. Promoting the codification and development of
goal was to prevent another world war by international law: The PCIJ helped to clarify and
promoting disarmament, resolving disputes expand the body of international law through its
through peaceful means, and promoting decisions and advisory opinions, which often dealt
cooperation among nations. with complex legal questions arising in the
2. To promote disarmament: The League sought to international arena.
promote disarmament among nations by 2. Encouraging the peaceful settlement of disputes: By
encouraging them to reduce their military providing a neutral and impartial forum for resolving
capabilities and to prevent the rearmament of disputes between states, the PCIJ helped to reduce
defeated nations. the likelihood of conflict and promote peace in the
3. To resolve disputes peacefully: The League international community.
aimed to resolve disputes between nations 3. Providing a model for the peaceful resolution of
peacefully by providing a platform for nations to disputes: The PCIJ was a model for other
negotiate and resolve their differences without international tribunals and helped to establish the
resorting to war. principle of peaceful dispute resolution as a central
4. To promote cooperation among nations: The aspect of international relations.
League aimed to promote cooperation among 4. Advocating for the rule of law in international
nations by encouraging them to work together on relations: The PCIJ was an advocate for the rule of
law in international relations and helped to promote
 the idea that international relations should be based The League of Nations did not include all countries in its
on the principles of justice, fairness, and the rule of membership for several reasons:
law.
5. Strengthening the League of Nations: The PCIJ was a 1. Sovereignty: Many countries were reluctant to
key institution of the League of Nations and helped surrender their sovereignty to an international
to strengthen the League's role as an international organization.
organization and its ability to promote peace and 2. Power imbalance: The League was dominated by
stability in the world the major powers, particularly Britain and France,
and smaller nations felt excluded from decision-
What was the weaknesses of the Permanent Court of making.
Justice in League of Nation? 3. U.S. non-participation: The United States, a
major world power, did not join the League,
The Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) had which weakened its credibility and reduced its
several weaknesses that limited its effectiveness as a tool ability to enforce decisions.
for promoting peace and resolving disputes in the 4. Ideological differences: Some countries, such as
international community. Some of these weaknesses the Soviet Union, rejected the League's principles
include: and saw it as a tool of the capitalist world.
5. Inadequate enforcement: The League lacked the
1. Lack of compulsory jurisdiction: The PCIJ lacked power to enforce its decisions and sanctions,
compulsory jurisdiction, which meant that states had making it ineffective in resolving disputes.
to agree to submit disputes to the court for resolution. 6. Lack of military power: The League had no
This limited the court's ability to resolve disputes and military power of its own, which meant that it
imposed significant limitations on its power and was unable to enforce its decisions with military
influence. force
2. Dependence on state cooperation: The PCIJ was
dependent on the cooperation of states for its Why did The League of Nations fail in its
functioning, and many states were reluctant to submit peacekeeping role.’
disputes to the court for resolution. This reduced the
court's ability to act as an effective mediator in The League of Nations failed in its peacekeeping role for
international disputes. several reasons:
3. Limited enforcement powers: The PCIJ lacked the
power to enforce its decisions, which meant that 1. Lack of enforcement power: The League lacked the
states could ignore the court's rulings if they chose to power to enforce its decisions and sanctions, making
do so. This reduced the court's ability to promote it ineffective in resolving disputes.
peace and stability in the international community. 2. Insufficient member commitment: Many member
4. Limited representation: The PCIJ was composed of states were reluctant to support the League's
only 15 judges, which limited the diversity of decisions, especially if they went against their own
perspectives and experiences represented on the interests.
court. This reduced the court's ability to respond 3. U.S. non-participation: The United States, a major
effectively to the needs and interests of the wider world power, did not join the League, which
international community. weakened its credibility and reduced its ability to
5. Weakness of the League of Nations: The PCIJ was enforce decisions.
closely tied to the League of Nations, and the 4. Power imbalances: The League was dominated by
weakness of the League limited the effectiveness of the major powers, particularly Britain and France,
the court. The League lacked the power to enforce its and smaller nations felt excluded from decision-
decisions, and many states were reluctant to submit making.
to its authority, which reduced the influence and 5. Inadequate response to aggression: The League was
effectiveness of the PCIJ. unable to effectively respond to aggression by
member states, such as Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in
Why did the League not include all countries in its 1935 and Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
membership?
6. Lack of military power: The League had no military 7. Lack of support by some major powers: Some
power of its own, which meant that it was unable to major powers such as the United States, did not
enforce its decisions with military force. support the League, which weakened its ability to
7. Political considerations: Political considerations act effectively and fulfill its aims.
often took priority over the League's aims of
promoting peace and security, such as the failure of what were the achievements of the League of nation
the League to act against Germany's reoccupation of
the Rhineland in 1936 Despite its limitations and ultimate failure, the League of
Nations did achieve several notable successes during its
what were the overall weaknesses of the league of existence:
nation
1. Resolving disputes: The League successfully
The League of Nations was an international organization resolved several disputes between nations, such
established after World War I with the aim of promoting as the dispute between Sweden and Finland over
peace and cooperation among nations. However, it had the Aaland Islands, and the dispute between
several weaknesses that ultimately led to its failure: Greece and Bulgaria over the city of Thrace.
2. Promoting disarmament: The League helped to
1. Lack of enforcement mechanisms: The League promote disarmament among nations by
had no effective enforcement mechanisms to encouraging them to reduce their military
ensure that member states complied with its capabilities and to prevent the rearmament of
decisions and to enforce its resolutions. This defeated nations.
made it easy for nations to disregard their 3. Providing humanitarian assistance: The League
obligations and refuse to comply with the provided humanitarian assistance to nations in
League's decisions. need and to support refugees and displaced
2. Insufficient representation: The League was not persons, particularly during the 1920s and 1930s,
representative of all nations, as some major when it worked closely with the International
powers, such as the United States, did not join the Labour Organization to improve the rights and
organization. This weakened the League's ability living conditions of workers around the world.
to promote cooperation and resolve disputes 4. Promoting cooperation among nations: The
among nations. League helped to promote cooperation among
3. Limited military capabilities: The League had no nations by encouraging them to work together on
military capabilities of its own and relied on the issues such as economic development, social
military capabilities of member states to enforce welfare, and human rights.
its decisions. This limited the League's ability to 5. Protecting minority rights: The League helped to
respond to aggressive actions by member states. protect the rights of minorities, such as ethnic and
4. Failure to address underlying issues: The League religious minorities, by promoting equality and
failed to address the underlying issues that caused non-discrimination among nations.
World War I, such as imperialism, nationalism, 6. Establishing the Permanent Court of International
and economic issues. This led to the rise of Justice: The League established the Permanent
extremist movements and the outbreak of Court of International Justice, which served as an
conflicts in the region. international court to resolve disputes between
5. Inability to prevent the rise of aggressive powers: nations peacefully.
The League was unable to prevent the rise of 7. Promoting the idea of collective security: The
aggressive powers, such as Nazi Germany and League promoted the idea of collective security,
Fascist Italy, which ultimately contributed to the which proposed that an attack on one member
outbreak of World War II. state would be considered an attack on all
6. Limited power to impose sanctions: The League member states, which helped to strengthen the
had limited power to impose sanctions on international system and the principle of
member states that violated its resolutions, which collective action
made it difficult to enforce its decisions and
maintain peace.