CHAPTER-VII

SYSTEMS OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION (SOIL TAXONOMY)

History

Although people have always classified soils, it is only since the mid 19th century that soil
classification emerged as an important topic with in soil science. The first scientific system of soil
classification is credited to a Russian named V.V. Dokuchaiev, who published his first
classification of soil in 1879. He hypothesized that different environmental conditions result in the
development of different soils. He defined soil as an independent natural evolutionary body formed
under the influence of five factors, of which he considered vegetation & climate the most
important. The soil classification system developed by Dokuchaiev and his colleagues (Glinka) was
based on the soil forming factors, soil forming process, diagnostic horizons & soil properties. The
focus of his soil classification approach was in soil geneses, therefore; the classification system is
called “genetic”.

The first soil classification system for the United States ware produced by George Coffey (1912)
based on the soil genesis principles of Dokchaev & Glinka. However, the two extensively used soil
classification system have been the “1938 system” and the present system of soil classification (soil
taxonomy) which was published in 1975.

Present Soil Classification

Soil classification is the grouping of different soils into classes on the basis of one or more criteria.
There is no world wide agreement on soil classification; Soil classification is still a controversial
subject at both national and international levels. There is lack of agreement for a common
classification system, because soil scientists do not agree on the characteristics for differentiating
and classifying soils. Although many soil classification systems exist (E.g. Canadian, French,
Dutch, Australian, South African etc classification systems); two systems are widely used: The
USDA Soil Taxonomy and the FAO/UNESCO legend.

In addition, many national soil classification systems exist whose methods and approaches are
based on one of the international classification systems or which have influenced these system.

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Why classify?

Scientists have developed different systems of soil classification to group soils of similar properties
in one class. Classification of soils is typically done for the following purposes:

 Classification helps us to deal with complexity i.e. facilitate the organization of knowledge.
Soil classification reduces the degree of variability among soils.
 Allow transfer of information from a specific soil to similar soils in other locations i.e. to
exchange information on soils found in different areas.
 Provide a framework for establishing relationships among soils and their environment that
leads to advancement of theoretical and experimental aspects of soil and related science.
 Establish groupings of soils for which useful and reliable interpretations about similarity with
in a group & dissimilarities among groups can be made. It improves understanding of
relationships between soils

The principles of Soil classification

Classify soils on basis of properties

Soil properties should be readily observable and / or measurable

Soil properties should either affect soil genesis or result from soil genesis

Basis of classification

 Based on soil properties that can be observed & measured

 Diagnostic surface soil horizons ( epipedons)
 Clay type & content
 Base saturation

Classification approaches

 There are two different classification approaches, i.e.

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I. Technical- Technical soil classifications group soils by some properties or functions that relate
directly to a proposed use or group of uses. Technical classifications are designed for specific
applied purposes (e.g. , soil engineering classifications, based largely on physical properties),

Technical classifications:

 Hydrologic response
 Suitability classes (FAO Framework for Land Evaluation)
 Land Use Capability (USDA LCC)
 Fertility Capability Classification (FCC)
 Engineering group

II. Natural classification- Natural soil classifications group soils by some intrinsic property,
behavior, or genesis of the soils themselves, without reference to use. Natural classifications
attempt to organize the divisions of soils from a more holistic appraisal of soil attributes. The
general principles of natural soil classification systems are:

 A natural system of classification should express general or universal relationships that exist
in nature. One should be able to understand, remember, generalize, or predict from
information obtained.
 The scheme should be based on characteristics or attributes of things classified as related to
their genesis. It should place similar things together on the basis of their properties.
 Natural classifications:

Group by ecologic region, e.g. “prarie soils”, “boreal soils”. Geographically-

compact but may have diverse properties and function.
Group by presumed genesis, i.e. the development pathway of the soil profile.
These are called genetic soil classifications. The soil individual is considered as a
natural body with its own history and ecology. This depends on the interpretation of
landscape and soil genesis.
Group by similar properties, working bottom-up from a set of individuals, to a set
of classes, and then grouping the classes into super-classes. This can be done by:
▪ Subjective judgment of the classifier
▪ Numerical classification, usually multivariate

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It is technically impossible to use all of the properties of soils to classify them. Judgment based on
existing knowledge must be used to determine which properties are most important.

MAJOR SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

A. The USDA soil taxonomy

In United States, there are two systems under witch soils are likely to be classified:

1. The Unified Soil Classification system (USCS) - was developing to describe engineering
properties of soils. Classifications are based on particle (grain) size & response to physical
manipulation at various moisture content.
2. The USDA system- developed for agriculture & other land management uses, is based on both
chemical & physical properties of the soil. The first system (the 1938 system) was based soil
genesis, i.e., how soils formed or where thoughts to have formed, while the present system is
based on quantitatively measurable properties of soils as they exist in the field. The present
system is constantly being refined. The highest level of the present USDA system, the
category referred to us soil order, is based on soil forming processes as indicated by the
presence or absence of major diagnostic horizons.

Level of classification

There are six levels in the hierarchy of USDA soil taxonomy. These are:

1. order ( broad category)

2. suborder
3. great group
4. subgroup
5. family
6. series (most specific category)

Soil Orders

There are 12 orders. The 12 orders and their major characteristics are shown in Table below.

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 Where did these
Common
Soil Order soil order names fertility Typical location
characteristics
come from?

Cool & hot humid

Alf from Fertile forest soils
regions
Alfisols combination of Al with an underlying Good
and Ferrous (iron) clay horizon

Poor, requires
Ando from Near volcanoes
Contains ash and fertilizers
Andisols Japanese, dark
volcanic glass
volcanic ash

light in colour, poor

in organic Good if irrigated Desert regions
Aridisols Latin, aridies, dry matter,Dry soils
with prominent clay
horizon

Undifferentiated River valleys,

Ent meaningless,
Entisols soils of recent Good flood plains, and
root RECENT
origin deltas

Latin gelare, to
Gelisols
freeze

Poorly drained;
Greek, histos,
Histosols contains more than Variable Swamps and bogs
tissue
20% organic matter

Mountains and
Latin, incepum, Horizon Variable
other geologically
Inceptisols beginning development in
young land
inception early stages
formations

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 Thick, dark organic Excellent Grasslands
Latin, mollis, soft,
Mollisols surface
mollify
horizon,productive

Rich in iron and Poor, requires

Oxisols French oxide Humid tropic
aluminum oxides fertilizers

Coniferous forests
Acidic soils with
in cool climates (
concentrations of Good
Greek spodos, in humid climates
Spodosols organic matter,
wood ash where
aluminum oxides,
temperatures are
and iron oxides
low)

Temperate humid
Acidic soil with Poor; requires
and tropical
Latin ultimus, last, strong horizons; fertilizers
Ultisols regions
ultimate formed in forests;
contains clay

Good, with
High clay content; Sub humid
proper
Latin verto, swells when moist,
Vertisols management
vertical cracking then dries and Or semi arid
cracks climates

B. FAO / UNESCO SOIL CLASSIFICATION

It is classification system of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations / United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The FAO developed a supra-national
classification, also called World Soil Classification, which offers useful generalizations about
soils pedogenesis in relation to the interactions with the main soil-forming factors. This system
identifies 9 sets with 28 major soil groups. These are:

Set- I- organic soil

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  Histosols

Set-II- mineral soil in which soil formation is influenced by people

 Antrosols

Set-III-mineral soils in which soil formation is influenced by parent material

 Andosols, Arenosols, Vertisols

Set-IV- mineral soils in which soil formation is influenced by topography/physiography

 Fluvisols, Gleysols,Leptosols, Regosols

Set-V- mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by age

 Cambisols

Set-VI- mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by climate & vegetation

 Planosols, Acrisols, Ferralosols, Alisols, Nitisols, Lixisols

Set-VII- mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by climate & vegetation of arid &
semi arid regions

 Solanchak, Solontez, Calcisols, Gypsisols

Set-VIII- mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by climate & vegetation of steppes
& steppic regions

 Kastanozoms, Chernozoms, Phaeozoms, Greyzems

Set-IX- mineral soils in which soil formation is conditioned by climate & vegetation of sub
humid forest & gras land regions

 Luvisols, Planosols, Padzolovisols, Podosols

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 Major soils of Ethiopia

Due to the wide ranges of topographic, geologic, climatic, parent material and land use factors,
there is extreme variability of soils in Ethiopia. Hence, Ethiopia is considered as a land of soil
museum where different soil orders exist. These orders correspond to different soil groups of the
FAO/UNESCO system. According to the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA, 2000) about 19 soil types
are identified throughout the country. The big proportion of the country’s landmass is covered by
Lithosols, Nitosols, Regosols, Cambisols, Vertisols and Fluvisols in order of their importance (see
Table).

There is limited information on the fertility status of the various soils. Research showed that
Potassium; Nitrogen; Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) and organic matter contents of most
Ethiopian highland soils are generally high by international standards, whereas their phosphorous
content is low to very low. Compared to the African standard most soils in the highlands of
Ethiopia are fertile (FAO, 1984c). Contrary to most other African soils, the majority of Ethiopian
highlands soils remain relatively fertile at depth. However, most highland soils are deficient in
important nutrients and require fertilizer to sustain crop yields. Research has indicated that
Ethiopian soils are generally low in available nitrogen and phosphorous and cannot produce high
crop yields unless these are supplied.

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Soils Type and Distribution in Ethiopia Solonchaks 4.2
Soil type Percent Xarosols 4.8
Solonetz 0.04 Acrisol 5.0
Chernozems 0.07 Luvisols 5.8
Histosols 0.42 Fluvisols 7.9
Gleysols 0.47 Vertisols 10.5
Arenosols 0.81 Cambisol 11.1
Andosols 1.2 Regosols 12.0
Rendzinas 1.5 Nitosols 13.5
Phaeazems 2.9 Lithosol (Leptosols) 14.7
Yermosols 3.1

Geographical distribution

 Nitisols in the southern part of the Western Ethiopian Highlands;

 Luvisols and Leptosols, with isolated occurrences of Cambisols in the northern part of
the Western Ethiopian Highlands
 Yermosols and Xarosols as well as Solonchaks and Solonetz in semi-arid to arid
Somali Lowlands;
 Cambisols and embedded Luvisols in the transition zone between the Highlands and
the Somali Lowlands;
 Fluvisols and Andosols in the Rift Valley, and in endorheic basins;
 Vertisols located across the country in small fragmented pattern

When only arable lands are considered the important once are:

 Nitosols
 Vertisols
 Cambisols

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Review/ study questions

1. Why do we bother to classify soils?

2. What is/are the basis for soil classification?
3. What is the highest level in USDA soil taxonomy system?
4. What is the word used for the lowest level in the classification system?
5. List the 12 soil orders in USDA soil taxonomy, and give a brief description for each.
6. What type of climatic conditions is associated with each soil order?
7. What type of climatic conditions is associated with each soil order?
8. Where do we find each of the soil orders?

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What is Soil Survey?

Soil survey is:

(i) The systematic examination, description, classification, and mapping of soils in an area.
(ii) The study & mapping of soils in the field under their natural environment.

Main objectives of soil survey

1. To classify soils according to a uniform system of classification with uniform nomenclature

for correlation with soils from other areas.
2. To show distribution of soil in field on a map.
3. To define suitability of soils for crops, grasses& trees, their management requirements &
yield of individual crops under different systems of land use & management.

Types of soil survey

There are three types of soil survey

1. Detailed survey
- Consists of detailed study of soils in the field using large scale base map.
- Time consuming
2. reconnaissance survey
- mapping is less elaborate
- small scale base maps are used
- less time consuming
3. detailed reconnaissance survey
- includes elements of both detailed & reconnaissance survey

Soil survey methods

- soil borings are made at required intervals with the help of soil auger
- mapping of soil is done
- Data is collected on climate, physiography, geology, vegetation, hydrology& present
land use.
- Soil survey report & the map are prepared.

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Use of soil survey

Soil surveys are use full in:

- defining, classifying & mapping of soils

- determining the status of natural soil resources
- estimating water run off & infiltration
- land capability classification for agriculture or other purpose
- rehabilitation, public sanitation, land settlement, tax appraisal
- designing engineering structures ( ex. Hay way, air port)
- land evaluation & appraisal

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