Ch- 1 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

All flowering plants (angiosperms) show sexual reproduction. Flowers are the sites of sexual reproduction.

PRE-FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS

- Several hormonal and structural changes result in differentiation & development of the floral primordium.
- Inflorescences bear the floral buds and then the flowers.

STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER

A typical flower has 2 parts: Androecium & Gynoecium.

Androecium (male reproductive part)

It consists of a whorl of stamens. Their number and length are variable in different species.
A stamen has 2 parts:

a. Filament: Long and slender stalk. Its proximal end is attached to the thalamus or the petal of the flower.
b. Anther: Terminal and typically bilobed. Each lobe has 2 thecae (dithecous). Often a longitudinal groove
runs lengthwise separating the theca.

Transverse section of anther:

- The anther is a tetragonal structure consisting of four microsporangia located at the corners (2 in each
lobe).
- The microsporangia develop to pollen sacs. They extend longitudinally all through the length of an anther
and are packed with pollen grains.
 Structure of a microsporangium:

- A typical microsporangium is near circular in outline.

- It is surrounded by 4 wall layers: epidermis, endothecium, middle layers & tapetum (innermost layer).
- The outer 3 layers give protection and help in dehiscence of anther to release the pollen.
- The tapetum nourishes the developing pollen grains. Cells of the tapetum contain dense cytoplasm and
generally have more than one nucleus.
- In young anther, each microsporangium has sporogenous tissue at centre. It consists of compactly
arranged homogenous diploid cells (sporogenous cells).

Microsporogenesis:

- As the anther develops, each sporogenous cell (microspore mother cell or pollen mother cell) undergoes
meiotic divisions to form microspore tetrads (microspores arranged in a cluster of four cells).

- The formation of microspores from pollen mother cell (PMC) through meiosis is called microsporogenesis.
- As the anthers mature and dehydrate, the microspores dissociate from each other and develop into pollen
grains.
- Each microsporangium contains thousands of pollen grains. They are released with the dehiscence of anther.

Pollen grain (male gametophyte):

Generally spherical. 25-50 mm in diameter. Cytoplasm is surrounded by a plasma membrane.

A pollen grain has a two-layered wall: exine and intine.
o Exine: Hard outer layer. Made up of sporopollenin (highly resistant organic material). It can withstand high
temperature and strong acids and alkali. Enzymes cannot degrade sporopollenin.
Exine has apertures called germ pores where sporopollenin is absent.
Pollen grains are preserved as fossils due to the presence of sporopollenin. Exine exhibits patterns and
designs.
o Intine: Inner wall. It is a thin and continuous layer made up of cellulose and pectin.
A matured pollen grain contains 2 cells:
o Vegetative cell: It is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly shaped nucleus.
o Generative cell: It is small and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell. It is spindle shaped with dense
cytoplasm and a nucleus.
- Over 60% angiosperms shed their pollen grains at 2-celled stage. In others, generative cell divides
mitotically to give 2 male gametes. Thus, pollen grains are shed at 3-celled stage.
- The shed pollen grains have to land on the stigma before they lose viability. The viability period of pollen
grains is variable. It depends on temperature and humidity.
- Viability of pollen grains of some cereals (rice, wheat etc.) is 30 minutes. Some members
of Leguminoseae, Rosaceae & Solanaceaehave viability for months.

Economic importance of pollen grains:

o These are rich in nutrients. Pollen tablets are used as food supplements. Pollen tablets & syrups increase
performance of athletes and race horses.
o They are stored for years in liquid nitrogen (-1960 C). They can be used as pollen banks in crop breeding
programmes.
o Pollen grains of some plants (e.g. Parthenium or carrot grass) are allergic for some people. It leads to
chronic respiratory disorders (asthma, bronchitis, etc.).

Gynoecium (female reproductive part)

- It may have a single pistil (monocarpellary) or more than one pistil (multicarpellary).
- In multicarpellary, the pistils may be fused together (syncarpous) or free (apocarpous).

A. Hibiscus pistil.
B. Multicarpellary, syncarpous pistil of Papaver.
C. Multicarpellary, apocarpous gynoecium of Michelia
Each pistil has three parts:
o Stigma: Landing platform for pollen grains.
o Style: Elongated slender part beneath the stigma.
o Ovary: Basal bulged part. It has ovarian cavity (locule) in which placenta is located. Arising from the
placenta are the ovules (megasporangia). Number of ovules in an ovary may be one (wheat, paddy, mango
etc.) to many (papaya, water melon, orchids etc.).
 Structure of Megasporangium (Ovule):

- Ovule is attached to the placenta by a stalk (funicle).

- Junction between the body of ovule and funicle is called hilum.
- Each ovule has 1 or 2 protective envelopes (integuments) except at the tip where a small opening
(micropyle) is present.
- Opposite the micropylar end is the chalaza (basal part).
- Enclosed within the integuments, there is a mass of cells called nucellus. Its cells contain reserve food
materials.
- Inside the nucellus is embryo sac (female gametophyte).
- An ovule generally has a single embryo sac formed from a megaspore.

Megasporogenesis:

- It is the formation of megaspores from megaspore mother cell (MMC).

- Ovules generally differentiate a single MMC in micropylar region of the nucellus. It is a large cell
containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus.
- MMC undergoes meiosis to produce 4 megaspores.

Formation of Female gametophyte (embryo sac):

- In majority of flowering plants, one megaspore is functional while the other three degenerates.
- The functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte. The embryo sac formation from a
single megaspore is called monosporic development.
- Nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei. They move to the opposite
poles, forming 2-nucleate embryo sac.
- The nuclei again divide two times forming 4-nucleate and 8-nucleate stages of the embryo sac.
- These divisions are free nuclear, i.e. nuclear divisions are not followed immediately by cell wall formation.
- After the 8-nucleate stage, cell walls are laid down leading to the organization of the typical female
gametophyte.
- 6 of the 8 nuclei are surrounded by cell walls and organized
into cells. Remaining 2 nuclei (polar nuclei) are situated below the egg apparatus in the large central cell.

Distribution of cells within the embryo sac:

A typical mature embryo sac is 8-nucleate and 7-celled.

o 3 cells (2 synergids + one egg cell) are grouped at the micropylar end and form egg apparatus.
Synergids have special cellular thickenings at the micropylar tip called filiform apparatus. It helps to
guide the pollen tubes into the synergid.
o 3 cells (antipodals) at the chalazal end.
o A large central cell with two polar nuclei.

POLLINATION

It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil.

Based on the source of pollen, pollination is 3 types:

a. Autogamy (self-pollination): It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma of
the same flower.
In flowers with exposed anthers & stigma, complete autogamy is rare. Autogamy in such flowers requires
synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity. Also, anthers & stigma should be close to each other.
Plants like Viola (common pansy), Oxalis & Commelina produce 2 types of flowers:

- Chasmogamous flowers: They are similar to flowers of other species with exposed anthers and
stigma.
- Cleistogamous flowers: They do not open at all. Anthers & stigma lie close to each other.
They are autogamous. When anthers dehisce in the flower buds, pollen grains come in contact
with stigma for pollination. Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-set even in the absence
of pollinators.
- Cleistogamy leads to inbreeding depression.
b. Geitonogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the
same plant. It is functionally cross-pollination involving a pollinating agent. But it is genetically similar to
autogamy since the pollen grains come from the same plant.

c. Xenogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a different plant. It brings
genetically different pollen grains to the stigma.

Agents of Pollination

1. Abiotic agents (wind & water)

Pollination by wind (anemophily):

- More common abiotic agent.
- Wind pollinated flowers often have a single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers packed into an
inflorescence.
- E.g. Corncob – the tassels are the stigma and style which wave in the wind to trap pollen grains. Wind-
pollination is quite common in grasses.
- Ways for effective pollination:
o The flowers produce enormous amount of pollen.
o Pollen grains are light and non-sticky.
o They often possess well-exposed stamens (for easy dispersion of pollens into wind currents).
o Large, feathery stigma to trap air-borne pollen grains.

Pollination by water (hydrophily):

- It is quite rare. It is limited to about 30 genera, mostly monocotyledons. E.g. Vallisneria & Hydrilla (fresh
water), Zostera (marine sea-grasses) etc.
- But in lower plants, water is a regular mode of transport for the male gametes. Distribution of some
bryophytes & pteridophytes is limited because they need water for the transport of male gametes and
fertilisation.
- In Vallisneria, the female flower reaches the surface of water by the long stalk and the male flowers or
pollen grains are released on to the surface of water. They are carried by water currents and reach the female
flowers.
- In sea grasses, female flowers remain submerged in water. Pollen grains are long and ribbon like. They are
carried inside the water and reach the stigma.
- The pollen grains of most of the water-pollinated species have a mucilaginous covering to protect from
wetting.
- Not all aquatic plants use hydrophily. In most of aquatic plants (water hyacinth, water lily etc.), the flowers
emerge above the level of water for entomophily or anemophily.
- Wind and water pollinated flowers are not very colourful and do not produce nectar.
 2. Biotic agents (animals)

- Majority of flowering plants use animals as pollinating agents. E.g. Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps,
ants, moths, birds (sunbirds & humming birds) bats, primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents,
reptiles (gecko lizard & garden lizard) etc.
- Pollination by insects (Entomophily), particularly bees is more common.
- Often flowers of animal pollinated plants are specifically adapted for a particular species of animal.
- Features of insect-pollinated flowers:
o Large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar. Nectar & pollen grains are the floral rewards for pollination.
o Small flowers form inflorescence to make them visible.
o The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours to attract these animals.
o The pollen grains are generally sticky.

- When the animal comes in contact with the anthers and the stigma, its body gets pollen grains. When it comes
in contact with the stigma, it results in pollination.
- Some plants provide safe places as floral reward to lay eggs.
E.g. Amorphophallus (It has the tallest flower of 6 feet).
A moth species and the plant Yucca cannot complete their life cycles without each other. The moth deposits
its eggs in the locule of ovary. The flower gets pollinated by moth. The larvae come out of the eggs as seeds
start developing.
- Many insects consume pollen or nectar without bringing about pollination. They are called pollen/nectar
robbers.

Outbreeding Devices

Hermaphrodite flowers can undergo self-pollination. Continued self-pollination results in inbreeding

depression.
To avoid self-pollination (autogamy) and encourage cross-pollination, there are some devices in plants:
a. Avoiding synchronization: Here, the pollen is released before the stigma becomes receptive or stigma
becomes receptive before the release of pollen.
b. Arrangement of anther & stigma at different positions.
c. Self-incompatibility: It is a genetic mechanism to prevent self-pollen (from same flower or other flowers
of the same plant) from fertilization by inhibiting pollen germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil.

d. Production of unisexual flowers: If male & female flowers are present on the same plant (i.e.,
monoecious, e.g. castor & maize), it prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy. In dioecious plants (e.g.
papaya), male and female flowers are present on different plants (dioecy). This prevents both autogamy
and geitonogamy.
Pollen-pistil Interaction
- It is a process in which pistil recognizes compatible or incompatible pollen through the chemical
components produced by them.
- Pistil accepts compatible pollen and promotes post-pollination events.
- It rejects incompatible pollen by preventing pollen germination or pollen tube growth.
- Pollen grain germinates on the stigma to produce a pollen tube through one of the germ pores. The contents
of pollen grain move into pollen tube. Pollen tube grows through the tissues of stigma and style and reaches
the ovary.
- In plants which shed pollen grains at 2-celled condition (a vegetative cell & a generative cell), the generative
cell divides into two male gametes during pollen tube growth.
- In plants which shed pollen in 3-celled condition, pollen tubes carry 2 male gametes from the beginning.
- Pollen tube → ovary → micropyle → ovule → enters one of the synergids through filiform
apparatus. Filiform apparatus guides the entry of pollen tube.

- A plant breeder can manipulate pollen-pistil interaction, even in incompatible pollinations, to get desired
hybrids.
Artificial hybridisation

It is a crop improvement programme in which desired pollen grains are used for pollination.
Steps:
o Emasculation: Removal of anthers from the bisexual flower bud of female parent before the anther
dehisces.
o Bagging: Here, emasculated flowers are covered with a bag (butter paper) to prevent contamination of its
stigma with unwanted pollen.
o Pollination: When stigma attains receptivity, pollen grains collected from male parent are dusted on the
stigma.
o Re-bagging the flowers. It is allowed to develop the fruits.
For unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation. Female flower buds are bagged before the flowers
open.

DOUBLE FERTILISATION

- After entering the synergid, the pollen tube releases 2 male gametes into the cytoplasm of the synergid. One
male gamete moves towards the egg cell and fuses with its nucleus (syngamy)to form zygote (diploid).
- The other male gamete moves towards the two polar nuclei located in the central cell and fuses with them
to produce a triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). As it involves
fusion of 3 haploid nuclei, it is called triple fusion.
- Since 2 types of fusions (syngamy & triple fusion) take place in an embryo sac, it is called double
fertilisation.
It is an event unique to flowering plants.
- The central cell after triple fusion becomes the primary endosperm cell (PEC) and develops into
the endosperm while the zygote develops into an embryo.
 POST- FERTILISATION: STRUCTURES & EVENTS

Post-fertilisation events: Endosperm & embryo development, maturation of ovule(s) into seed(s) & ovary
into fruit.

Endosperm development

- Primary endosperm cell (PEC) divides repeatedly to form a triploid endosperm tissue.
- Endosperm cells are filled with reserve food materials. They are used for nutrition of the developing
embryo.
- In common endosperm development, PEN undergoes successive nuclear divisions to give free nuclei (free-
nuclear endosperm). Number of free nuclei varies greatly.
- Endosperm becomes cellular due to cell wall formation.
- Tender coconut water is a free-nuclear endosperm (made up of thousands of nuclei) and the
surrounding white kernel is the cellular endosperm.

Embryo development

- Embryo develops at the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is situated.
- Most zygotes divide only after the formation of some endosperm. This provides nutrition to developing
embryo.
- In monocots & dicots, seeds differ greatly but embryogeny (early embryonic developments) is similar.
- Zygote → Pro-embryo → Globular → Heart-shaped → Mature embryo.

Dicotyledonous embryo
- It has an embryonal axis and 2 cotyledons.
- Portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledons is the epicotyl, which terminates with plumule
(stem tip).
- The cylindrical portion below the level of cotyledons is hypocotyl that terminates with the radicle (root
tip). The root tip is covered with a root cap.

Monocotyledonous embryo

- They possess only one cotyledon.

- Cotyledon of the grass family is called scutellum.
- It is situated lateral to the embryonal axis. At its lower end, the embryonal axis has the radicle and root cap
enclosed in coleorrhiza (an undifferentiated sheath).
- Portion of embryonal axis above the level of attachment of scutellum is the epicotyl. It has a shoot apex and a
few leaf primordia enclosed in coleoptile (a hollow foliar structure).

Seed from Ovule

- Seed is the fertilized ovule formed inside fruits. It is the final product of sexual reproduction.
- It consists of seed coat(s), cotyledon(s) & an embryo axis.
- The cotyledons are simple, generally thick and swollen due to storage food (as in legumes).
- Mature seeds are 2 types:
o Non-albuminous (Ex-albuminous) seeds: Have no residual endosperm as it is completely consumed
during embryo development. E.g. pea, groundnut, beans.
o Albuminous seeds: Retain a part of endosperm. E.g. wheat, maize, barley, castor, coconut.
- Occasionally, in some seeds (black pepper, beet etc.) remnants of nucellus are also persistent. It is
called perisperm.
- Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats. It has a small pore (micropyle) through which
O2 & water enter into the seed during germination.
- As the seed matures, it becomes dry by reducing water content (10-15 % moisture by mass). The metabolic
activity of the embryo slows down. It may enter a state of inactivity (dormancy). Under favourable
conditions (moisture, oxygen & suitable temperature), they germinate.
 Structure of some seeds
Advantages of seeds:

o Since pollination and fertilisation are independent of water, seed formation is more dependable.
o Better adaptive strategies for dispersal to new habitats. It helps the species to colonize in other areas.
o They have food reserves. So, seedlings are nourished until they are capable of photosynthesis.
o The hard seed coat protects the young embryo.
o Being products of sexual reproduction, they generate new genetic combinations and variations.
o Dehydration & dormancy helps to store seeds. It can be used as food throughout year and to raise crop
in next season.

Viability of seeds after dispersal:

- In a few species, the seeds lose viability within a few months. Seeds of many species live for several years.
- Some seeds can remain alive for hundreds of years. The oldest is that of a lupine (Lupinus arcticus) excavated
from Arctic Tundra. The seed germinated and flowered after an estimated record of 10,000 years of
dormancy.
- 2000 years old viable seed is of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) discovered during the archeological
excavation at King Herod’s palace near the Dead Sea.

Fruit from Ovary

- The ovary develops into a fruit. Transformation of ovules into seeds and ovary into fruit proceeds
simultaneously.
- The wall of ovary develops into pericarp (wall of fruit).
- The fruits may be fleshy (e.g. guava, orange, mango, etc.) or dry (e.g. groundnut, mustard etc.).
- Fruits are 2 types:

• True fruits: In this, fruit develops only from the ovary. Other floral parts degenerate & fall off. E.g.
most plants.
 • False fruits: In this, the thalamus also contributes to fruit formation. E.g. apple, strawberry, cashew etc.

- In some species, fruits develop without fertilisation. Such fruits are called parthenocarpic
fruits. E.g. Banana.
- Parthenocarpy can be induced through the application of growth hormones. Such fruits are seedless.

APOMIXIS AND POLYEMBRYONY

- Apomixis is the production of seeds without fertilisation. E.g. Some species of Asteraceae and grasses.
- It is a form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction.
- In some species, diploid egg cell is formed without reduction division and develops into the embryo without
fertilisation.
- In many species (e.g. many Citrus & Mango varieties) some nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac divide,
protrude into the embryo sac to form embryos. Thus, each ovule contains many embryos. Occurrence of more
than one embryo in a seed is called polyembryony.

Importance of apomixis in hybrid seed industry

- If the seeds collected from hybrids are sown, plants in the progeny will segregate and lose hybrid characters.
- Production of hybrid seeds are costly. So, hybrid seeds are also expensive. If the hybrids are made into
apomicts, there is no segregation in the hybrid progeny. So, farmers can keep on using hybrid seeds to raise
new crop.
 Ch-2 HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the production of young ones by an organism. Humans are sexually reproducing and
viviparous.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Male Reproductive System

- It consists of paired testes, Accessory ducts, Accessory glands & external genitalia (penis).

a. Paired testes

- Primary sex organs that produce sperms & testosterone.

- Testes are formed within the abdomen. Soon after the birth or at the 8th month of pregnancy they descent
into the scrotal sac (scrotum) through inguinal canal.
- The low temperature (2-2.50 C less than the body temperature) of scrotum helps for proper functioning of
testes and for spermatogenesis.
- Each testis is oval shaped. Length 4-5 cm, width: 2-3 cm.
- Each testis has about 250 testicular lobules.
- Each lobule contains 1-3 coiled seminiferous tubules.
- Seminiferous tubule is lined internally with
1. Male germ cells (spermatogonia): They become sperms.
2. Sertoli cells: They give nutrition to the germ cells.
-The regions outside the seminiferous tubules (interstitial spaces) contain small blood vessels, interstitial cells
(Leydig cells) and immunologically competent cells.
- Leydig cells secrete testicular hormones (androgens).

b. Accessory ducts (Duct system)

- Include rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis & vas deferens. They conduct sperms from testis as
follows:
- Seminiferous tubules → rete testis (irregular cavities) → vasa efferentia (series of fine tubules)
→ epididymis (stores sperms temporarily) → vas deferens → join with duct of seminal vesicle to
form ejaculatory duct → urethra → urethral meatus.
- Urethra receives ducts of prostate and Cowper’s glands.
 c. Accessory glands

- Include a prostate gland, a pair of seminal vesicles and a pair of Cowper’s glands (bulbo-urethral
glands).
- Their collective secretion (seminal plasma) is rich in fructose, Ca and enzymes.
- Seminal plasma + sperms → semen.
- Functions of seminal plasma:
1. Helps for transporting sperms.
2. Supplies nutrients to sperms.
3. Provides alkalinity to counteract the acidity of uterus.
4. Secretions of Cowper’s glands lubricate the penis.
- Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle & prostate help for maturation and motility of
sperms.

d. Penis (external genitalia)

- It is a copulatory organ made of erectile spongy tissue.

- When spongy tissue is filled with blood, the penis erects. It facilitates insemination.
- The cone-shaped tip of the penis is called glans penis. It is covered by prepuce (foreskin).

2. Female Reproductive System

It is located in the pelvic region.

It includes Ovaries, Accessory ducts & External genitalia.

a. Paired ovaries

- Primary sex organs which produce ova (female gamete) steroid ovarian hormones (estrogen &
progesterone).
- Each ovary is 2-4 cm in length.
- They are located on both side of the lower abdomen and connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments.
- Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma.
- The stroma has outer cortex and inner medulla.
- Ovarian cortex contains groups of cells (Ovarian follicles). Each follicle carries a centrally placed ovum.

b. Accessory ducts (Duct system)

Include 2 oviducts (Fallopian tubes), a uterus & vagina.

➢ Oviducts: Each oviduct (10-12 cm long) has 3 parts:

 • Infundibulum: Funnel-shaped opening provided with many finger-like fimbriae. It helps to collect
the ovum.
• Ampulla: Wider part.
• Isthmus: Narrow part. It joins the uterus.
• The ciliated epithelium lined the lumen of the oviduct drives the ovum towards the uterus.

➢ Uterus (womb): It is inverted pear shaped. It is supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall.

Uterus has 3 parts: Upper fundus, middle body and terminal cervix. Cervix opens to vagina.

Cervical canal and vagina forms birth canal.

The uterine wall has 3 layers:

• Perimetrium: External thin membrane.

• Myometrium: Middle thick layer of smooth muscle.
• Endometrium: Inner glandular and vascular layer.

➢ Vagina: It opens to the exterior between urethra & anus.

c. External genitalia (vulva or pudendum)

- Consist of Mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen & clitoris.
- Mons pubis: A cushion of fatty tissue covered by pubic hair.
- Labia majora: Large, fleshy, fatty and hairy outer folds. Surrounds vaginal opening.
- Labia minora: Small, thin and hairless inner folds.
- Hymen (Maiden head): A membrane which partially cover the vaginal opening. It is often torn during the
first coitus. It may also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal tampon; active participation in
some sports items etc. In some women, hymen persists after coitus. So, the hymen is not a reliable indicator
of virginity or sexual experience.
- Clitoris: A highly sensitive organ lying just in front of the urethral opening.

Mammary glands (breasts)

- A pair of mammary glands contains glandular tissue & fat.

- Glandular tissue of each breast has 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters of cells (mammary alveoli).
- Cells of alveoli secrete milk. It is stored in lumen of alveoli.
- The alveoli open into mammary tubules.
- The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
- Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is connected to lactiferous
duct through which milk is sucked out.

GAMETOGENESIS

- It is the formation of gametes in the gonads.

- It is 2 types: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis.

1. Spermatogenesis

It is the process of formation of sperms (spermatozoa) in seminiferous tubules of testis. It has 2 stages:
a. Formation of spermatids: In this, Sperm mother cells (Spermatogonia or male germ cells) produce
spermatids.
b. Spermiogenesis: Spermatids transform into sperm.
 Schematic representation of spermatogenesis

- 4 spermatids are formed from each primary spermatocyte.

- After spermiogenesis, sperm heads are embedded in Sertoli cells to get nourishment. Then they are released
to lumen of seminiferous tubules. It is called spermiation.

Diagrammatic sectional view of a seminiferous tubule

Role of Hormones in Spermatogenesis

- Hypothalamus releases Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH).

- GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete 2 gonadotropins such as Luteinizing hormone
(LH) and
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
- LH acts on the Leydig cells and stimulates secretion of androgens. Androgens stimulate the spermatogenesis.
- FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors for the spermiogenesis.

Structure of spermatozoa (Sperm)

- A mature sperm is about 60 µ (0.06 mm) long.
- A plasma membrane envelops the whole body of sperm.
- A sperm has 3 regions:
a. Head: Oval shaped. Formed of nucleus and acrosome. Acrosome is formed from Golgi complex. It
contains lytic enzymes. Behind the head is a neck.
b. Middle piece: Composed of axial filament surrounded by mitochondria & cytoplasm. Mitochondria
produce energy for the sperm motility.
c. Tail: Consists of a central axial filament. The sperm moves in fluid medium and female genital tract by
the undulating movement of the tail.
- Man ejaculates 200-300 million sperms during a coitus.
- For normal fertility, at least 60% sperms must have normal shape and size. 40% of them must show vigorous
motility.

2. Oogenesis

- It is the process of formation and maturation of ovum.

- It takes place in Ovarian follicles.

- Oogenesis is initiated in embryonic stage when 2 million of egg mother cells (oogonia) are formed within
each ovary.
- No more oogonia are formed and added after birth.
- Oogonia multiply to form primary oocytes. They enter prophase-Iof the meiosis and get temporarily arrested
at that stage.
- Each primary oocyte gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cellsto form primary follicle.
- Many primary follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty. Therefore, at puberty, only 60,000-
80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
- Primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new theca to form secondary follicles.
- The secondary follicles transform into a tertiary follicle. It has a fluid filled cavity (antrum). The theca
layer forms an inner theca interna and an outer theca externa.
- The primary oocyte in tertiary follicle grows and undergoes first unequal meiotic division to form a
large secondary oocyte (n) & a tiny first polar body (n). So, secondary oocyte retains nutrient rich
cytoplasm of primary oocyte.
- It is unknown that whether the first polar body divides further or degenerates.
- The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle (Graafian follicle).
- Secondary oocyte forms a new membrane (zona pellucida).
- Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary. This is
called ovulation.
 Schematic representation of oogenesis

Structure of ovum (egg)

- Spherical and non-motile. About 0.2 mm in diameter.

- Ovum has 3 membranes:
a. Plasma membrane: Innermost layer.
b. Zona pellucida: Outer to the plasma membrane.
c. Corona radiata: Outer layer formed of follicle cells.

Spermatogenesis & Oogenesis- A comparison

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis

Occurs in testis. Occurs in ovary.

Limited growth phase. Elaborated growth phase

Each primary spermatocyte gives 4 sperms. Each primary oocyte gives one ovum.

No polar body formation. Polar bodies are formed.

Begins at embryonic stage but suspends
up to puberty. It ceases around the age of
Begins at puberty and extends up to senility. fifty.
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE (REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE)

- It is the cyclic events in female reproductive system starting from one menstruation till the next during
the reproductive period (from puberty to menopause).
- Its duration is 28 or 29 days.
- Menstrual cycle is also seen in other primates.
- Menstrual cycle includes Ovarian cycle (changes in ovary) & Uterine cycle (changes in uterus, oviduct &
vagina).
- Menstrual cycle has the following phases:

I. Menstrual phase: 1-5th day

- The cycle starts with menstrual flow (bleeding).

- It lasts for 3-5 days.
- Menstruation occurs if the released ovum is not fertilized. It results in breakdown of endometrial lining and
its blood vessels that comes out through vagina.
- Lack of menstruation indicates pregnancy. It may also be caused due to stress, poor health etc.
- Menarche: The first menstruation during puberty.

II. Follicular (Proliferative) phase: 5-13th day

- It starts from 5th day after menstruation and completed within 8-12 days.
- In this phase, the action of gonadotropins (FSH &LH) from pituitary occurs. FSH stimulates
o Development of primary follicles into Graafian follicles.
o Secretion of oestrogens by Graafian follicles.
- Oestrogens stimulate
o Proliferation of ruptured uterine endometrium and mucus lining of oviduct & vagina.
o Development of secondary sexual characters.
o Suppression of FSH secretion.
o Secretion of LH (Luteinizing hormone).

III. Ovulatory phase: 14th day

- LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle.

- Rapid secretion of LH (LH surge) induces rupture of Graafian follicle and thereby ovulation (on 14th day).

IV. Secretory (Luteal) phase: 15-28th day

- After ovulation, Graafian follicle is transformed to a yellow

endocrine mass called Corpus luteum. It secretes progesterone.
- Functions of progesterone:
o Makes the endometrium maximum vascular, thick and soft. Thus, the uterus gets ready for implantation.
o Inhibits the FSH secretion to prevent development of a second ovarian follicle.
- If fertilization does not occur, corpus luteum degenerates. It causes disintegration of endometrium. It leads
to next menstruation and new cycle.
- If a woman becomes pregnant, all events of menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation.
- Menstrual cycle ceases around 50 years of age. It is calledMenopause.
Menstrual hygiene:

o Take bath and clean body regularly.

o Use sanitary napkins or clean homemade pads.
o Change them after every 4 – 5 hrs as per the requirement.
o Dispose the used napkins or pads properly. Do not throw them in the drainpipe of toilets or in the open
area.
o After handling the napkin, wash hands with soap.

FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

- During copulation, semen is released by the penis into the vagina. It is called insemination.
- Fusion of a sperm with ovum is called fertilization. It occurs in Ampullary region of fallopian tube.

Sperms → vagina → cervical canal → uterus → isthmus

↓

Ampullary region →Fertilization

↑
(from ovary) Ovum → fimbriae → infundibulum

- Fertilization happens only if ovum & sperms are transported simultaneously. So, all copulations do not
lead to fertilization & pregnancy.
- A sperm contacts with zona pellucida. It induces changes in the membrane that block entry of additional
sperms.
- The secretions of the acrosome help sperm to enter the egg cytoplasm via zona pellucida & plasma
membrane. This causes second meiotic division of secondary oocyte to form an ovum (ootid) and a second
polar body.
- The haploid nuclei of the sperm and ovum fuse together to form a diploid zygote.
- Zygote undergoes mitotic division (cleavage) as it moves through the isthmus towards the uterus and
forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
- The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is called a morula.
- Morula continues to divide and transforms into blastocyst.
- In blastocyst, blastomeres are arranged into trophoblast (outer layer) and an inner cell mass attached to
trophoblast.
- The trophoblast layer gives nourishment to inner cell mass. Also, it gets attached to endometrium.
- After attachment, uterine cells divide rapidly and cover the blastocyst. Thus, the blastocyst becomes
embedded in the endometrium. This is called implantation.
- The inner cell mass gets differentiated to 3 germ layers (outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm &
inner endoderm). This 3-layered structure (gastrula) forms the embryo.

PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

- After implantation, finger-like projections (chorionic villi) appear on the trophoblast.

- They are surrounded by uterine tissue and maternal blood.
- The chorionic villi & uterine tissue are interdigitated to form placenta. It is a structural and functional unit
b/w embryo (foetus) and maternal body.
- Placenta is connected to the embryo by an umbilical cord. It transports substances to and from the embryo.
 Functions of placenta

• Acts as barrier between the foetus and mother.

• Supply O2, nutrients etc. from mother to foetus.
• Remove CO2 and excretory wastes from foetus.
• Acts as an endocrine gland. It secretes Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental
lactogen (hPL), oestrogens, progesterone & relaxin. Relaxin is also secreted by ovary.

- During pregnancy, levels of estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxin etc. are also increased
in maternal blood. They support the fetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother and maintain pregnancy.
- The germ layers give rise to all tissues (organs). The stem cells in inner cell mass have the potency to give
rise to all the tissues and organs.
- Human pregnancy (gestation period) lasts 9 months (cats: 2 months, dogs: 2 months, elephants: 21 months).

Changes in embryo during pregnancy

• After one month: Heart is formed.

• End of second month: Limbs and digits are developed.
• End of 12 weeks (first trimester): Major organs (limbs, external genital organs etc.) are well developed.
• During 5th month: First movement of foetus and appearance of hair on the head.
• End of 24 weeks (end of 2nd trimester): Body is covered with fine hair, eyelids separate and eye lashes
are formed.
• End of 9 months: Ready for delivery

PARTURITION AND LACTATION

• Parturition (labour): Process of giving birth to young ones.

• Parturition is induced by neuroendocrine mechanism.
• The signals originating from the foetus and placenta induce mild uterine contractions (fetal ejection
reflex). This causes the release of oxytocin from maternal pituitary.
• Oxytocin causes stronger uterine muscle contractions which in turn stimulate further secretion of
oxytocin. This process is continued leading to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth
canal.
• After parturition, the umbilical cord is cut off.
• The placenta & remnants of umbilical cord are expelled from the maternal body after parturition. It is
called “after birth”.
• The mammary glands produce milk towards the end of pregnancy. It is called lactation.
• The yellowish milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum. It contains
several antibodies essential to develop resistance for the new born babies.
 Ch-3 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

According to World Health Organisation (WHO), Reproductive health is a total well-being in all aspects
of reproduction i.e., physical, emotional, behavioural & social.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH: PROBLEMS & STRATEGIES

India initiated reproductive health programmes (family planning) in 1951.

Now wider reproduction-related areas are in operation under Reproductive & Child Health Care (RCH)
programmes.

Such programmes deal the following:

• Give awareness about reproduction related aspects for creating a reproductively healthy society.
• Educate people about birth control, care of pregnant mothers, post-natal care of mother and child,
importance of breast feeding, equal opportunities for male & female child etc.
• Awareness of problems due to population explosion, social evils like sex-abuse and sex-related
crimes, etc.

Aims and needs of sex education in schools

• To provide right information about sex-related aspects. It helps to avoid sex-related myths and
misconceptions.
• To give proper information about reproductive organs, adolescence and related changes, safe and
hygienic sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STD), AIDS etc.

POPULATION STABILIZATION & BIRTH CONTROL

In 1900, world population was about 2 billion. By 2000, it rocketed to about 6 billion and 7.2
billion in 2011.

In India, population was nearly 350 million at the time of independence. It reached 1 billion by 2000 and
crossed 1.2 billion in May 2011. It means every sixth person in the world is an Indian.

According to the 2011 census report, our population growth rate was less than 2% (i.e. 20/1000/year), a rate
at which our population could increase rapidly.

Reasons for population explosion

• Increased health facilities and better living conditions.
• Rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate (MMR) and infant mortality rate (IMR).
• Increase in number of people in reproducible age.

Impacts of population explosion

• Scarcity of basic requirements (e.g. food, shelter & clothing).

Control measures
• Motivate smaller families by using contraceptive methods.
• Aware peoples about a slogan Hum Do Hamare Do (we two, our two). Many couples have adopted
a ‘one child norm’.
• Statutory rising of marriageable age of females (18 years) and males (21 years).
 Properties of an ideal contraceptive
• User-friendly, easily available, effective and reversible.
• No or least side-effects.
• It should not interfere with sexual drive, desire & sexual act.

CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS

1. Natural/Traditional methods

Avoid chances of ovum and sperms meeting. It includes

• Periodic abstinence: Avoid coitus from day 10 to 17 (fertile period) of the menstrual cycle to
prevent conception. Fertile period is the period having chances of fertilization.
• Coitus interruptus (withdrawal): Withdraw penis from the vagina just before ejaculation to avoid
insemination.
• Lactational amenorrhea: It is the absence of menstrual cycle & ovulation due to
intense lactation after parturition. Fully breastfeeding increases lactation. This method helps to
prevent conception. This is effective up to 6 months following parturition.
Natural methods has no side effect. But chances of failure are high.

2. Barriers

They prevent physical meeting of sperm & ovum. E.g.

Condoms (E.g. Nirodh):

• Made of rubber/latex sheath.

• Condoms for male: Cover the penis.
• Condoms for female: Cover the vagina & cervix.
• Condoms are used just before coitus. They prevent the entry of semen into female reproductive tract.
• Condoms are very popular because:
• It protects the user from STDs and AIDS.
• Easily available and disposable.
• It can be self-inserted and thereby give privacy to user.

Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults:

1. Made of rubber and are inserted into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during coitus.
2. They block the entry of sperms through the cervix.
3. They are reusable.

Spermicidal creams, jellies & foams are used along with these barriers to increase contraceptive
efficiency.

3. Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)

1. These are inserted by doctors or nurses in the uterus through vagina. They increase phagocytosis of
sperms.

2. IUDs are ideal method to delay pregnancy or space children.

Types of IUDs:
• Non-medicated IUDs: They retard sperm motility. Also have spermicidal effect. E.g. Lippes loop.
• Copper releasing IUDs: Cu ions suppress motility and fertilising capacity of sperms. E.g. CuT,
Cu7, Multiload 375.
• Hormone releasing IUDs: They make the uterus unsuitable for implantation and the cervix hostile
to the sperms. E.g. Progestasert, LNG-20.

4. Oral contraceptives

• Oral administration of progestogens or progestogen–oestrogen combinations in the form

of tablets (pills).
• Pills are taken daily for 21 days starting within the first five days of menstrual cycle. After a gap of 7
days (menstruation period), it should be repeated in the same pattern till the female desires to prevent
conception.
• They inhibit ovulation and implantation and thicken cervical mucus to prevent entry of sperms.
• Pills are very effective with lesser side effects.

Saheli: New oral contraceptive for the females. It is developed by Central Drug Research Institute
(CDRI) in Lucknow. It contains a non-steroidal preparation. It is a ‘once a week’ pill with very few side
effects and high contraceptive value.

5. Injectables & Implants

Progestogens or Progestogens-oestrogen combination are used by females as injections or implants under

skin.

Their mode of action is like that of pills and their effective periods are much longer.

Progestogens or progestogen-oestrogen combinations & IUDs are used as emergency

contraceptives within 72 hours of coitus. It avoids pregnancy due to rape or casual intercourse.
 6. Surgical methods (sterilisation)

It helps to block gamete transport and thereby prevents conception. It is very effective but reversibility is
very poor.

Vasectomy: Sterilisation procedure in males. In this, a small part of the vas deferens is removed or tied up
through a small incision on the scrotum.

Tubectomy: Sterilisation procedure in females. In this, a small part of the fallopian tube is removed or tied
up through a small incision in the abdomen or through vagina.

Side effects of anti-natural contraceptives:

Nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular menstrual bleeding, breast cancer etc.

MEDICAL TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY (MTP)

• Intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term is called MTP or induced
abortion.
• 45 to 50 million MTPs are performed in a year all over the world (i.e. 1/5th of total number of
conceived pregnancies).
• MTP helps to decrease the population.
• Many countries have not legalised MTP due to emotional, ethical, religious and social issues.
• Government of India legalised MTP in 1971 with some strict conditions to check illegal female
foeticides.

Importance of MTP
• To avoid unwanted pregnancies due to casual intercourse or failure of the contraceptive used during
coitus or rapes.
• It is essential in cases where continuation of pregnancy could be harmful to the mother or to the
foetus or both.
• MTPs are safe during the first trimester, (up to 12 weeks of pregnancy). 2nd trimester abortions are
very risky.

Problems related with MTP

• Majority of the MTPs are performed illegally.
• Misuse of amniocentesis test for foetal sex determination. If the foetus is female, it is followed by
MTP. Such practices are dangerous for the young mother and foetus.
Amniocentesis: In this, some amniotic fluid of the foetus is taken to analyse the foetal cells & dissolved
substances. It is used to test the presence of genetic disorders, survivability of the foetus etc.

Government of India enacted The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2017 to
reduce illegal abortion and consequent maternal mortality and morbidity.

According to this Act, a pregnancy may be terminated within the first 12 weeks on the opinion of a
registered medical practitioner. If the pregnancy is between 12 - 24 weeks, two registered medical
practitioners must be of the opinion.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs)

Diseases or infections transmitted through sexual intercourse are called Sexually transmitted
diseases/infections (STDs or STIs)/Venereal diseases (VD) or Reproductive tract infections (RTI).

E.g. Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis, hepatitis-B &
HIV leading to AIDS.

Hepatitis-B & HIV are also transmitted

• By sharing of injection needles, surgical instruments etc.

• By transfusion of blood.
• From infected mother to foetus.
Except hepatitis-B, genital herpes & HIV, other diseases are completely curable if detected early and treated
properly.

Early symptoms: Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swellings, etc. in the genital region.

Absence or less significant early symptoms and the social stigma deter the infected persons to consult a
doctor. This leads to pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID), infertility, ectopic pregnancies, abortions, still
births, cancer of the reproductive tract etc.

All persons are vulnerable to STDs. These are very high among persons in the age group of 15-24 years.

Prevention:

• Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.

• Always use condoms during coitus.
• In case of doubt, go to a qualified doctor for early detection and get complete treatment.

INFERTILITY

It is the inability to conceive or produce children even after 2 years of unprotected sexual cohabitation.

The reasons for this may be physical, congenital, diseases, drugs, immunological or even psychological.

ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ART)

These are the technologies used to correct the infertility problems.

Some of them are given below:

 1. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) or Test tube baby programme

In this method, ova from the wife/donor and sperms from the husband/donor are collected and are induced to
form zygote under simulated conditions in the laboratory. This is followed by Embryo transfer (ET).

ET is 2 types:

• Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT): Transfer of zygote or early embryo (with up to 8
blastomeres) into fallopian tube.
• Intra Uterine Transfer (IUT): Transfer of embryo with more than 8 blastomeres into the uterus.
Embryo formed by in vivo fertilisation (fertilisation within the female) is also used for such transfer to
assist those females who cannot conceive.

2. Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT)

Transfer of an ovum from a donor into the fallopian tube of another female who cannot produce ovum, but
can provide suitable environment for fertilisation and development.

3. Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)

It is a laboratory procedure in which a single sperm (from male partner) is injected directly into an egg (from
female partner). After fertilisation, the embryo is implanted into the woman’s uterus.

4. Artificial insemination (AI)technique

The semen collected from husband or a donor is artificially introduced into the vagina or the uterus of the
female.

Artificial insemination into the uterus is known as intra-uterine insemination (IUI).

This technique is useful for the male partner having inability to inseminate female or low sperm counts etc.

Problems of ART
• It requires specialised professionals and expensive instrumentation. Therefore, these facilities are
available only in very few centres.
• Emotional, religious and social problems.
Legal adoption is a good method for couples looking for parenthood.
 Ch-4 PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

IMPORTANT TERMS

• Genetics: Study of inheritance, heredity and variation of characters or Study of genes and
chromosomes.
• Inheritance: Transmission of characters from parents to progeny. It is the basis of Heredity.
• Variation: Difference between parents and offspring.
• Character: A heritable feature among the parents & offspring. E.g. Eye colour.
• Trait: Variants of a character. E.g. Brown eye, Blue eye.
• Allele: Alternative forms of a gene. E.g. T (tall) and t (dwarf) are two alleles of a gene for the
character height.
• Homozygous: The condition in which chromosome pair carries similar alleles of a gene. Also
known as pure line (True breeding). E.g. TT, tt, YY, yy etc.
• Heterozygous: The condition in which chromosome pair carries dissimilar alleles of a gene. E.g. Tt,
Yy etc.
• Dominant character: The character which is expressed in heterozygous condition. It indicates with
capital letter.
• Recessive character: The character which is suppressed in heterozygous condition. It indicates with
small letter.
• Phenotype: Physical expression of a character.
• Genotype: Genetic constitution of a character.
• Hybrid: An individual produced by the mating of genetically unlike parents.
• Punnett square: A graphical representation to calculate probability of all genotypes of offspring in a
genetic cross.

MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE

Gregor Mendel is the Father of genetics.

He conducted some hybridization experiments on garden peas (Pisum sativum) for 7 years (1856-1863).

Steps in making a cross (Deliberate mating) in pea:

• Selection of 2 pea plants with contrasting characters.

• Emasculation: Removal of anthers of one plant to avoid self-pollination. This is female parent.
• Pollination: Collection of pollen grains from the male parent and transferring to female parent.
• Collection & germination of seeds to produce offspring.

Mendel selected 7 pairs of true breeding pea varieties:

Contrasting Traits
7 Characters Dominant Recessive
1. Stem height Tall Dwarf
2. Flower colour Violet White
3. Flower position Axial Terminal
4. Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5. Pod colour Green Yellow
6. Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7. Seed colour Yellow Green
 INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE

Monohybrid cross: A cross involving 2 plants differing in one character pair. E.g. Mendel crossed tall and
dwarf pea plants to study the inheritance of one gene.

Monohybrid phenotypic ratio:

3 Tall: 1 Dwarf = 3:1

Monohybrid genotypic ratio:

1 Homozygous tall (TT)

2 Heterozygous tall (Tt)
1 Homozygous dwarf (tt)

= 1:2:1

Mendel made similar observations for other pairs of traits. He proposed that some factors were inherited
from parent to offspring. Now it is called as genes.

Do not use T for tall and d for dwarf because it is difficult to remember whether T & d are alleles of same
gene or not.
The F1 (Tt) when self-pollinated, produces gametes Tand t in equal proportion. During fertilization, pollen
grains of T have 50% chance to pollinate eggs of T & t. Also, pollen grains of t have 50% chance to
pollinate eggs of T and t.

1
th of the random fertilization leads to TT (¼ TT).
4
1 2
( ) of the random fertilization leads to Tt (½ Tt).
2 4

1
th of the random fertilization leads to tt (¼ tt).
4

Tt x Tt

Binomial expression = (ax + by) 2

Hence (½ T + ½ t) 2

= (½ T + ½ t) (½ T + ½ t)

= ¼ TT + ¼ Tt + ¼ Tt + ¼ tt

= ¼ TT + ½ Tt + ¼ tt

Mendel self-pollinated the F2 plants.

He found that dwarf F2 plants continued to generate dwarf plants in F3 & F4.

He concluded that genotype of the dwarfs was homozygous - tt.

Back cross and Test cross

Backcross: Cross between a hybrid and its any parent.

Testcross: Crossing of an organism with dominant phenotype to a recessive individual. E.g.

Hence monohybrid test cross ratio= 1:1

Test cross is used to find out the unknown genotype of a character. E.g.

Mendel conducted test cross to determine the F2 genotype.

 Mendel’s Principles or Laws of Inheritance

1. First Law (Law of Dominance)

• Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors.

• Factors occur in pairs.
• In a dissimilar pair of factors, one member of the pair dominates (dominant) the other (recessive).

2. Second Law (Law of Segregation)

“During gamete formation, the factors (alleles) of a character pair present in parents segregate from each
other such that a gamete receives only one of the 2 factors”.

Homozygous parent produces similar gametes.

Heterozygous parent produces two kinds of gametes.

INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES

Dihybrid cross:

It is a cross between two parents differing in 2 pairs of contrasting characters.

E.g. Cross b/w pea plant with homozygous round shaped & yellow-coloured seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled
shaped & green coloured seeds (rryy).

On observing the F2, Mendel found that yellow and green colour segregated in a 3:1 ratio.

Round & wrinkled seed shape also segregated in a 3:1 ratio.

Dihybrid Phenotypic ratio:

9 Round yellow: 3 Round green: 3 Wrinkled yellow: 1 Wrinkled green = 9:3:3:1

The ratio of 9:3:3:1 can be derived as a combination series of 3 yellow: 1 green, with 3 rounds: 1 wrinkled.

i.e. (3: 1) (3: 1) = 9: 3: 3: 1

Dihybrid genotypic ratio:

1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1

RRYY =1
RRYy =2
RrYY =2
RrYy =4
RRyy =1
Rryy =2
rrYY =1
rrYy =2
rryy =1

Mendel’s 3rd Law: Law of Independent Assortment

It is based on the results of dihybrid crosses.

It states that “When two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of characters is
independent of the other pair of characters”.

The concept of dominance

Every gene contains information to express a particular trait.

In heterozygotes, there are 2 types of alleles:

• Unmodified (normal or functioning) allele: It is generally dominant and represents original

phenotype.
• Modified allele: It is generally recessive.
E.g. Consider a gene that contains information for producing an enzyme. Normal allele of that gene
produces a normal enzyme. Modified allele is responsible for production of
1. Normal/less efficient enzyme or
2. A non-functional enzyme or
3. No enzyme at all
In the first case: The modified allele will produce the same phenotype like unmodified allele. Thus,
modified allele is equivalent to unmodified allele.

In 2nd and 3rd cases: The phenotype will dependent only on the functioning of the unmodified allele. Thus
the modified allele becomes recessive.

OTHER PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE (NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE)

1. Incomplete Dominance

It is an inheritance in which heterozygous offspring shows intermediate character b/w two parental
characteristics.

E.g. Flower colour in snapdragon (dog flower or Antirrhinum sp.) and Mirabilis jalapa (4’O clock
plant).
Here, cross between homozygous red & white produces pink flowered plant. Thus phenotypic & genotypic
ratios are same.

Phenotypic ratio= 1 Red: 2 Pink: 1 White (1:2:1)

Genotypic ratio= 1 (RR): 2 (Rr): 1(rr)

This means that R was not completely dominant over r.

Pea plants also show incomplete dominance in other traits.

2. Co-dominance

It is the inheritance in which both alleles of a gene are expressed in a hybrid.

E.g. ABO blood grouping in human.

ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I.

This gene controls the production of sugar polymers (antigens) that protrude from plasma membrane of
RBC.

The gene I has three alleles IA, IB & i.

IA and IB produce a slightly different form of the sugar while allele i doesn’t produce any sugar.

Alleles from Alleles from Genotype of Blood types

parent 1 parent 2 offspring (phenotype)
A A
I I IA IA A
IA IB IA IB AB
A
I i IAi A
IB IA IA IB AB
IB IB IB IB B
B
I i IBi B
i i ii O

When IA and IB are present together, they both express their own types of sugars. This is due to co-
dominance.
 3. Multiple allelism

It is the presence of more than two alleles of a gene to govern same character.

E.g. ABO blood grouping (3 alleles: IA, IB & i).

In an individual, only two alleles are present. Multiple alleles can be found only in a population.

4. Polygenic inheritance

It is the inheritance in which some traits are controlled by several genes (multiple genes).

E.g. human skin colour, human height etc.

It considers the influence of environment.

In a polygenic trait, the phenotype reflects the contribution of each allele, i.e., the effect of each allele is
additive.

Human skin colour:

Assume that 3 genes A, B, C control human skin colour.

The dominant forms A, B & C responsible for dark skin colour and recessive forms a, b & c for light
skin colour.

Genotype with all the dominant alleles (AABBCC)gives darkest skin colour.

Genotype with all the recessive alleles (aabbcc) gives lightest skin colour.

Therefore, genotype with 3 dominant alleles and 3 recessive alleles gives an intermediate skin colour.

Thus, number of each type of alleles determines the darkness or lightness of the skin.

5. Pleiotropy

Here, a single gene exhibits multiple phenotypic expressions. Such a gene is called pleiotropic gene.

In most cases, the mechanism of pleiotropy is the effect of a gene on metabolic pathways which contributes
towards different phenotypes.

E.g. Starch synthesis in pea, sickle cell anaemia, phenylketonuria etc.

In Phenylketonuria & sickle cell anaemia, the mutant gene has many phenotypic effects. E.g.
Phenylketonuria causes mental retardation, reduction in hair and skin pigmentation.

Starch synthesis in pea plant:

Starch is synthesized effectively by BB gene. Therefore, large starch grains are produced.

bb have lesser efficiency in starch synthesis and produce smaller starch grains.

Starch grain size also shows incomplete dominance.

 CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE

Mendel’s work remained unrecognized till 1900 because,

• Communication was not easy.
• His mathematical approach was new and unacceptable.
• The concept of genes (factors) as stable and discrete units could not explain the continuous variation
seen in nature.
• He could not give physical proof for the existence of factors.
In 1900, de Vries, Correns & von Tschermak independently rediscovered Mendel’s results.

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance (1902)

Proposed by Walter Sutton & Theodore Boveri.

They said that pairing & separation of a pair of chromosomes lead to segregation of a pair of factors they
carried.

Sutton united chromosomal segregation with Mendelian principles and called it the chromosomal theory
of inheritance. It states that,

• Chromosomes are vehicles of heredity.

• Two identical chromosomes form a homologous pair.
• Homologous pair segregates during gamete formation.
• Independent pairs segregate independently of each other.
Genes (factors) are present on chromosomes. Hence genes and chromosomes show similar behaviours.

Thomas Hunt Morgan proved chromosomal theory of inheritance using fruit flies (Drosophila
melanogaster).

It is the suitable material for genetic study because,

• They can grow on simple synthetic medium.
• Short generation time (life cycle: 12-14 days).
• Breeding can be done throughout the year.
 • Hundreds of progenies per mating.
• Male and female flies are easily distinguishable. E.g. Male is smaller than female.
• It has many types of hereditary variations that can be seen with low power microscopes.

LINKAGE AND RECOMBINATION

Linkage is the physical association of two or more genes on a chromosome. They do not show independent
assortment.

Recombination is the generation of non-parental gene combinations. It occurs due to independent

assortment or crossing over.

Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses in Drosophila to study sex-linked genes. E.g.

Cross 1: Yellow-bodied, white-eyed females X Brown-bodied, red-eyed males (wild type)

Cross 2: White-eyed, miniature winged X Red eyed, large winged (wild type)

Morgan intercrossed their F1 progeny. He found that

• The two genes did not segregate independently and the F2 ratio deviated from the 9:3:3:1 ratio.
• Genes were located on the X chromosome.
• When two genes were situated on the same chromosome, the proportion of parental gene
combinations was much higher than the non-parental type. This is due to linkage.
• Genes of white eye & yellow body were very tightly linked and showed only 1.3% recombination.
• Genes of white eye & miniature wing were loosely linked and showed 37.2% recombination.
• Tightly linked genes show low recombination. Loosely linked genes show high recombination.

Alfred Sturtevant used the recombination frequency between gene pairs for measuring the distance
between genes and ‘mapped’ their position on the chromosome.

Genetic maps are used as a starting point in the sequencing of genomes. E.g. Human Genome Project.

SEX DETERMINATION

The chromosomes that are involved in sex determination are called sex chromosomes (allosomes).

They include X & Y chromosomes.

Autosomes are chromosomes other than sex chromosomes.

Number of autosomes is same in males and females.

Henking (1891) studied spermatogenesis in some insects and observed that 50 % of sperm received a
nuclear structure after spermatogenesis, and other 50 % sperm did not receive it. Henking called this
structure as the X body (now it is called as X-chromosome).

Mechanism of sex determination

1. XX-XO mechanism: Here, male is heterogametic, i.e. XO (Gametes with X and gametes without X)
and female is homogametic, i.e. XX (all gametes are with X-chromosomes). E.g. Many insects such
as grasshopper.
 2. XX-XY mechanism: Male is heterogametic (X & Y) and female is homogametic (X only). E.g.
Human & Drosophila.
3. ZZ-ZW mechanism: Male is homogametic (ZZ) and female is heterogametic (Z & W). E.g. Birds.
XX-XO & XX-XY mechanisms show male heterogamety.

ZZ-ZW mechanism shows female heterogamety.

Sex Determination in Humans (XX-XY type)

Human has 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes).

A pair of X-chromosomes (XX) is present in the female, whereas X and Y chromosomes are present
in male.

During spermatogenesis, males produce 2 types of gametes: 50 % with X-chromosome and 50 % with Y-
chromosome.

Females produce only ovum with an X-chromosome.

There is an equal probability of fertilization of the ovum with the sperm carrying either X or Y chromosome.

The sperm determines whether the offspring male or female.

Sex determination in honeybee

It is based on the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives.

Fertilised egg develops as a female (queen or worker).

An unfertilised egg develops as a male (drone). It is called parthenogenesis.

Therefore, the females are diploid (32 chromosomes) and males are haploid (16 chromosomes). This is
called as haplodiploid sex determination system.

In this system, the males produce sperms by mitosis. They do not have father and thus cannot have sons, but
have a grandfather and can have grandsons.
 MUTATION & PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

MUTATION

It is a sudden heritable change in DNA sequences resulting in changes in the genotype and the phenotype of
an organism.

Mutation is 2 types:

1. Point mutation: The mutation due to change (substitution) in a single base pair of DNA. E.g. sickle
cell anaemia.
2. Frame-shift mutation: It is the deletion or insertion of base pairs resulting in the shifting of DNA
sequences.

Loss (deletion) or gain (insertion/ duplication) of DNA segment cause Chromosomal abnormalities
(aberrations).

Chromosomal aberrations are seen in cancer cells.

The agents which induce mutation are called mutagens. They include

• Physical mutagens: UV radiation, α, β, γ rays, X-ray etc.

• Chemical mutagens: Mustard gas, phenol, formalin etc.

PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

• In human, control crosses are not possible. So, the study of family history about inheritance is used.
• Such an analysis of genetic traits in several generations of a family is called pedigree analysis.
• The representation or chart showing family history is called family tree (pedigree).
• In human genetics, pedigree study is utilized to trace the inheritance of a specific trait, abnormality
or disease.

Symbols used in pedigree analysis

GENETIC DISORDERS

The disorders due to change in genes or chromosomes.

2 types: Mendelian disorders & Chromosomal disorders.

1. Mendelian Disorders

1. It is caused by alteration or mutation in the single gene.

2. E.g. Haemophilia, Colour blindness, Sickle-cell anaemia, Phenylketonuria, Thalassemia, Cystic
fibrosis etc.
3. The pattern of inheritance of Mendelian disorders can be traced in a family by the pedigree analysis.
4. Mendelian disorders may be dominant or recessive.

Pedigree analysis helps to understand whether the trait is dominant or recessive.

Pedigree analysis of
(A) Autosomal dominant trait (E.g. Myotonic dystrophy)
(B) Autosomal recessive trait (E.g. Sickle-cell anaemia)

Haemophilia (Royal disease):

1. It is a sex linked (X-linked) recessive disease.

2. In this, a protein involved in the blood clotting is affected.
3. A simple cut results in non-stop bleeding.
4. The disease is controlled by 2 alleles, H & h.
5, H is normal allele and h is responsible for haemophilia.

XHXH Normal female

Heterozygous female (carrier). She may
XHXh transmit the disease to sons.
XhXh Hemophilic female
XHY Normal male
XhY Hemophilic male

In females, haemophilia is very rare because it happens only when mother is at least carrier and father
haemophilic (unviable in the later stage of life).

Queen Victoria was a carrier of hemophilia. So, her family pedigree shows many haemophilic descendants.

Colour blindness:

1. It is a sex-linked (X-linked) recessive disorder due to defect in either red or green cone of eye. It results
in failure to discriminate between red and green colour.
2. It is due to mutation in some genes in X chromosome.
3. It occurs in 8% of males and only about 0.4% of females. This is because the genes are X-linked.
4. Normal allele is dominant (C). Recessive allele (c)causes colour blindness.
5. The son of a heterozygous woman (carrier, XCXc) has a 50% chance of being colour blind.
6. A daughter will be colour blind only when her mother is at least a carrier and her father is colour blind
(XcY).

Sickle-cell anaemia:

1. This is an autosome linked recessive disease.

2. It can be transmitted from parents to the offspring when both the partners are carrier
(heterozygous) for the gene.
3. The disease is controlled by a pair of allele, HbA and HbS.

• Homozygous dominant (HbAHbA): normal

• Heterozygous (HbAHbS): carrier; sickle cell trait
• Homozygous recessive (HbSHbS): affected

The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid (Glu) by Valine (Val) at the sixth position of
the β-globin chain of the haemoglobin (Hb).

This is due to the single base substitution at the sixth codon of the β-globin gene from GAG to GUG.

The mutant Hb molecule undergoes polymerization under low oxygen tension causing the change in shape
of the RBC from biconcave disc to elongated sickle like structure.

Phenylketonuria:

1. An inborn error of metabolism.

2. Autosomal recessive disease.
3. It is due to mutation of a gene that codes for the enzyme phenyl alanine hydroxylase. This enzyme
converts an amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine.
4. The affected individual lacks this enzyme. As a result, phenylalanine accumulates and converts
into phenyl pyruvic acid and other derivatives.
5. They accumulate in brain resulting in mental retardation. These are also excreted through urine
because of poor absorption by kidney.

Thalassemia:
1. An autosome-linked recessive blood disease.
2. It is transmitted from unaffected carrier (heterozygous) parents to offspring.
3. It is due to mutation or deletion.
4. It results in reduced synthesis of α or β globin chains of haemoglobin. It forms abnormal haemoglobin
and causes anaemia.
5. Based on the chain affected, thalassemia is 2 types:

• α Thalassemia: Here, production of α globin chain is affected. It is controlled by two closely linked
genes HBA1 & HBA2 on chromosome 16 of each parent. Mutation or deletion of one or more of
the four genes causes the disease. The more genes affected; the less α globin molecules produced.
• β Thalassemia: Here, production of β globin chain is affected. It is controlled by a single
gene HBB on chromosome 11 of each parent. Mutation of one or both the genes causes the disease.

Thalassemia is a quantitative problem (synthesise very less globin molecules).

Sickle-cell anaemia is a qualitative problem (synthesise incorrectly functioning globin).

2. Chromosomal disorders

They are caused due to absence or excess or abnormal arrangement of one or more chromosomes.
2 types:

1. Aneuploidy: The gain or loss of chromosomes due to failure of segregation of chromatids during
cell division.
2. Polyploidy (Euploidy): It is an increase in a whole set of chromosomes due to failure of
cytokinesis after telophase stage of cell division. This is very rare in human but often seen in
plants.
Examples for chromosomal disorders

Down’s syndrome:

It is the presence of an additional copy of chromosome number 21 (trisomy of 21).

Genetic constitution: 45 A + XX or 45 A + XY (i.e. 47 chromosomes).

Features:
• They are short statured with small round head.
• Broad flat face.
• Furrowed big tongue and partially open mouth.
• Many “loops” on finger tips.
• Broad palm with characteristic palm simian crease.
• Retarded physical, psychomotor & mental development.
• Congenital heart disease.

Klinefelter’s Syndrome:

It is the presence of an additional copy of X-chromosome in male (trisomy).

Genetic constitution: 44 A + XXY (i.e. 47 chromosomes).

Features:
• Overall masculine development. However, the feminine development is also expressed. E.g.
Development of breast (Gynaecomastia).
• Sterile.
• Mentally retarded.
• Turner’s syndrome: This is the absence of one X chromosome in female (monosomy).

Turner’s syndrome:

This is the absence of one X chromosome in female (monosomy).

Genetic constitution: 44 A + X0 (i.e. 45 chromosomes).

Features:
• Sterile, Ovaries are rudimentary.
• Lack of other secondary sexual characters.
• Dwarf.
• Mentally retarded.
 Ch-5 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

· Nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) are the building blocks of genetic material.
· DNA is the genetic material in most of the organisms.
· RNA is the genetic material in some viruses. RNA mostly functions as messengers.

THE DNA
STRUCTURE OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE CHAIN

Polynucleotides are the polymer of nucleotides. DNA & RNA are polynucleotides. A nucleotide has 3
components:
1. A nitrogenous base.
2. A pentose sugar (ribose in RNA & deoxyribose in DNA).
3. A phosphate group.

Nitrogen bases are 2 types:

1. Purines: It includes Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
2. Pyrimidines: It includes Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) & Uracil (U). Thymine (5-methyl Uracil) is present
only in DNA and Uracil only in RNA.

A nitrogenous base is linked to the OH of 1' C pentose sugar through an N-glycosidic linkage to
form nucleoside.
Nucleosides in RNA Nucleosides in DNA
Adenosine Deoxyadenosine
Guanosine Deoxyguanosine
Cytidine Deoxycytidine
Uridine Deoxythymidine

A phosphate group is linked to OH of 5' C of a nucleoside through phosphoester linkage to

form nucleotide (or deoxynucleotide).

In RNA, each nucleotide has an additional –OH group at 2'C of the ribose (2’- OH).

2 nucleotides are linked through a 3’-5’ phosphodiester bond to form a dinucleotide.

When more nucleotides are linked, they form polynucleotide.

STRUCTURE OF THE DNA

Friedrich Meischer (1869): Identified DNA and named it as ‘Nuclein’.

James Watson & Francis Crick (1953) proposed a double helix model of DNA. It was based on X-ray
diffraction data produced by Maurice Wilkins & Rosalind Franklin.
 DNA is made of 2 polynucleotide chains coiled in a right-handed fashion. Its backbone is formed of sugar
& phosphates. The bases project inside.
 The 2 chains have anti-parallel polarity, i.e. one chain has the polarity 5’→3’ and the other has 3’→5’.
 The bases in 2 strands are paired through H-bonds forming base pairs (bp).

A=T (2 hydrogen bonds) & C≡G (3 hydrogen bonds)

 Purine comes opposite to a pyrimidine. This generates a uniform distance between the 2 strands.
 Erwin Chargaff’s rule: In DNA, the proportion of A is equal to T and the proportion of G is equal to C.

𝑨+𝑮
[A] + [G] = [T] + [C] or =1
𝑻+𝑪
174 (a bacteriophage) has 5386 nucleotides.
Bacteriophage lambda has 48502 base pairs (bp).
E. coli has 4.6x106 bp.
The haploid content of human DNA is 3.3x109 bp.

Length of DNA = number of base pairs X distance between two adjacent base pairs.
The number of base pairs in humans = 6.6 x 109
Hence, the length of DNA = 6.6 x109 x 0.34x 10-9 = 2.2 m

In E. coli, length of DNA =1.36 mm (1.36 x 10-3 m)

Therefore, the number of base pairs

= 4 x 106 bp

PACKAGING OF DNA HELIX

 In prokaryotes (E.g. E. coli), the DNA is not scattered throughout the cell. DNA is negatively charged. So it is
held with some positively charged proteins to form nucleoid.
 In eukaryotes, there is a set of positively charged, basic proteins called histones.
 Histones are rich in positively charged basic amino acid residues lysines and arginines.
 8 histones form histone octamer.
 Negatively charged DNA is wrapped around histone octamer to give nucleosome.
 A typical nucleosome contains 200 bp.
Therefore, the total number of nucleosomes in humans =

 Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit to form chromatin. Chromatin is a thread-like stained body.
 Nucleosomes in chromatin = ‘beads-on-string’.
 Chromatin is packaged → chromatin fibres → coiled and condensed at the metaphase stage → chromosomes.
 Higher-level packaging of chromatin requires non-histone chromosomal (NHC) proteins.
 Chromatin has 2 forms:
Euchromatin: Loosely packed and transcriptionally active region of chromatin. It stains light.
Heterochromatin: Densely packed and inactive region of chromatin. It stains dark.

THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL

1. Griffith’s Transforming Principle experiment (1928)

Frederick Griffith used mice & Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Streptococcus pneumoniae has 2 strains:

◦ Smooth (S) strain (Virulent): Has polysaccharide mucus coat. Cause pneumonia.
◦ Rough (R) strain (Non-virulent): No mucus coat. Do not cause Pneumonia.

Experiment:
▪ S-strain → Inject into mice → Mice die
▪ R-strain → Inject into mice → Mice live
▪ S-strain (Heat killed) → Inject into mice → Mice live
▪ S-strain (Heat killed) + R-strain (live) → Inject into mice → Mice die

He concluded that some ‘transforming principle’ transferred from heat-killed S-strain to R-strain. It enabled
the R-strain to synthesise a smooth polysaccharide coat and become virulent. This must be due to the transfer
of genetic material.

2. Biochemical characterization of transforming principle

- Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod & Maclyn McCarty worked to determine the biochemical nature of the
‘transforming principle’ in Griffith’s experiment.
- They purified biochemicals ( proteins, DNA, RNA etc.) from heat-killed S cells using suitable enzymes.
- They discovered that
• Digestion of protein and RNA (using Proteases and RNases) did not affect transformation. It means
that the transforming substance was not a protein or RNA.
• Digestion of DNA with DNase inhibited transformation. It means that DNA caused the transformation
of R cells to S cells. It proves that DNA was the transforming principle.

3. Hershey-Chase Experiment (Blender Experiment)-1952

Hershey & Chase grew some bacteriophage viruses on a medium containing radioactive phosphorus
(P32) and some others on a medium containing radioactive sulphur (S35).
• Viruses grown in P32 got radioactive DNA because only DNA contains phosphorus. Viruses grown
in S35 got radioactive protein because protein contains sulphur.
• These preparations were used separately to infect E. coli.
• After infection, the E. coli cells were gently agitated in a blender to remove the virus particles from
the bacteria.
• Then the culture was centrifuged to separate lighter virus particles from heavier bacterial cells.
 • Bacteria infected with viruses having radioactive DNA were radioactive. i.e., DNA had passed from
the virus to bacteria. Bacteria infected with viruses having radioactive proteins were not radioactive.
i.e., proteins did not enter the bacteria from the viruses. This proves that DNA is the genetic material.

PROPERTIES OF GENETIC MATERIAL (DNA v/s RNA)

A genetic material must have the following properties:

• Ability to generate its replica (Replication).
• Chemical and structural stability.
• Provide the mutations that are required for evolution.
• Ability to express as Mendelian Characters.

Reasons for stability (less Reasons for mutability (high

reactivity) of DNA reactivity) of RNA
Double-stranded Single-stranded
Presence of thymine Presence of Uracil
Absence of 2’-OH in sugar Presence of 2’-OH in sugar

- RNA is unstable. So, RNA viruses (E.g. Q.B bacteriophage, Tobacco Mosaic Virus etc.) mutate and evolve
faster.
- DNA strands are complementary. On heating, they separate. In appropriate conditions, they come together. In
Griffith’s experiment, some properties of the DNA of the heat-killed bacteria did not destroy. It indicates
the stability of DNA.
- For the storage of genetic information, DNA is better due to its stability. But for the transmission of genetic
information, RNA is better.
- RNA can directly code for the protein synthesis, and hence can easily express the characters. DNA is
dependent on RNA for protein synthesis.

RNA WORLD

• RNA was the first genetic material.

• It acts as genetic material and catalyst.
• Essential life processes (metabolism, translation, splicing etc.) evolved around RNA.
• RNA was the first genetic material.

CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

• It is proposed by Francis Crick. It states that the genetic information flows from DNA → RNA → Protein.
· In some viruses, flow of information is in reverse direction (from RNA to DNA). It is called reverse
transcription.
DNA REPLICATION

 Replication is the copying of DNA from parental DNA.

 Watson & Crick proposed a Semi-conservative model of replication. It suggests that the parental DNA
strands act as templates for the synthesis of new complementary strands. After replication, each DNA
molecule would have one parental and one new strand.
 Matthew Messelson & Franklin Stahl (1958) experimentally proved the Semi-conservative model.

Messelson & Stahl’s Experiment

 They grew E. coli in 15NH4Cl medium (15N = heavy isotope of nitrogen) as the only nitrogen source. As a
result, 15N was incorporated into newly synthesised DNA (heavy DNA or 15N DNA).
 Heavy DNA can be distinguished from normal DNA (light DNA or 14N DNA) by centrifugation in a cesium
chloride (CsCl) density gradient.
 E. coli cells from 15N medium were transferred to 14NH4Cl medium. After one generation (i.e. after 20
minutes), they isolated and centrifuged the DNA. Its density was intermediate (hybrid)between 15N DNA
and 14N DNA. This shows that in newly formed DNA, one strand is old (15N type) and one strand is new (14N
type). This confirms semi-conservative replication.
 After II generation (i.e. after 40 minutes), there were equal amounts of hybrid DNA and light DNA.

Taylor & colleagues (1958) performed similar experiments on Vicia faba (faba beans) using radioactive
thymidine to detect distribution of newly synthesized DNA in the chromosomes. It proved that the DNA in
chromosomes also replicate semi-conservatively.

The Machinery and Enzymes for Replication

• DNA replication starts at a point called origin (ori).

· A unit of replication with one origin is called a replicon.
· During replication, the 2 strands unwind and separate by breaking H-bonds in the presence of an
enzyme, Helicase.
· Unwinding of the DNA molecule at a point forms a ‘Y’-shaped structure called a replication fork.

Watson-Crick model for semiconservative DNA replication

• The separated strands act as templates for the synthesis of new strands.
• DNA replicates in the 5’→3’ direction.
• Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dATP, dGTP, dCTP & dTTP) act as substrate and provide energy for
polymerization.
• Firstly, a small RNA primer is synthesized in the presence of an enzyme, primase.
• In the presence of an enzyme, DNA-dependent DNA polymerase, many nucleotides join with one another to
primer strand and form a polynucleotide chain (new strand).
• During replication, one strand is formed as a continuous stretch in 5’→ 3’ direction (Continuous
synthesis). This strand is called the leading strand.
• The other strand is formed in small stretches (Okazaki fragments) in a 5’→ 3’ direction (Discontinuous
synthesis).
• The Okazaki fragments are then joined together to form a new strand by an enzyme, DNA ligase. This new
strand is called the lagging strand.
• If a wrong base is introduced in the new strand, DNA polymerase can do proofreading.
• E. coli completes replication within 18 minutes. i.e. 2000 bp per second.
• In eukaryotes, the replication of DNA takes place at the S-phase of the cell cycle. Failure in cell division
after DNA replication results in polyploidy.

TRANSCRIPTION

- It is the process of copying genetic information from one strand of the DNA into RNA.
- Here, adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine.
- The DNA-dependent RNA polymerase catalyzes the polymerization only in 5’→3’direction.
- 3’→5’ acts as a template strand. RNA is built from this.
- 5’→3’ acts as a coding strand. This is copied to RNA.
3’-ATGCATGCATGCATGCATGCATGC-5’ template strand.
5’-TACGTACGTACGTACGTACGTACG-3’ coding strand.
- During transcription, both strands are not copied because
◦ The code for proteins is different in both strands. This complicates the translation.
◦ If 2 RNA molecules are produced simultaneously, this would be complimentary to each other. It forms
a double-stranded RNA and prevents translation.

Transcription Unit

- It is the segment of DNA between the sites of initiation and termination of transcription. It consists of 3
regions:
◦ A promoter: Binding site for RNA polymerase. Located towards 5'-end (upstream).
◦ Structural gene: The region between promoter and terminator where transcription takes place.
◦ A terminator: The site where transcription stops. Located towards 3'-end (downstream).

Transcription unit and gene

Gene is a functional unit of inheritance. It is the DNA sequence coding for an RNA (mRNA, rRNA or tRNA).
Cistron is a segment of DNA coding for a polypeptide during protein synthesis. It is the largest element of a
gene.
Structural gene in a transcription unit is 2 types:
 Monocistronic structural genes (split genes): It is seen in eukaryotes. Here, coding sequences (exons or
expressed sequences) are interrupted by introns (intervening sequences).
Exons appear in processed mRNA.
Introns do not appear in processed mRNA.
 Polycistronic structural genes: It is seen in prokaryotes. Here, there are no split genes.

Transcription in prokaryotes

In bacteria (Prokaryotes), the synthesis of all types of RNA is catalysed by a single RNA polymerase. It has 3
steps:
 Initiation: Here, the enzyme RNA polymerase binds at the promoter site of DNA. This causes the local
unwinding of the DNA double helix. An initiation factor (σ factor) present in RNA polymerase initiates the
RNA synthesis.
 Elongation: The RNA chain is synthesized in the 5’-3’ direction. In this process, activated ribonucleoside
triphosphates (ATP, GTP, UTP & CTP) are added. This is complementary to the base sequence in the DNA
template.
 Termination: A termination factor (ρ factor) binds to the RNA polymerase and terminates the transcription.

Transcription in Bacteria

In bacteria, transcription and translation can be coupled (translation begins before mRNA is fully
transcribed) because
• mRNA requires no processing to become active.
• Transcription and translation take place in the same compartment (no separation of cytosol and nucleus).

Transcription in eukaryotes

In eukaryotes, there are 2 additional complexities:

1. There are 3 RNA polymerases:
• RNA polymerase I: Transcribes rRNAs (28S, 18S & 5.8S).
• RNA polymerase II: Transcribes the heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). It is the precursor of mRNA.
· RNA polymerase III: Transcribes tRNA, 5S rRNA and snRNAs (small nuclear RNAs).
2. The primary transcripts (hnRNA) contain exons and introns and are non-functional. Hence introns must
be removed. For this, it undergoes the following processes:
• Splicing: From hnRNA, introns are removed (by the spliceosome) and exons are spliced (joined)
together.
• Capping: Here, a nucleotide methyl guanosine triphosphate (cap) is added to the 5’ end of hnRNA.
• Tailing (Polyadenylation): Here, adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3’-end.

Now, it is the fully processed hnRNA, called mRNA.

 Transcription & Processing in Eukaryotes

GENETIC CODE

1. It is the sequence of nucleotides (nitrogen bases) in mRNA that contains information for protein synthesis
(translation).
2. The sequence of 3 bases determining a single amino acid is called a codon.
3. George Gamow suggested that for coding 20 amino acids, the code should be made up of 3 nucleotides.
Thus, there are 64 codons (43= 4 x 4 x 4).
4. Har Gobind Khorana developed the chemical method for synthesising RNA molecules with defined
combinations of bases (homopolymers & copolymers).
5. Marshall Nirenberg developed a cell-free system for protein synthesis.
6. Severo Ochoa (polynucleotide phosphorylase) enzyme is
used to polymerize RNA with defined sequences in a template-independent manner.

20 types of amino acids involved in translation

The codons for various amino acids

 Salient features of genetic code

• Codon are triplet (three-letter code).

• 61 codons code for amino acids. 3 codons (UAA, UAG & UGA) do not code for any amino acids. They
act as stop codons (Termination codons or non-sense codons).
• Genetic code is universal. E.g. From bacteria to humans UUU codes for Phenylalanine. Some
exceptions are found in mitochondrial codons and in some protozoans.
• No punctuations b/w adjacent codons (comma less code). The codon is read in mRNA in a contiguous
fashion.
• Genetic code is non-overlapping.
• An amino acid is coded by more than one codon (except AUG for methionine & UGG for tryptophan).
Such codons are called degenerate codons.
• Genetic code is unambiguous and specific. i.e. one codon specifies only one amino acid.
• AUG has dual functions. It codes for Methionine and acts as an initiator codon. In
eukaryotes, methionine is the first amino acid and formyl methionine in prokaryotes.

Mutations and Genetic Code

• The relationship between genes & DNA is best understood by mutation studies. Deletions &
rearrangements in DNA may cause the loss or gain of a gene and so a function.
• Insertion or deletion of one or two bases changes the reading frame from the point of insertion or
deletion. It is called frame-shift insertion or deletion mutations.
• Insertion or deletion of three or its multiple bases insert or delete one or multiple codons. The reading
frame remains unaltered from that point onwards. Hence one or multiple amino acids are inserted /deleted.
• It proves that codon is a triplet and is read contiguously.

TYPES OF RNA

• mRNA (messenger RNA): Provide a template for translation (protein synthesis).

• rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Structural & catalytic role during translation. For E.g. 23S rRNA in bacteria acts
as a ribozyme.
• tRNA (transfer RNA or sRNA or soluble RNA): Brings amino acids for protein synthesis and reads the
genetic code.
• Francis Crick postulated the presence of an adapter molecule that can read the code and to link with
amino acids.
• tRNA is called an adapter molecule because it has

o An Anticodon (NODOC) loop that has bases complementary to the codon.

o An amino acid acceptor end to which amino acid binds.
o Ribosome binding loop.
o Enzyme binding loop.

- For initiation, there is another tRNA called initiator tRNA.

- There are no tRNAs for stop codons.
The secondary (2-D) structure of tRNA looks like a clover leaf. The 3-D structure looks like an inverted
‘L’.
 TRANSLATION (PROTEIN SYNTHESIS)

- It is the process of polymerisation of amino acids to form a polypeptide based on the sequence of codons
in mRNA.
- It takes place in ribosomes. Ribosome consists of structural RNAs and about 80 types of proteins.
- Ribosome also acts as a catalyst (23S rRNA in bacteria is the enzyme- ribozyme) for the formation of
peptide bonds (peptidyl transferase enzyme in the large subunit of ribosome).
- Translation includes 4 steps:
1. Charging of tRNA
2. Initiation
3. Elongation
4. Termination
1. Charging (aminoacylation) of tRNA

• Formation of peptide bond needs energy obtained from ATP.

• For this, amino acids are activated (amino acid + ATP) and linked to their cognate tRNA in the presence
of aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. Thus, the tRNA becomes charged.

2. Initiation

• In this, a small subunit of ribosome binds to mRNA at the start codon (AUG).
• Now large subunit binds to a small subunit to form an initiation complex.
• Large subunit consists of aminoacyl tRNA binding site (A site) and peptidyl site (P site).
• The initiator tRNA (which carries methionine) binds on the P site. Its anticodon (UAC) recognises the
start codon AUG.

3. Elongation

• Second aminoacyl tRNA binds to the A site of the ribosome. Its anticodon binds to the second codon on
the mRNA and a peptide bond is formed between the first and second amino acids in the presence
of peptidyl transferase.
• First amino acid and its tRNA are broken. This tRNA is removed from the P site and the second tRNA from
the A site is pulled to the P site along with mRNA. This is called translocation.
• These processes are repeated for other codons in mRNA.
• During translation, the ribosome moves from codon to codon.

4. Termination

• When a release factor binds to a stop codon, the translation terminates.

• The polypeptide and tRNA are released from the ribosomes.
• The ribosome dissociates into large and small subunits.
• A group of ribosomes associated with a single mRNA for translation is called a polyribosome
(polysomes).
An mRNA has additional sequences that are not translated (untranslated regions or UTR). UTRs are present
at both 5’-end (before start codon) and 3’-end (after stop codon). They are required for efficient translation
process.

REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION

In eukaryotes, gene expression occurs by the following levels:

1. Transcriptional level (formation of primary transcript).
2. Processing level (splicing, capping etc.).
3. Transport of mRNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
4. Translational level (formation of a polypeptide).

The metabolic, physiological and environmental conditions regulate gene expression. E.g.
1. In E. coli, the beta-galactosidase enzyme hydrolyses lactose into galactose & glucose. In the absence of
lactose, the synthesis of beta-galactosidase stops.
2. The development and differentiation of embryo into adult are a result of the expression of several sets of
genes.
If a substrate is added to the growth medium of bacteria, a set of genes is switched on to metabolize it. It is
called induction.
When a metabolite (product) is added, the genes to produce it are turned off. This is called repression.

OPERON CONCEPT

1. “Each metabolic reaction is controlled by a set of genes”

2. All the genes regulating a metabolic reaction constitute an Operon. E.g. lac operon, trp operon, ara
operon, his operon, val operon etc.
Lac Operon in E. coli
- The operon controlling lactose metabolism.
- It is proposed by Francois Jacob & Jacque Monod.

It consists of
a) A regulatory or inhibitor (i) gene: Codes for repressor protein.
b) 3 structural genes:

• z gene: Codes for b galactosidase. It hydrolyses lactose to galactose and glucose.

• y gene: Codes for permease. It increases the permeability of the cell to b-galactosides (lactose).
• a gene: Codes for a transacetylase.

- Genes in the operon function together in the same or related metabolic pathway.

- If there is no lactose (inducer), the lac operon remains switched off. The regulator gene synthesizes
mRNA to produce repressor protein. This protein binds to the operator region and blocks RNA
polymerase movement. So, the structural genes are not expressed.

- If lactose or allolactose is provided in the growth medium, it is transported into E. coli cells by the action
of permease. Lactose (inducer) binds with repressor protein. So, repressor protein cannot bind to the
operator region. The operator region becomes free and induces the RNA polymerase to bind with the
promoter. Then transcription starts.

- Regulation of lac operon by repressor is called negative regulation.

 In the presence of inducer In the absence of inducer

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT (HGP)

• The entire DNA in the haploid set of chromosomes of an organism is called a Genome.
• In the Human genome, DNA is packed in 23 chromosomes.
• Human genome contains about 3x109 bp.
• Human Genome Project (1990-2003) was the first mega project for the sequencing of nucleotides and
mapping of all the genes in the human genome.
• HGP was coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institute of Health.

Goals of HGP

a. Identify all the estimated genes in human DNA.

b. Sequencing of 3 billion chemical base pairs of human DNA.
c. Store this information in databases.
d. Improve tools for data analysis.
e. Transfer related technologies to other sectors.
f. Address the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.

Methodologies of HGP: 2 major approaches.

• Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs): Focused on identifying all the genes that are expressed as RNA.
• Sequence annotation: Sequencing a whole set of genome containing all the coding & non-coding
sequences and later assigning different regions in the sequence with functions.

The procedure of sequencing:

Isolate DNA from a cell → Convert into random fragments → Clone in a host (bacteria & yeast) using vectors
(e.g. BAC & YAC) for amplification → Sequencing of fragments using Automated DNA sequencers
(Frederick Sanger method) → Arrange the sequences based on overlapping regions→ Alignment of sequences
using computer programs.
BAC= Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes
YAC= Yeast Artificial Chromosomes

• Sanger has also developed a method for sequencing of amino acids in proteins.
• DNA is converted to fragments as there are technical limitations in sequencing very long pieces of
DNA.
• HGP was closely associated with Bioinformatics.
• Bioinformatics: Application of computer science and information technology to the field of biology &
medicine.
• Of the 24 chromosomes (22 autosomes and X & Y), the last sequenced one is chromosome 1 (May
2006).
• DNA sequencing also have been done in bacteria, yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans (a free-living non-
pathogenic nematode), Drosophila, plants (rice & Arabidopsis), etc.
 Salient Features of the Human Genome

a. Human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide bases.

b. Total number of genes = about 30,000.
c. Average gene consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary. The largest known human gene (dystrophin on X-
chromosome) contains 2.4 million bases.
d. 99.9% of nucleotide bases are the same in all people. Only a 0.1% (3x106 bp) difference makes every
individual unique.
e. Functions of over 50% of discovered genes are unknown.
f. Chromosome I has the most genes (2968) and Y has the fewest (231).
g. Less than 2% of the genome codes for proteins.
h. A very large portion of the human genome is made of Repeated (repetitive) sequences. These are stretches
of DNA sequences that are repeated many times. They have no direct coding functions. They shed light on
chromosome structure, dynamics and evolution.
i. About 1.4 million locations have single-base DNA differences. They are called SNPs (Single nucleotide
polymorphism or ‘snips’). This helps to find chromosomal locations for disease-associated sequences and
tracing human history.

DNA FINGERPRINTING (DNA PROFILING)

• It is the technique to identify the similarities and differences of the DNA fragments of 2 individuals.
• It is developed by Alec Jeffreys (1985).

Basis of DNA fingerprinting

• DNA carries some non-coding repetitive sequences.

• Repetitive DNA can be separated from bulk genomic DNA as different peaks during density gradient
centrifugation.
• The bulk DNA forms a major peak and the small peaks are called satellite DNA.
• Satellite DNA is classified as micro-satellites, mini-satellites etc. based on base composition (A: T rich
or G: C rich), length of segment and number of repetitive units.
• A DNA sequence which is tandemly repeated in many copy numbers is called variable number tandem
repeats (VNTR). It belongs to mini-satellite DNA.
• In a person, the copy number varies in each chromosome.
• The two alleles (paternal and maternal) of a chromosome also contain different copy numbers of VNTR.
• VNTR is specific from person to person.
• The size of VNTR varies from 0.1 to 20 kb.
• Any difference in the nucleotide sequence (inheritable mutation) observed in a population is called DNA
polymorphism (variation at genetic level).
• Polymorphism is higher in non-coding DNA sequences because mutations in these sequences may not
affect an individual’s reproductive ability. These mutations accumulate from generation to generation
causing polymorphism.
• Polymorphisms have a great role in evolution & speciation.

Steps of DNA fingerprinting (Southern Blotting Technique)

1. Isolation of DNA (from any cells or blood stains, semen stains, saliva, hair roots, bone, skin etc.).
2. Digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleases.
3. Separation of DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis.
4. Transferring (blotting) DNA fragments to synthetic membranes such as nitrocellulose or nylon.
5. Hybridization using radioactive labelled VNTR probe.
6. Detection of hybridized DNA by autoradiography.
The autoradiogram gives an image in the form of dark & light bands. It is called a DNA fingerprint.

• DNA fingerprint differs in everyone except in monozygotic (identical) twins.

• The sensitivity of the technique can be increased by use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Therefore, DNA from a single cell is enough for DNA fingerprinting.

Application of DNA fingerprinting:

• Forensic tool to solve paternity, rape, murder etc.

• For the diagnosis of genetic diseases.
• To determine the phylogenetic status of animals.
• To determine population and genetic diversities.
 Ch-6 EVOLUTION

• Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another.

• Evolutionary Biology is the study of the evolutionary history of life forms.

ORIGIN OF LIFE

- The Big Bang Theory states that the universe originated about 20 billion years ago by a singular huge
explosion.
- The earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
- There was no atmosphere on early Earth. Water vapour, CH4, CO2 & NH3 released from molten mass covered
the surface.
- The UV rays from the sun broke up water into H2 and O2.
- Oxygen combined with NH3 & CH4 to form water, CO2etc.
- The ozone layer was formed. As it cooled, the water vapour fell as rain to form oceans.
- Life appeared almost four billion years ago.

THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE

1. Theory of spontaneous generation (Abiogenesis): It states that life came out of decaying and rotting
matter like straw, mud etc.
Louis Pasteur disproved this theory. He demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life.
He showed that life did not come from killed yeast in a closed pre-sterilized flask. But in an opened flask,
life (microbes) appeared.
2. Biogenesis: Proposed by Francisco Redi, Spallanzani & Louis Pasteur. It states that life originates from
pre-existing life. But it does not explain the origin of first life.
3. Cosmic theory (Theory of Panspermia): It states that the units of life (spores) were transferred to
different planets including Earth.
4. Theory of special creation: It states that living things were created by some supernatural power (God).
5. Theory of chemical evolution: Proposed by Oparin & Haldane. It states that the first form of life was
originated from non-living inorganic & organic molecules such as CH4, NH3, H2O, sugars, proteins, nucleic
acids etc. i.e. “Abiogenesis first, but biogenesis ever since”.

Urey-Miller experiment

- Harold Urey & Stanley Miller experimentally proved the theory of chemical evolution. They created a
conditions like that of primitive earth (i.e. high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere with CH4,
NH3, H2O, H2etc).
- They made electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapour at 800o C. As a
result, some amino acids are formed.
- In similar experiments, others observed the formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and fats.

The first non-cellular forms of life originated 3 billion years ago. They were self-replicating metabolic
capsules containing RNA, proteins, Polysaccharides etc.

EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION

1. Paleontological evidences

Paleontology is the study of fossils.

Fossils are remnants of life forms found in rocks (earth crust). They are written documents of evolution.

Significance of fossils:

a. To study phylogeny (evolutionary history or race history). E.g. Horse evolution.

b. To study the connecting link between two groups of organisms. E.g. Archaeopteryx.
c. To study about extinct animals. E.g. Dinosaurs.
d. To study about geological period by analysing fossils in different sedimentary rock layers. The study
showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological time spans.

2. Morphological & Anatomical evidences

Comparative anatomy and morphology show that different forms of animals have some common structural
features. This can be explained as follows:
a. Homologous organs

- Homologous organs are the organs that have fundamentally

similar structure and origin but different functions. This phenomenon is called Homology.
- E.g. Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wing & Cheetah’s foot. These forelimbs have different functions
but similar anatomical structures such as bones (e.g. humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals &
phalanges).
- Homology is also seen in the heart, brain etc.
- Homology in plants: E.g. Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
- The origin of homologous organs is due to Divergent evolution. It is the evolution by which related
species become less similar to survive and adapt to different environmental conditions.
- Homology indicates common ancestry.

b. Analogous organs

These are the organs that have similar functions but different structure & origin. This phenomenon is
called Analogy. E.g.

• Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and wings of birds (modified forelimbs).
• Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina from embryonic brain).
• Flipper of Penguins and Dolphins.
• Sweet potato (modified root) & Potato (modified stem).
• Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of vertebrates (from endoderm).

The origin of analogous organs is due to Convergent evolution. It is the evolution by which unrelated
species become more similar to survive and adapt in similar environmental conditions.
 3. Adaptive radiation (Biogeographical evidences)

Adaptive radiation (evolution by adaptation) is the evolution of different species from an ancestor in a
geographical area starting from a point. It is a type of divergent evolution. E.g.
o Darwin’s finches in Galapagos Islands.
o Australian marsupials (Marsupial radiation).
o Placental mammals in Australia.

When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated geographical area, it results in convergent
evolution.
E.g. Australian Marsupials and Placental mammals.
Placental mammals Australian Marsupials
Mole Marsupial mole
Ant eater Numbat (Ant eater)
Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmanian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf

4. Biochemical evidences

- Organisms show similarities in proteins, genes, other biomolecules & metabolism. It indicates common
ancestry.

5. Embryological evidences

- Proposed by Ernst Haeckel.

- He observed that all vertebrate embryos have some common features that are absent in adults.
- E.g. all vertebrate embryos (including humans) develop vestigial gill slits just behind the head. But, it is
functional only in fish and not found in other adult vertebrates.
- However, Karl Ernst von Baer rejected this proposal. He noted that embryos never pass through the
adult stages of other animals.

6. Evidences for evolution by natural selection

Natural selection is the process in which organisms with better favourable & heritable variation are survived and
reproduced.
Some evidences are given below:
§ Industrial melanism: In England, before industrialization (1850s), there were more white-winged moths
(Biston betularia) on trees than dark-winged or melanised moths (Biston carbonaria). After industrialization
(1920), more dark-winged moths and less white-winged moths were developed.
 Reason:
Before industrialization: There was white lichens covered the trees. In that background, white-winged
moths survived but dark-winged moths were picked out by predators.
After industrialization: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soot. No growth of lichens.
So white-winged moths did not survive because the predators identified them easily. Dark-winged moth
survived because of suitable dark background.

Development of resistant varieties in organisms against herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs etc.
These are examples of natural selection by anthropogenic action (evolution due to human activities).

THEORIES OF BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of Acquired characters)

It is proposed by Lamarck. It states that the evolution of life forms occurred by the inheritance of acquired
characters.
Acquired characters are developed by the use & disuse of organs.
o Evolution by use of organs: E.g. Long neck of a giraffe is due to continuous elongation to forage leaves
on trees. This acquired character was inherited to succeeding generations.
o Evolution by disuse: E.g. Disappearance of limbs in snakes.
This theory was eliminated out because it is proved that the characters are inherited only through genes.

Darwinism (Theory of Natural selection)

- Proposed by Charles Darwin.

- It was based on observations during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
- Alfred Wallace (a naturalist who worked in Malay Archepelago) had also come to similar conclusions.
- The work of Thomas Malthus on populations influenced Darwin.

Darwinism is based on 2 key concepts:

• Branching descent: It explains that all organisms are modified descendants of previous life forms.
• Natural selection: Consider a bacterial colony A growing on a given medium. If the medium
composition is changed, only a part of the population can survive under new conditions. This variant
population (B) outgrows the others and appears as a new species, i.e. B is better than A under new
conditions. Thus, nature selects for fitness.

Natural selection is based on the following facts:

• Heritable minor variations: It is either beneficial or harmful to the organisms.

• Overproduction: Population size grows exponentially due to maximum reproduction (E.g. bacterial
population).
• Limited natural resources: Resources are not increased in accordance with the population size.
• Struggle for existence: It is the competition among organisms for resources so that population size is
limited.
• Survival of the fittest: In the struggle for existence, organisms with beneficial variations can utilize
resources better. Hence, they survive and reproduce. This is called Survival of the fittest. It leads to a
change in population characteristics and new forms appear.
• Darwin ignored about the origin of variation and the mechanism of evolution or speciation.
 MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION

- Hugo de Vries proposed the Mutation Theory of evolution.

- He conducted experiments on Oenothera lamarckiana
(evening primrose) and believed that evolution takes place through mutation and not by minor variation.
- Darwinian variation is minor, slow and directional. It results in gradual evolution.
- Mutational variation is sudden, random & directionless. Here, speciation is by saltation (single step, large
mutation).
- Mutation is the origin of variation for evolution.

HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE

• It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from generation to generation
in the absence of disturbing factors.
• The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called genetic
equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium).
• Sum total of all the allelic frequencies = 1
• E.g. Consider, in a diploid, p & q are the frequencies of alleles A & a respectively.

Frequency of AA = p2
Frequency of aa = q2
Frequency of Aa = 2pq
Hence p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 [binomial expansion of (p+q)2]
Change of frequency of alleles in a population disturbs Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. This change is due to
evolution.

Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

• Gene migration: Gene flow from one population to another. Here gene frequencies change in both
populations. Gene flow occurs if migration happens multiple times.
• Genetic drift: The gene flow by chance causing change in frequency. Sometimes, the change in
frequency is so different in the new sample of population that they become a different species. The
original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect.
• Mutation: It results in formation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this leads to speciation.
• Genetic recombination: Reshuffling of gene combinations during crossing over resulting in genetic
variation.
• Natural selection: It is 3 types.
• Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire mean character value and variation is reduced.
• Directional selection: Individuals of one extreme (value other than mean character value) are more
favoured.
• Disruptive selection: Individuals of both extremes (peripheral character value at both ends of the
distribution curve) are more favoured.
 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION

The geological time scale includes 4 eras: Proterozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic & Cenozoic.

1. Proterozoic era: 2500 - 541 million yrs ago (mya)

• 2000 mya: First cellular forms of life appeared.

• Some of the cells had the ability to release O2 as the light reaction in photosynthesis.
• Single-celled organisms became multicellular organisms.

2. Palaeozoic era (540 - 252 mya)

• It has 6 periods: Cambrian (540 - 490 mya), Ordovician (490 - 443 mya), Silurian (425
mya), Devonian (405 mya),Carboniferous (360 mya) & Permian (285 mya).
• 500 mya: Invertebrates were formed.
• 450 mya: First land organisms (plants) appeared.
• 400 mya: Arthropods invaded the land.
• 350 mya: Jawless fishes were evolved.

Lobefins (stout & strong-finned fishes) could move on land and go back to water. They evolved to first
amphibians (ancestors of modern-day frogs & salamanders).

In 1938, a lobe-fin called coelacanth fish was caught in South Africa which was thought to be extinct.

• 320 mya: Seaweeds and few plants existed.

• Amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs (do not dry up in sun).
• Giant ferns (Pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.

3. Mesozoic era (252 - 66 mya)

• Age of reptiles and gymnosperms.

• It has 3 periods: Triassic (230 mya), Jurassic (208 mya) & Cretaceous (144 mya).
• 200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into the water to evolve into fish-like reptiles (E.g.
Ichthyosaurs).
• The land reptiles were dinosaurs (Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Stegosaurus, Brachiosaurus etc.)
• T. rex was the largest dinosaur (20 feet in height, huge fearsome dagger-like teeth).
• Toothed birds were emerged.

4. Cenozoic era (66 - 0 mya)

• Age of Mammals & Angiosperms.

• It has 2 periods: Tertiary (66 mya) & Quaternary (2 mya - Age of man).
• 65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared. Some say climatic changes killed them. Some say most of
them evolved into birds.
• The first mammals were shrew-like. Their fossils are small sized.
• In South America, there were mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit etc. Due
to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North
American fauna.
• Due to continental drift, Australian marsupials survived because of lack of competition from any other
mammals.
 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

• 15 mya: Dryopithecus & Ramapithecus.

➢ Hairy. Walked like gorillas & chimpanzees.

➢ Dryopithecus: ape-like.
➢ Ramapithecus: man-like.

• 3-4 mya: Man-like primates walked upright in eastern

➢ Africa. Height up to 4 feet. This belief is based on fossils of man-like bones found in Ethiopia &
Tanzania.

• 2 mya: Australopithecus. Lived in East African grass lands. Hunted with stone weapons. Ate fruits.
•
• Homo habilis: First human-like being (hominid).

➢ Brain capacity: 650-800 cc. Did not eat meat.

• 1.5 mya: Homo erectus (Java man). Large brain (900 cc). Ate meat.

• 1 lakh - 40,000 yrs ago: Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man).

➢ Brain capacity: 1400 cc. Lived in East & Central Asia. Used hides to protect their body. Buried their
dead.

• 75,000 - 10,000 yrs ago (ice age): Homo sapiens (Modern man).

➢ Prehistoric cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. E.g. Cave paintings at Bhimbetka rock shelter
in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh.
➢ Agriculture & settlements: 10,000 years ago.

Sequence of Human evolution:

Dryopithecus

Ramapithecus

Australopithecus

Homo habilis

Homo erectus

Homo neanderthalensis

Homo sapiens
 Ch-7 HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

• Health is a state of complete physical, mental & social well-being. It is affected by genetic disorders,
infections, and changes in lifestyle (food, water, rest, exercise, habits etc).
• Mind influences the immune system (through neural and endocrine systems) and thereby health.
• When the functioning of organs or systems of the body is adversely affected, it is called a disease.
• Diseases may be infectious (transmits from one person to another) or non-infectious (do not transmit. E.g.
cancer).
• Disease-causing organisms are called Pathogens. Parasites are pathogens as they harm the host.

Good humour hypothesis (by Hippocrates & Indian Ayurveda system): It states that health is a state of
body & mind where there is a balance of certain humours. Persons with ‘black bile’ belong to a hot personality
and would have fevers.
William Harvey disproved this hypothesis. He discovered blood circulation and demonstrated normal body
temperature in persons with black bile using a thermometer.

COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN MAN

1. BACTERIAL DISEASES

a. Typhoid: Pathogen is Salmonella typhi.

• Mode of transmission: It enters the small intestine through food & water and migrates to other
organs via blood.
• Symptoms: Sustained high fever (39o-40o C), headache, weakness, stomach pain, constipation &
loss of appetite. Intestinal perforation and death may occur.
• Widal test is used for confirmation of the disease.

Mary Mallon (Typhoid Mary) was a professional cook. She was a typhoid carrier who spread typhoid
for several years through the food she prepared.

b. Pneumonia: Pathogen is Streptococcus pneumoniae &Haemophilus influenzae.

It infects lung alveoli. The alveoli get filled with fluid leading to respiratory problems.

• Mode of transmission: Inhaling the droplets/aerosols released by an infected person. Sharing glasses
and utensils with an infected person.
• Symptoms: Respiratory problems, fever, chills, cough, headache. In severe cases, lips and fingernails
turn grey to bluish colour.

Other bacterial diseases: Dysentery, plague, diphtheria, etc.

2. VIRAL DISEASES

a. Common cold: Pathogen is Rhinoviruses.

It infects the nose & respiratory passage but not the lungs.

• Mode of transmission: Inhaling droplets resulting from cough or sneezes. Through contaminated
objects (pens, books, cups, doorknobs, computer accessories) etc.
• Symptoms: Nasal congestion & discharge, fever, headache, sore throat, cough, hoarseness, tiredness
etc.
• Common cold lasts for 3-7 days.
 3. PROTOZOAN DISEASES

a. Malaria: Pathogen is Plasmodium sp. (P. vivax, P. malariae & P. falciparum).

Most serious (malignant) malaria is caused by P. falciparum.

• Mode of transmission: By female Anopheles mosquito.

• Symptoms: Haemozoin (a toxin released by Plasmodium) causes chill and high fever recurring every 3-
4 days.

Life cycle of Plasmodium

b. Amoebiasis (Amoebic dysentery): Pathogen is Entamoeba histolytica.

• Mode of transmission: Houseflies (mechanical carriers) transmit parasites from faeces to food & water.
• Symptoms: Constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess mucus and blood clots.

4. HELMINTH DISEASES

a. Ascariasis: The Pathogen is Ascaris (Intestinal parasite).

• Mode of transmission: Soil, water, vegetables, fruits etc. contaminated with faeces containing eggs of
parasites.
• Symptoms: Internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia and blockage of intestinal passage.

b. Filariasis (Elephantiasis): Pathogen is Filarial worms or Wuchereria (W. bancrofti & W. malayi).

• Mode of transmission: Bite of female Culex mosquito.

• Symptoms: Filarial worms live in lymphatic vessels (usually of lower limbs). It causes chronic
inflammation of the organs in which they live for many years. Limbs and genital organs may be deformed.

5. FUNGAL DISEASES

a. Ringworms: Pathogens are Microsporum, Trichophyton & Epidermophyton. They are seen in groin, b/w
toes etc.

• Mode of transmission: From soil or by using towels, cloths, comb etc. Heat and moisture help fungi to
grow.
• Symptoms: Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails, scalp etc. Intense itching.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF DISEASES

Personal hygiene
Keep the body clean. Use clean drinking water, food etc.
 Public hygiene

• Proper disposal of wastes and excreta.

• Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs, pools, cesspools and tanks.
• Avoid contact with infected persons or their belongings (to control air-borne diseases).
• Standard practices of hygiene in public catering.
• Control and eliminate the vectors (e.g. mosquitoes).

➢ Avoid stagnation of water.

➢ Regular cleaning of household coolers.
➢ Use of mosquito nets.
➢ Introduce larvivorous fishes like Gambusia in ponds.
➢ Spraying insecticides in ditches, drainage and swamps.
➢ Provide doors and windows with wire mesh.

These precautions can avoid vector-borne diseases like Malaria, Filariasis, Dengue & Chikungunya.

Vaccines & immunisation helped to control diseases like smallpox, polio, diphtheria, pneumonia & tetanus.
Drugs like antibiotics also help to treat infectious diseases.

HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM

• It is the system that gives immunity to the body by recognizing, responding and remembering foreign
antigens.
• It plays a role in allergic reactions, auto-immune disease and organ transplantation.
• It includes lymphoid organs, tissues, cells & antibodies.

LYMPHOID ORGANS

These are the organs where the origin/maturation & proliferation of lymphocytes occur. 2 types: Primary &
Secondary.

a. Primary lymphoid organs

The organs where lymphocytes are matured & differentiated to antigen-sensitive lymphocytes. It is 2 types:
1. Bone marrow: The site of formation of all blood cells including B & T-lymphocytes.
2. Thymus: A bilobed organ seen near the heart and beneath the breastbone. It is large during birth but
gradually reduces in size and becomes very small size in puberty. Immature T-lymphocytes from bone
marrow migrate to the thymus and mature,

b. Secondary lymphoid organs

• The organs, to which matured lymphocytes migrate from primary lymphoid organs, interact with
antigens and then proliferate to become effector cells. E.g. Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s
patches, Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) & appendix.
• Spleen: Bean-shaped organ. Contains lymphocytes and phagocytes. It removes worn-out RBCs &
microorganisms from blood. It is a reservoir of erythrocytes in the foetus.
• Lymph nodes: Found in the lymphatic system. They trap microorganisms or other antigens. Trapped
antigens activate lymphocytes and cause an immune response.
• MALT: Located within the lining of respiratory, digestive & urinogenital tracts. It constitutes 50% of
lymphoid tissue.
 IMMUNITY

It is the ability of the immune system to fight the pathogens.

It is 2 types: Innate and Acquired.

1. Innate (inborn) immunity

• It is the non-specific immunity present at the time of birth.

• It includes 4 types of Barriers:

➢ Physical barriers: Prevents entry of microbes. E.g. Skin, Mucus coating of the respiratory,
gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts. Mucus traps microbes.
➢ Physiological barriers: They prevent microbial growth. E.g. gastric HCl, saliva, tears etc.
➢ Cellular barriers: Phagocytes like WBC [Polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes (PMNL) or neutrophils,
monocytes and natural killer lymphocytes], macrophages etc.
➢ Cytokine barriers: Virus-infected cells secrete a cytokine protein called interferon. It protects non-
infected cells from further viral infection.

2. Acquired (adaptive) immunity

• It is pathogen-specific immunity developed during a lifetime.

• It is characterized by memory, i.e. during the first encounter of a pathogen, the body produces a primary
response in low intensity. A second encounter of the same pathogen causes a secondary (anamnestic)
response in high intensity.
• Primary and secondary immune responses are carried out with B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-
lymphocytes (T-cells).

➢ B-lymphocytes: Produce antibodies. These are the proteins to fight the pathogens.
➢ T-lymphocytes: Help B-cells to produce antibodies.

Structure of an antibody molecule

• An antibody has 4 polypeptide chains: 2 light chains and 2 heavy chains (H2L2).
• Types of antibodies: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE & IgD.

Types of Acquired Immune Response

1. Humoral immune response/Antibody-mediated immunity (AMI): It is the immune response mediated

by antibodies. Antibodies are found in blood plasma. So called as Humoral immune response.

2. Cell-mediated response / cell-mediated immunity (CMI): It is the immune response mediated by T-

lymphocytes (T-cells). The body can differentiate ‘self’ and ‘non-self’ and the CMI causes Graft rejection.
Tissue matching & blood group matching are essential before undertaking any graft/ transplant. After
this, the patient should take immuno-suppressants all his life.
 Types of Acquired Immunity

Acquired immunity is 2 types: Active and passive.

1. Active immunity: It is the immunity in which antibodies are produced in a host body when the host is
exposed to antigens (e.g. living or dead microbes or other proteins).
It is a slow process. It is produced in 2 ways:

➢ Natural Active Immunity: It is developed during natural infection by microbes.

➢ Artificial Active Immunity: It is developed by injecting the microbes deliberately during immunization.

2. Passive immunity: Here, readymade antibodies are directly given to the body. It is 2 types:

• Natural Passive Immunity: E.g.

➢ Antibodies (IgG) from mother → Placenta → Foetus

➢ Antibodies (IgA) in colostrum → infants

• b. Artificial Passive Immunity: E.g.

➢ Anti-tetanus serum (ATS)

Immunization

This is based on the ‘memory’ of the immune system. 2 types:

1. Active Immunization (Vaccination)

• In this, preparation of vaccine (antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated pathogen) is introduced into
the body. It results in the development of antibodies.
• During actual infection, the antibodies neutralize antigens.
• The vaccines also generate memory B and T-cells. They recognize the pathogen quickly.
• E.g. Polio vaccine, Hepatitis B vaccine, DPT vaccine etc.
• Vaccines are produced using DNA recombinant technology (E.g. Hepatitis B vaccine produced from
Yeast).

2. Passive Immunization

• It is the direct injection of pre-formed antibodies or antitoxin. It is required for a quick immune
response.
• E.g. Immunization against Tetanus, snake venom etc.

Allergies

• It is the exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment.
• Allergens: Substances causing allergy. E.g. mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, fur etc.
• Antibodies produced against the allergens are IgE type.
• IgE binds on mast cells to release chemicals like histamine and serotonin from them. It results in
allergic reactions.
• Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficulty in breathing, wheezing, skin rashes etc.
• Determination of cause of allergy: The patient is exposed to or injected with very small doses of
possible allergens, and the reactions studied.
• Treatment: Drugs like anti-histamines, adrenaline and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of allergy.
• Asthma is a respiratory disease due to allergy.
• Modern-day lifestyle and protected environments provided early in life result in low immunity and more
sensitivity to allergens. So, many children in metro cities suffer from allergies and asthma.

Autoimmunity

• In higher vertebrates, memory-based acquired immunity evolved based on the ability to differentiate
foreign organisms from self-cells.
• Sometimes, due to genetic and other unknown reasons, the body attacks self-cells resulting in damage to
the body. It is called auto-immune disease. E.g. Rheumatoid arthritis.

AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

• It is the deficiency of the immune system.

• Syndrome means a group of symptoms.
• It is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), a retrovirus having RNA genome.
• AIDS was first reported in America (1981).
• In the last 25 years, it killed over 25 million persons.

Transmission:

• Sexual contact with infected person.

• Transfusion of contaminated blood & blood products.
• Sharing of infected needles.
• From infected mother to her child through placenta.

High-risk people of getting HIV:

• Individuals with multiple sexual partners.

• Drug addicts who take drugs intravenously.
• Individuals who require repeated blood transfusion.
• Children born to an HIV-infected mother.

HIV does not spread by touch or physical contact. It spreads only through body fluids.

There is a time lag (from few months to 5-10 years) between the infection and appearance of symptoms.

Replication of retrovirus:

Life cycle of HIV:

 HIV enters the body → To macrophages (acts as HIV factory) → RNA genome replicates in the presence
of Reverse transcriptase to form viral DNA → Viral DNA incorporates into host DNA→ Infected cells
produce virus particles → HIV enters into helper T-cells (T-lymphocytes) → Replicates & produce progeny
viruses → Attack other TH cells → TH cells decrease → Weaken immunity.

• During this period, the person suffers from fever, diarrhoea and weight loss.
• Due to a deficiency of TH cells, he may be infected with mycobacterium, viruses, fungi & parasites
like Toxoplasma.
• Diagnosis: ELISA test (Enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent Assay).
• Treatment: Anti-retroviral drugs are partially effective. They can only prolong the life of the patient.

Prevention of AIDS:

• Educate people about AIDS through organisations like National AIDS Control Organisation
(NACO), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), WHO etc.
• Make blood (from blood banks) safe from HIV.
• Use disposable needles and syringes.
• Advocate safe sex and free distribution of condoms.
• Control drug abuse.
• Regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible populations.

CANCER

• Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled multiplication of cells resulting in the formation of tumours
(masses of cells).
• Normal cells show contact inhibition (contact with the other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth).
Cancer cells do not have this property.

Types of Tumours

• Benign tumours: Confined to the place of its origin. They do not spread to other parts. Cause little
damage.
• Malignant tumours: Mass of proliferating cells (neoplastic or tumour cells) that grow rapidly, invade
and damage the surrounding normal tissues. Due to active division and growth, they starve normal cells
by competing for nutrients.
• Cells sloughed from tumours reach other sites via blood where they form a new tumour. This is
called metastasis.

Causes of cancer (Carcinogens)

• Physical agents: E.g. Ionizing radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like UV.
• Chemical agents: Tobacco smoke (a major cause of lung cancer), vinyl chloride, caffeine, nicotine,
mustard gas etc.
• Biological agents: E.g. oncogenic viruses, c-onc (cellular oncogenes or proto-oncogenes) etc. When
C-onc in normal cells is activated, the cells become oncogenic.

Cancer detection and diagnosis

• Biopsy: A thin piece of the suspected tissue is stained and examined under a microscope
(histopathological studies).
• In case of leukemia: Biopsy & histopathological studies. Blood & bone marrow tests for increased cell
counts.
• Imaging techniques:
 ➢ Radiography: Use of X-rays.
➢ CT (Computerized tomography) scan: Uses X-rays to generate a 3D image of the internals of an
object.
➢ MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Uses magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to detect
pathological and physiological changes in the living tissue.

• Use of Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens.

• Molecular biology technique: To detect cancer-related genes. Such individuals should avoid
carcinogens (e.g. tobacco smoke).

Treatment of cancer

• Radiotherapy: Tumour cells are irradiated lethally, without damaging surrounding normal tissues.
• Chemotherapy: Use of chemotherapeutic drugs. Many drugs have side effects like hair loss, anaemia
etc.
• Immunotherapy: The patients are given biological response modifiers (e.g. α- interferon) which
activate their immune system and help in destroying the tumour.
• Surgery

➢ Most cancers are treated by a combination of surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.

DRUGS, SMOKING AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

DRUGS

1. Opioids:

• They bind to specific opioid receptors in the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. E.g.
morphine, heroin, brown sugar.
• Morphine is extracted from latex of Papaver somniferum (poppy plant). It is a sedative & painkiller.
Used in surgery.
• Heroin (smack or diacetylmorphine) is a white, odourless, bitter crystalline compound. It is obtained by
acetylation of morphine. It is taken by snorting and injection. Heroin is a depressant and slows down body
functions.

2. Cannabinoids:

• They interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.

• Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion.
• Natural cannabinoids are obtained from inflorescences of Cannabis sativa (Hemp plant). Its flower
tops, leaves & resin are used to make marijuana, hashish, charas & ganja.
• They affect the cardiovascular system.
• Cannabinoids are abused by some sportspersons.

3. Coca alkaloid or cocaine (coke or crack):

• It is obtained from the coca plant Erythroxylum coca.

• It interferes with the transport of neurotransmitter dopamine.
• Cocaine is usually snorted.
• It stimulates the central nervous system producing euphoria & increased energy.
• Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.
• Atropa belladona & Datura are also hallucinogenic plants.
Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, etc. are used as medicines to treat mental illnesses
like depression & insomnia. But their abuse causes impairment of physical, physiological or psychological
functions.

SMOKING

• Tobacco has been used by human beings for over 400 years.
• It is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff.
• It contains many chemical substances like nicotine (an alkaloid). It stimulates the adrenal gland to
release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline, causing high BP and heart rate.
• Smoking causes cancers of the lung, urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart
disease, gastric ulcer etc. Tobacco chewing causes oral cancer.
• Smoking increases CO content in blood and reduces oxyhaemoglobin. This causes O2 deficiency in the
body.

ADOLESCENCE & DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE

• Adolescence is ‘a period’ and ‘a process’ during which a child becomes mature in terms of his/her
attitudes and beliefs for effective participation in society.
• Adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood (period of 12-18 years of age). It is a very
vulnerable phase of mental and psychological development.

Causes of drug/alcohol use in Adolescence

• Curiosity and Experimentation.

• Need for adventure and excitement.
• To escape facing problems.
• Stress from pressure to excel in academics or examinations.
• Television, movies, newspapers, internet etc.
• Unstable or unsupportive family structures & peer pressure.

Addiction and Dependence

• Addiction: It is a psychological attachment (euphoria and a temporary feeling of well-being) with drugs
and alcohol. With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the receptors increases. Thus the receptors
respond only to higher doses leading to greater intake and addiction.
• Dependence: The body tends to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant withdrawal syndrome if the
regular dose of drugs/alcohol is abruptly discontinued. This results in anxiety, shakiness, nausea and
sweating.
• Dependence leads to social adjustment problems.

Effects of Drug/alcohol abuse

• Reckless behaviour, vandalism and violence.

• Coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or cerebral haemorrhage.
• Drugs mixed with alcohol may cause death.
• Damage of the nervous system and liver cirrhosis.
• Mental and social distress to family and friends.
• Social problems like stealing and the spread of infectious diseases (e.g. AIDS, hepatitis B).
• Use of drugs and alcohol by pregnant women affects the foetus (Foetal alcohol syndrome or FAS).
• Loss of sexual drive and necrospermia.
• Misuse of drugs by athletes (e.g. narcotic analgesics, anabolic steroids, diuretics & certain hormones to
increase muscle strength and bulk and to promote aggressiveness).
 Warning signs of drug/alcohol abuse in Adolescence period

• Drop in academic performance and absence from school.

• Lack of interest in personal hygiene.
• Withdrawal and isolation.
• Depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behaviour.
• Change in sleeping and eating habits.
• Fluctuations in weight, appetite etc.
• Loss of interest in hobbies.
• Deteriorating relationships with family and friends.

Side effects of anabolic steroid abuse

In males:

• Acne.
• Mood swings & depression.
• Increased aggressiveness.
• Reduced testicles.
• Decreased sperm.
• Breast enlargement.
• Kidney & liver dysfunction.
• Premature baldness
• Enlargement of prostate gland.

In females:

• Masculinisation
• Mood swings & depression
• Increased aggressiveness
• Excessive hair growth
• Abnormal menstrual cycle
• Deepening of voice
• Enlargement of clitoris

In adolescent males & females: Severe facial and body acne, premature closure of the growth centres of the
long bones resulting in stunted growth.

Prevention and Control

1. Avoid undue peer pressure.

2. Education and counselling.
3. Seeking help from parents and peers.
4. Looking for danger signs.
5. Seeking professional and medical help.

➢ Psychologists and psychiatrists.

➢ De-addiction and rehabilitation programs.
 Ch-8 MICROBES IN HUMAN WELFARE
Several microbes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi etc. are useful to man in many ways. Some of them are
given below:

1. MICROBES IN HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS

• Lactobacillus or Lactic acid bacteria (LAB):

➢ It converts milk to curd by producing acids that coagulate and partially digest the milk proteins.
➢ Fresh milk can be converted to curd by adding some curd containing LAB. It also increases
vitamin B12 in curd.
➢ In the stomach, LAB helps to check pathogens.

• Bacterial fermentation (anaerobic respiration) in dough is used to make foods such as dosa, idli etc.
The puffed-up appearance of dough is due to the production of CO2.
• Baker’s Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae): It is used to make bread by fermenting dough.
• Toddy is made by fermenting sap from palms.
• Microbes are used to ferment fish, soya beans & bamboo shoots and to produce cheeses.
• Swiss cheese has large holes due to the production of CO2 by Propionibacterium sharmanii (a bacterium).
• Roquefort cheese is ripened by growing a fungus (Penicillium roqueforti) on them.

2. MICROBES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS

Production of beverages, antibiotics etc. on an industrial scale, requires growing microbes in very large
vessels (fermentors).

Fermented beverages

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Brewer’s yeast) is used in the production of beverages by fermenting malted
cereals and fruit juices to produce ethanol.
• Wine & Beer are produced without distillation.
• Whisky, Brandy, Rum, Gin, Arrack etc. are produced by distillation of fermented broth.

Antibiotics

• Chemical substances produced by some microbes can kill or retard the growth of pathogens.
• They are used to treat plague, whooping cough, diphtheria, leprosy etc.
• Penicillin: The first antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming. He observed that Staphylococci could
not grow around a mould (Penicillium notatum) growing in unwashed culture plates. He extracted
penicillin from it.
• Earnest Chain and Howard Florey established its full potential as an effective antibiotic.
• Fleming, Chain & Florey were awarded the Nobel Prize (1945).

Chemicals, enzymes & other bioactive molecules

1. Organic acids: Acid-producer microbes include

• Aspergillus niger (a fungus): Citric acid

• Acetobacter aceti (a bacterium): Acetic acid
• Clostridium butylicum (a bacterium): Butyric acid
• Lactobacillus (a bacterium): Lactic acid
2. Alcohol: Yeast (S. cerevisiae) is used to produce ethanol.
3. Enzymes:

• Lipases: Used in detergent formulations. Help to remove oily stains from the laundry.
• Pectinases & Proteases: To clarify bottled juices.
• Streptokinase: Produced by Streptococcus. Used as a ‘clot buster’ to remove clots from the blood vessels of patients
who have myocardial infarction.

4. Cyclosporine A: Produced by Trichoderma polysporum(fungus). Used as an immunosuppressive agent in organ

transplant patients.
5. Statins: Produced by Monascus purpureus (a yeast). Used as blood-cholesterol-lowering agents. It inhibits the
enzymes responsible for the synthesis of cholesterol.

3. MICROBES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT

Sewage (municipal wastewater) contains large amounts of organic matter and microbes.

Sewage is treated in Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) to make it less polluting.

It includes 2 stages.
1. Primary treatment

It is the physical removal of particles. It includes

a. Removal of floating debris by sequential filtration.
b. Removal of the grit (soil & pebbles) by sedimentation.

The settled solids form the primary sludge and the supernatant forms the primary effluent.

2. Secondary treatment (Biological treatment)

Primary effluent is passed into large aeration tanks and constantly agitated. This allows vigorous growth of
useful aerobic microbes into flocs (bacteria associated with fungal filaments to form mesh-like structures).
These microbes consume the organic matter in the effluent. This reduces the BOD (Biochemical Oxygen
Demand) of the effluent.

BOD: Amount of O2 consumed by bacteria to oxidize all organic matter in one litre of water. It is a
measure of organic matter present in the water. The greater the BOD more is its polluting potential.

The effluent is then passed into a settling tank where the bacterial ‘flocs’ are sediment. This sediment is
called ‘activated sludge’.

A small part of the activated sludge is pumped back into the aeration tank to serve as the inoculum.

The remaining sludge is pumped into large tanks called anaerobic sludge digesters. Here, some anaerobic
bacteria digest the bacteria and fungi in the sludge by producing gases like CH4, H2S and CO2. These gases
form the biogas.

The effluent is released into natural water bodies like rivers and streams.

The Ministry of Environment & Forests initiated the Ganga Action Plan& Yamuna Action Plan to save
from water pollution.
 4. MICROBES IN THE PRODUCTION OF BIOGAS

• Biogas is a mixture of gases (mainly CH4) produced by the microbial activity. It is used for cooking &
lighting.
• Methanogens grow anaerobically on cellulosic material and produce CH4. E.g. Methanobacterium.
• Methanobacterium is found in the anaerobic sludge and rumen of cattle (for cellulose digestion).
• The cattle dung (gobar) is rich in these bacteria. Dung can be used for generation of biogas (Gobar gas).
• The Biogas plant consists of

➢ A concrete tank (10-15 feet deep) to collect bio-wastes and slurry of dung. A floating cover is placed
over the slurry, which keeps on rising as the biogas is produced.
➢ An outlet which is connected to a pipe to supply biogas.
➢ An outlet to remove spent slurry (used as fertilizer).

Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and Khadi and Village Industries Commission
(KVIC): Developed technology for biogas production in India.

5. MICROBES AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS

• Biocontrol is the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and pests. E.g. Lady Bird
(beetle) controls aphids. Dragonflies control mosquitoes.
• Chemical pesticides and insecticides kill both useful and harmful organisms and cause pollution. The
Biocontrol method has no such problems.

Microbial biocontrol agents

• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): To control butterfly caterpillar.

➢ The dried spores of Bt (available in sachets) are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants
such as brassicas and fruit trees. These are eaten by the caterpillar. In their gut, the toxin is released
and the larvae get killed.
➢ The scientists have introduced B. thuringiensis toxin genes into plants. E.g. Bt cotton.

• Trichoderma sp (fungus): These are free living present in the root ecosystems. They control several
plant pathogens.
• Baculoviruses (Especially genus Nucleopolyhedro virus): Attacks insects and other arthropods.
• It is suitable for species-specific, narrow-spectrum insecticidal applications and desirable
in IPM (Integrated Pest Management) program to conserve beneficial insects.
 6. MICROBES AS BIOFERTILISERS

• Biofertilisers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil. E.g. Bacteria, fungi,
cyanobacteria etc.
• Rhizobium (symbiotic bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants) fix atmospheric N2.
• Free-living bacteria in the soil (E.g. Azospirillum and Azotobacter) enrich the nitrogen content of the
soil.
• Mycorrhiza: Symbiotic association of fungi (E.g. genus of Glomus) with plants. The fungus gets food
from plants.

➢ The fungal symbiont performs the following:

➢ Absorb phosphorous from the soil and pass it to the plant.
➢ Give resistance to root-borne pathogens and tolerance to salinity and drought.
➢ Give overall increase in plant growth and development.

• Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae): Autotrophic microbes. They fix atmospheric nitrogen.

E.g. Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria etc. In paddy fields, Cyanobacteria serve as an important
biofertilisers. It also adds organic matter to the soil and increases its fertility.
 Ch-9 BIOTECHNOLOGY: PRINCIPLES & PROCESSES

• Biotechnology is the technique of using live organisms or their enzymes for products & processes useful
to humans.
• The European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) defines Biotechnology as ‘the integration of
natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services.’

Biotechnology deals with:

• Microbe-mediated processes (making curd, bread, wine etc).
• In vitro fertilization (test-tube baby programme).
• Synthesis and use of a gene.
• Preparation of DNA vaccine.
• Correcting a defective gene.

PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Core techniques of modern biotechnology
• Genetic engineering: The technique in which genetic material (DNA & RNA) is chemically altered
and introduced into host organisms to change the phenotype.
• Bioprocess engineering: Maintenance of sterile ambience in chemical engineering processes for
growing desired microbe/eukaryotic cells for the manufacture of antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes etc.

Basic steps in genetically modifying an organism

• Identification of DNA with desirable genes: Traditional hybridisation leads to the inclusion and multiplication of
undesirable genes along with desired genes. In genetic engineering, only desirable genes are introduced.
• Introduction of the identified DNA into the host: A vector DNA such as plasmid is used to deliver an alien piece
of DNA into the host organism.
• Maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its progeny: A piece of alien DNA has
no the sequence called Origin of replication (ori) needed for starting replication. So, it cannot multiply itself in the
progeny cells of the organism. Hence alien DNA is integrated into the recipient genome (it has ori). It multiplies &
inherits along with host DNA.
• The process of joining and inserting a foreign piece of DNA into a host organism to produce new genetic
combinations is called recombinant DNA technology.
• First recombinant DNA (rDNA) was produced by Stanley Cohen & Herbert Boyer (1972).
• They isolated an antibiotic resistance gene (a piece of DNA) from a plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium. It was
linked with a plasmid vector and transferred into E. coli. As a result, the gene was expressed & multiplied in E. coli.

TOOLS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. Restriction Enzymes (‘molecular scissors’)
• The enzymes that cut DNA at specific sites into fragments.
• They belong to a class of enzymes called nucleases.
• In 1963, two enzymes responsible for restricting the growth of bacteriophage in E. coli were isolated.
One enzyme added methyl groups to DNA. The other (restriction endonuclease) cut DNA.
• More than 900 restriction enzymes have been isolated from over 230 strains of bacteria.

Naming of the restriction enzymes:

➢ The first letter indicates the genus. The second two letters indicate species of prokaryotic cells from
which they were isolated.
➢ E.g. EcoRI comes from E. coli RY 13 (R = the strain. Roman numbers = the order in which the
enzymes were isolated from that strain of bacteria).
Types of Restriction Enzymes:
• Exonucleases: They remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA.
• Endonucleases:
➢ They cut at specific positions within the DNA. E.g. EcoRI.
➢ They bind to specific recognition sequences of the DNA and cut the two strands at specific points.
➢ The first restriction endonuclease is Hind II. It cuts DNA molecules by recognizing a specific
sequence of 6 base pairs. This is called the recognition sequence for Hind II.
➢ Restriction endonuclease recognizes a specific palindromic nucleotide sequence in the DNA. It is
a sequence of base pairs that read the same on the two strands in the 5' → 3' direction and in the 3' →
5' direction. E.g. Palindromic nucleotide sequence for EcoRI is

5' —— GAATTC —— 3'

3' —— CTTAAG —— 5'

Steps in the formation of recombinant DNA by EcoRI

• Restriction enzymes cut the strand a little away from the centre of the palindrome sites, but between
the same two bases on the opposite strands. This leaves single-stranded overhanging stretches at the ends.
They are called sticky ends. They form H-bonds with their complementary cut counterparts. This
stickiness facilitates the action of the enzyme DNA ligase.
• When cut by the same restriction enzyme, the resultant DNA fragments have the same kind of sticky
ends and these are joined together by DNA ligases.
 2. Cloning Vector
• It is a DNA molecule that can carry a foreign DNA segment and replicate inside the host cells.
o E.g. Plasmids, bacteriophages etc.
• Plasmids are autonomously replicating circular extra-chromosomal DNA of bacteria. Some plasmids
have only 1-2 copies per cell. Others have 15-100 copies per cell.
• Bacteriophages (high number per cell) have very high copy numbers of their genome within the
bacterial cells.
• When the cloning vectors are multiplied in the host, the linked piece of DNA is also multiplied to the
numbers equal to the copy number of the vectors.

Features required for cloning into a vector

a. Origin of replication (ori)

• This is a sequence where replication starts.

• A piece of DNA linked to ori can replicate within the host cells. This also controls the copy number of
linked DNA. So, to get many copies of the target DNA, it should be cloned in a vector whose origin
supports a high copy number.

b. Selectable marker (marker gene)

• It is a gene that helps to select the transformants and eliminate the non-transformants.
• If a piece of DNA is introduced in a host bacterium, it is called transformation. Such bacterium is
transformant. If transformation does not take place, it is non-transformant.
• Selectable markers of E. coli include the genes encoding resistance to antibiotics like ampicillin,
chloramphenicol, tetracycline, kanamycin etc. Normal E. coli cells have no resistance against these
antibiotics.

c. Cloning sites

• These are the recognition sites for restriction enzymes.

• To link the alien DNA, the vector needs a single or very few recognition sites.
• More than one recognition sites generate several fragments. It complicates gene cloning.
• Ligation of alien DNA is carried out at a restriction site present in one of the two antibiotic-
resistance genes.
. In vector pBR322, foreign DNA is ligated at the Bam H I site of the tetracycline resistance gene. As a
ult, recombinant plasmid is formed. If ligation does not occur, it is called a non-recombinant plasmid.
 • Restriction sites: Hind III, EcoR I, BamH I, Sal I, Pvu II, Pst I, Cla I.
• ori
• Antibiotic resistance genes: ampR and tetR.
• Rop: codes for the proteins involved in the replication of plasmid.

➢ When a foreign DNA is inserted within a gene of bacteria, that gene is inactivated. It is
called insertional inactivation. Here, the recombinant plasmids lose tetracycline resistance due to the
insertion of foreign DNA.
➢ When the plasmids are introduced into E. coli cells, 3 types of cells are obtained:

▪ Non-transformants: They have no plasmid. So, they are not resistant to either tetracycline or
ampicillin.
▪ Transformants with non-recombinant plasmid: They are resistant to both tetracycline &
ampicillin.
▪ Transformants with recombinant plasmid: They are resistant only to ampicillin.

• Recombinant plasmids can be selected from non-recombinant ones by plating transformants

on ampicillin medium. Then the transformants are transferred on a tetracycline medium.
• The recombinants grow in ampicillin medium but not in tetracycline medium. But, non-
recombinants grow on the medium containing both antibiotics.
• Thus, one antibiotic resistance gene helps to select the transformants. The inactivated antibiotic
resistance gene helps to select recombinants.
• But this type of selection of recombinants is a difficult procedure because it needs simultaneous plating
on 2 plates having different antibiotics. So, alternative selectable markers have developed based on
their ability to produce colour in the presence of a chromogenic substrate.
• In this, recombinant DNA is inserted into the coding sequence (gene) of an enzyme, b-
galactosidase. So, the gene is inactivated (insertional inactivation). Such colonies do not produce any
colour. These are identified as recombinant colonies.
• If the plasmid in bacteria has no insert, it gives blue-coloured colonies in the presence of chromogenic
substrate.
d. Vectors for cloning genes in plants & animals

Genetic tools of some pathogens can be transformed into useful vectors for delivering genes to plants &
animals. E.g.

• Agrobacterium tumefaciens (a pathogen of many dicot plants) can deliver a piece of DNA (T-DNA)
to transform normal plant cells into a tumour. These tumour cells produce the chemicals required by
the pathogen. The tumour-inducing (Ti) plasmid of A. tumefaciens is modified into a cloning vector
which is not pathogenic but can use mechanisms to deliver genes of interest into plants.
• Retroviruses in animals can transform normal cells into cancerous cells. So, they are used to deliver
desirable genes into animal cells.

3. Competent Host (For Transformation with Recombinant DNA)

• Since DNA is a hydrophilic molecule, it cannot pass through cell membranes. So bacterial cells are
made ‘competent’ to take up alien DNA or plasmid as follows:
➢ Treat bacterial cells with a specific concentration of a divalent cation (e.g. calcium) → DNA enters
the bacterium through pores in cell wall → Incubate the cells with recombinant DNA on ice → Place
them briefly at 420C (heat shock) → Put them back on ice → Bacteria take up recombinant DNA.
 Other methods to introduce alien DNA into host cells

• Micro-injection: In this, recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell.
• Biolistics (gene gun): In this, cells are bombarded with high-velocity micro-particles of gold or
tungsten coated with DNA. This method is suitable for plants.
• ‘Disarmed pathogen’ vectors: They infect the cell and transfer the recombinant DNA into the host.
E.g. A. tumefaciens.

PROCESSES OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA)

• Treat the bacterial cells/plant or animal tissue with

enzymes like lysozyme (bacteria), cellulase (plants), chitinase (fungus) etc. The cell is broken
releasing DNA & other macromolecules (RNA, proteins, polysaccharides & lipids).
• RNA is removed by treating with ribonuclease. Proteins are removed by treatment
with protease. Other molecules are removed by appropriate treatments.
• When chilled ethanol is added, purified DNA precipitates out as a collection of fine threads in the
suspension.

2. Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations

• Purified DNA is incubated with the restriction enzyme. As a result, DNA digests. These DNA
fragments are separated by a technique called gel electrophoresis.

• Agarose gel electrophoresis is employed to check the progression of restriction enzyme digestion.
DNA is negatively charged. So, it moves towards the anode. DNA fragments are separated according
to their size through the sieving effect of the agarose gel (a polymer extracted from seaweeds). The
smaller fragment moves farther.
• The process is repeated with the vector DNA also.
• DNA fragments can be seen as bright orange-coloured bands when they are stained with ethidium
bromide and exposed to UV radiation.
• DNA bands are cut out from agarose gel. It is called elution. The cut-out gene of interest and
cut vector are mixed and ligase is added. It creates recombinant DNA.

3. Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR

• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is the synthesis of multiple copies of the gene of interest in
vitro using 2 sets of primers & the enzyme DNA polymerase.
• Primers are small chemically synthesized oligonucleotides that are complementary to the regions of DNA.

Steps of PCR

• Denaturation: It is the heating of target DNA (gene of interest) at high temperature (940 C) to separate
the strands. Each strands act as a template for DNA synthesis.
• Annealing: It is the joining of the two primers (at 520 C) at the 3’ end of the DNA templates.
• Extension: It is the addition of nucleotides to the primer using a thermostable DNA polymerase called Taq
polymerase. It is isolated from a bacterium, Thermus aquaticus. It remains active in high temperatures during the
denaturation of double-stranded DNA.
• Through continuous replication, the DNA segment is amplified up to 1 billion copies.
• The amplified fragment can be used to ligate with a vector for further cloning.

4. Insertion of Recombinant DNA into the Host Cell

• Using any method, the ligated DNA is introduced into the recipient (host) cell/organism. They take up
DNA from its surroundings.
• If a recombinant DNA bearing ampicillin resistant gene is transferred into E. coli cells, the host cells
become ampicillin-resistant cells.
• If the transformed cells are spread on agar plates containing ampicillin, only transformants will grow.
Untransformed recipient cells will die.

5. Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product

• The aim of recombinant DNA technology is to produce a desirable protein.
• If a protein-encoding a foreign gene is expressed in a heterologous host, it is called a recombinant
protein.
• The cells with foreign genes can be grown in the laboratory. The cultures are used to extract the
desired protein and purify it by using separation techniques.
• The cells can also be multiplied in a continuous culture system. Here, the used medium is drained out
from one side while the fresh medium is added from the other. It maintains the cells more
physiologically active and so produces a larger biomass. It yields more desired protein.

Bioreactors

• These are the vessels in which raw materials are biologically converted to specific products, enzymes
etc., using microbial, plant, animal or human cells.
• Bioreactors are used to produce large quantities of products. They can process 100-1000 litres of culture.
• A bioreactor provides the optimal growth conditions (pH, temperature, substrate, salts, vitamins,
oxygen) to get the desired product.
• The most commonly used bioreactors are of stirring type (stirred-tank bioreactor).
It is usually cylindrical or with a curved base to facilitate the mixing of the reactor contents. The stirrer
facilitates even mixing and oxygen availability. Alternatively, air can be bubbled through the reactor.

The bioreactor has

• An agitator system
• An oxygen delivery system
• A foam control system
• A temperature control system
• pH control system
• Sampling ports (for periodic withdrawal of the culture).

6. Downstream Processing

• It is a series of processes such as separation and purification of products after the biosynthetic stage.
• The product is formulated with suitable preservatives. Such formulation undergoes thorough clinical
trials and strict quality control testing.
 CH: 10 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

• Biotechnology has many applications such as biopharmaceuticals, therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically

modified crops, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment and energy production.
• Biotechnology has 3 critical research areas:
a. Providing the best catalyst in the form of an improved organism usually a microbe or enzyme.
b. Creating optimal conditions through engineering for a catalyst to act.
c. Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein/organic compound.

APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE

3 options for increasing food production:

a. Agro-chemical-based agriculture: It uses fertilisers & pesticides. Expensive. Causes environmental
pollution.
b. Organic agriculture: Expensive.
c. Genetically engineered crop-based agriculture: It uses genetically modified crops. Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMO) are the plants, bacteria, fungi & animals whose genes are altered by
manipulation.

Advantages of genetic modification in plants:

• It makes crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat etc.).
• Pest-resistant crops reduce the use of chemical pesticides.
• It reduces post-harvest losses.
• It increases the efficiency of mineral usage by plants (it prevents early exhaustion of soil fertility).
• It enhances the nutritional value of food. E.g. Golden rice (Vitamin A enriched rice).
• To create tailor-made plants to supply alternative resources (starches, fuels, pharmaceuticals etc.) to
industries.

Pest Resistant Plants

- They act as bio-pesticides.
- It reduces the need for insecticides.
- E.g. Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, potato, soybean etc.

Bt cotton
- Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis have proteins that kill insects like coleopterans (beetles),
lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm) & dipterans (flies, mosquitoes).

- B. thuringiensis forms an insecticidal protein (Bt toxin) crystal during a phase of their growth. It does not
kill the Bacillus as it exists as inactive protoxins.

- When an insect ingests the toxin, it becomes active due to the alkaline pH of the gut which solubilises the
crystals. The toxin binds to the surface of mid-gut epithelial cells creating pores. It causes cell swelling,
lysis and death of the insect.

- Bt toxin genes were isolated from B. thuringiensis and incorporated into crop plants such as cotton.

- Most Bt toxins are insect-group specific. They are coded by cry genes. E.g. proteins encoded by cryIAc &
cryIIAb genes control cotton bollworms. The protein of the cryIAb gene controls corn borer.
 Nematode resistance in tobacco plants:

- A nematode Meloidogyne incognita infects the roots of tobacco plants causing a reduction in yield.
- It can be prevented by RNA interference (RNAi) strategy.
- RNAi is a method of cellular defence in all eukaryotic organisms. It prevents the translation of a specific
mRNA (silencing) due to a complementary dsRNA molecule.
- The source of this complementary RNA is from an infection by RNA viruses or mobile genetic elements
(transposons) that replicate via an RNA intermediate.
- Isolate Nematode-specific genes (DNA). It is introduced into the host plant using Agrobacterium vectors.
It produces both sense & anti-sense RNA in host cells. These RNAs are complementary. So, they form
double-stranded (ds) RNA. It initiates RNAi and silences the specific mRNA of the nematode. Thus, the
parasite cannot survive in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering RNA.

APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE

- Recombinant DNA technology helps for the mass production of safe and more effective therapeutic drugs.
- Products from non-human sources cause unwanted immunological responses. However recombinant
therapeutics do not have such problems.
- At present, about 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved. Of these, 12 are being marketed in
India.
-
1. Genetically Engineered Insulin

- Insulin is used to manage adult-onset diabetes.

- Insulin from the pancreas of animals (cattle & pigs) causes allergies or other types of reactions to the
foreign protein.
- Now, it is possible to produce human insulin using bacteria.
- Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains (chain A & chain B) that are linked by disulphide bridges.
- In mammals, insulin is synthesised as a pro-hormone (pro-insulin). It is processed to become a mature
and functional hormone.

- The pro-hormone contains an extra stretch called C peptide. This is removed during maturation into
insulin.
- In 1983, Eli Lilly (an American company) prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A
& B chains of human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains. Chains
A & B were combined by creating disulfide bonds to form human insulin (Humulin).
 2. Gene Therapy

- It is a method to correct a gene defect in a child/embryo.

- Here, genes are inserted into a person’s cells and tissues to treat a hereditary disease. It compensates for the
non-functional gene.
- First clinical gene therapy (1990) was given to a 4-year-old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA)
deficiency.
- This is caused due to the deletion of a gene of adenosine deaminase (an enzyme for the functioning of the
immune system). It can be cured by bone marrow transplantation or by enzyme replacement therapy
(injection of ADA). But these are not completely curative.

- Gene therapy for ADA deficiency: Collect lymphocytes from the patient’s blood and grow in a culture
→ Introduce a functional ADA cDNA into lymphocytes (using a retroviral vector) → They are returned to
the patient.
This should be periodically repeated as lymphocytes are not immortal.
- If the ADA gene from marrow cells is introduced into cells at early embryonic stages, it could be a
permanent cure.
3. Molecular Diagnosis

- Conventional methods (serum & urine analysis) are not suitable for early diagnosis of diseases.
- It is possible by techniques such as Recombinant DNA technology, PCR & ELISA

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction):

- The presence of a pathogen is normally suspected only based on symptoms. By this time, the concentration
of pathogens is already very high in the body.
- However, very low concentrations of bacteria or viruses can be detected by amplification of their nucleic
acid by PCR.

- Uses of PCR:
• To detect HIV in suspected patients.
• To detect gene mutations in suspected cancer patients.
• To identify many other genetic disorders.

- A single-stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule (probe) is hybridised to its
complementary DNA in a clone of cells. It is detected by autoradiography. The clone having a mutated
gene will not appear on photographic film, because the probe will not have complementarity with the
mutated gene.

ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay):

- It is based on antigen-antibody interaction.

- Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens ( proteins, glycoproteins, etc.) or by
detecting the antibodies synthesised against the pathogen.
 TRANSGENIC ANIMALS

- These are the animals whose genome has been altered by the introduction of a foreign gene by manipulation.
- E.g. Transgenic rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows and fish.
- Over 95% of the transgenic animals are mice.

Benefits of transgenic animals

• To study the regulation of genes and their action on normal physiology & development: E.g. Study of
insulin-like growth factor. Genes (from other species) that alter the formation of this factor are introduced
and the biological effects are studied. This gives information about the biological role of the factor.
• To study the contribution of genes in the development of a disease and thereby new treatments: E.g.
transgenic models for human diseases such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis & Alzheimer’s.
• Biological products: Some medicines contain expensive biological products. Transgenic animals can be
used to produce biological products by introducing genes which codes for a particular product.
They are used to treat diseases such as emphysema, phenylketonuria (PKU), cystic fibrosis etc. E.g. human
protein (α-1-antitrypsin) used to treat emphysema.
In 1997, Rosie (the first transgenic cow) produced human protein-enriched milk (2.4 gm per litre). It
contains human α-lactalbumin. It is a nutritionally more balanced product for human babies than natural
cow milk.
• Vaccine safety testing: Transgenic mice are used to test the safety of the polio vaccine. If it is reliable, they
can replace the use of monkeys to test the safety of vaccines.
• Chemical safety testing (toxicity testing): Some transgenic animals carry genes which make them more
sensitive to toxic substances than non-transgenic animals. They are exposed to the toxic substances and the
effects studied. It gives immediate results.

ETHICAL ISSUES

• Problem of unpredictable results: Genetic modification may cause unpredictable results.

Indian Government has set up organisations like GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee) to
make decisions about the validity of GM research and the safety of GM organisms for public services.

• Bio-piracy: It is the use of bio-resources by multinational companies and other organisations without proper
authorization from the countries and people concerned. Certain companies have patents for products and
technologies that make use of the genetic materials, plants etc. that have been identified, developed and
used by farmers and indigenous people of a country. E.g. Basmati rice, herbal medicines (turmeric, neem
etc.).

• Basmati rice has a unique aroma & flavour. India has 27 varieties of Basmati. In 1997, an American
company got patent rights on Basmati rice through the US Patent and Trademark Office. This allowed
the company to sell a ‘new’ variety of Basmati. This was actually derived from Indian farmer’s varieties.
Indian Basmati was crossed with semi-dwarf varieties and claimed as a novelty. Other people selling
Basmati rice could be restricted by patent.

Generally, industrialised nations are poor in biodiversity and traditional knowledge. The developing and
underdeveloped world has rich biodiversity and traditional knowledge related to bio-resources.
It has to develop laws to prevent unauthorised exploitation of bio-resources and traditional knowledge.
Indian Parliament has cleared the second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill that has considered patent
terms emergency provisions and research and development initiatives.
 CH:11 ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS

POPULATIONS
A population is a group of individuals of the same species that live in a given geographical area,
share or compete for similar resources and potentially reproduce.

E.g. All the cormorants in a wetland, rats in an abandoned dwelling, teakwood trees in a forest
tract, bacteria in a culture plate lotus plant in a pond etc.

Population ecology is an important area of ecology as it links ecology to population genetics &
evolution.

Population Attributes
• Birth rates: Refer to per capita births.
E.g. In a pond, there were 20 lotus plants last year and through reproduction 8 new plants were
added.
Hence, the current population = 28
The birth rate = 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per year.
• Death rates: Refer to per capita deaths.
E.g. For 4 individuals in a laboratory population of 40 fruit flies died during a week.
Hence, the death rate = 4/40 = 0.1 individuals per fruit fly per week.
• Sex ratio: A population has a sex ratio.
E.g. 60% of the population is females and 40% males.
• Age pyramid: It is the structure obtained when the age distribution (% individuals of a given
age or age group) is plotted for the population.

For the human population, age pyramids generally show the age distribution of males and
females in a combined diagram.

Representation of age pyramids for the human population

• Population size or population density (N): It is the number of individuals of a species

per unit area or volume.
E.g. The population density of Siberian cranes at Bharatpur wetlands in any year is <10.
It is millions for Chlamydomonas in a pond.
• Population size is also measured in % cover or biomass.
E.g. In an area, 200 Parthenium plants and a huge banyan tree are seen. In such cases,
measuring the % cover or biomass is meaningful to show the importance of the banyan
tree.
• The total number is a difficult measure for a huge population. In such cases, relative
population density (without knowing absolute population density) is used.
 E.g. The number of fish caught per trap indicates the total population density in the lake.
• In some cases, indirect estimation of population sizes is performed.
E.g. Tiger census in national parks & tiger reserves based on pug marks & fecal pellets.

POPULATION GROWTH
The population size changes depending on factors like food availability, predation pressure &
weather.
Changes in population density give some idea about the population – whether it is flourishing or
declining.

4 basic processes that fluctuate the population density:

1. Natality (B): It is the number of births in a population during a given period.
2. Mortality (D): It is the number of deaths in a population during a given period.
3. Immigration (I): It is the number of individuals of the same species that have come into
the habitat from elsewhere during a given time period.
4. Emigration (E): It is the number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and
went elsewhere during a given time period.
Natality & immigration increase the population density and mortality & emigration
decrease the population density.

If N is the population density at time t, then its density at time t +1 is

Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
Population density increases if B+I is more than D+E. Otherwise, it will decrease.

Under normal conditions, births & deaths are important factors influencing population density.
The other 2 factors have importance only under special conditions.
E.g. for a new colonising habitat, immigration may be more significant to population growth
than birth rates.

Growth Models

a. Exponential growth
-Resources (food & space) are essential for the unimpeded population growth.
-If resources are unlimited, each species shows its full innate potential to grow in number. -Then
the population grows in an exponential or geometric fashion.

If population size = N, birth rates (per capita births) = b and death rates (per capita deaths) = d,
then the increase or decrease in N during a unit time period t (dN/dt) will be

dN/dt = (b – d) × N

Let (b–d) = r, then

dN/dt = rN
The r (‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’) is an important parameter for assessing the impacts of
any biotic or abiotic factor on population growth.

r value for the Norway rat = 0.015

r value for the flour beetle = 0.12

r value for human population in India (1981) = 0.0205

The integral form of the exponential growth equation is

Where, Nt = Population density after time t

N0 = Population density at time zero

r = intrinsic rate of natural increase

e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)

Population growth curves

a = exponential growth (J-shaped curve)

b = logistic growth (Sigmoid curve)

b. Logistic growth

• No population in nature has unlimited resources for exponential growth. This leads to
competition among individuals for limited resources.

• Eventually, the ‘fittest’ individuals survive and reproduce.

• In nature, a given habitat has enough resources to support the maximum possible number,
beyond which no further growth is possible. It is called carrying capacity (K).

• A population with limited resources shows initially a lag phase, phases of acceleration
& deceleration and finally an asymptote. This type of population growth is called
Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth. It is described by the following equation:
 Where, N = Population density at time t

r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase

K = Carrying capacity

Since resources for growth for most animal populations are limited, the logistic growth model is
more realistic.

Population Interactions
Organisms interact in various ways to form a biological community.
Interaction between two species is called Interspecific interactions. They include

Species Species
Name of interaction A B
Mutualism: Both species are
benefitted (+) + +
Competition: Both species
are harmed (-) - -
Predation: One (predator) is
benefitted. Other (prey) is harmed + -
Parasitism: One (parasite) is
benefitted. Other (host) is harmed + -
Commensalism: One is benefitted.
Other is unaffected (0) + 0
Amensalism: One is harmed.
Other is unaffected - 0

In predation, parasitism & commensalisms, the interacting species live closely together.

PREDATION
In a broad ecological context, all carnivores, herbivores etc. are predators. About 25 % of insects
are phytophagous.

If a predator overexploits its prey, then the prey might become extinct. It results in the extinction
of predators. Therefore, predators in nature are ‘prudent’.

Importance of predators
• Predators control prey populations.
• When certain exotic species are introduced into a geographical area, they spread fast due
to the absence its natural predators. E.g. the Prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia
(1920s) caused havoc by spreading. Later, it was controlled by introducing a cactus-
feeding predator moth.
• Predators are used in Biological control methods.
• Predators maintain species diversity in a community by reducing competition among prey
species.
 E.g. the predator starfish Pisaster in the rocky intertidal communities of the American
Pacific Coast. In an experiment, all these starfishes were removed from an enclosed
intertidal area. It caused the extinction of over 10 invertebrate species within a year, due
to interspecific competition.

Defences of prey species to lessen the impact of predation

• Camouflage (cryptic colouration) of some insects & frogs.

• Some are poisonous and so avoided by predators.
• The monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator bird. It is due to a special
chemical in its body. It is acquired during its caterpillar stage by feeding on a poisonous
weed.
• Thorns (Acacia, Cactus etc.) are the most common morphological means of defence of
plants.
• Many plants produce chemicals that make the herbivore sick, inhibit feeding or digestion,
disrupt its reproduction or kill it. E.g. Calotropis produce highly poisonous cardiac
glycosides. Therefore, cattle or goats do not eat it. Nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine,
opium, etc. are defences against grazers and browsers.

COMPETITION
• It is a process in which the fitness of one species (‘r’ value) is significantly lower in the
presence of another species.
• Interspecific competition is a potent force in organic evolution.
• Competition occurs when closely related species compete for the same limited resources.
• Unrelated species can also compete for the resource. E.g. Flamingoes & fishes in some
shallow South American lakes compete for zooplankton.
• Competition occurs in abundant resources also. E.g. In interference competition, the
feeding efficiency of one species is reduced due to the interfering and inhibitory presence
of other species, even if resources are abundant.

Evidence for competition:

• The Abingdon tortoise in the Galapagos Islands became extinct within a decade
after goats were introduced on the island, due to the greater browsing efficiency
of the goats.
• Competitive release: It is the expansion of the distributional range of a species
when the competing species is removed.
• Connell’s field experiments: On the rocky sea coasts of Scotland, there are 2
barnacle species: Balanus (larger & competitively superior) & Chathamalus
(smaller). Balanus dominates the intertidal area and excludes Chathamalus.
When Connell experimentally removed Balanus, Chathamalus colonised the
intertidal zone

Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’:

• It states that two closely related species competing for the same resources cannot coexist
indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually.
• This may be true in limited resources, but not otherwise.
• Species facing competition may evolve mechanisms for co-existence rather than
exclusion.
E.g. resource partitioning.
Resource partitioning:

It is the division of limited resources by species to avoid competition. For this, they choose
different feeding times or different foraging patterns.
E.g. MacArthur showed that five closely related species of warblers living on a tree could avoid
competition and co-exist due to behavioural differences in their foraging activities.

PARASITISM
Many parasites are host-specific (they can parasitize only a single host species). They tend to co-
evolve. i.e., if the host evolves special mechanisms against the parasite, the parasite also evolves
mechanisms to counteract them to remain with the same host species.

Adaptations of parasites: Loss of sense organs, presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling
on to the host, loss of digestive system, high reproductive capacity etc.

The life cycles of parasites are often complex.

E.g.
• Human liver fluke depends on 2 intermediate hosts (a snail & a fish) to complete its life
cycle.
• The malarial parasite needs mosquitoes to spread to other hosts.
Parasites harm the host. They may reduce the survival, population density, growth and
reproduction of the host. They may make the host physically weak and more vulnerable to
predation.

Types of parasites:

1.Ectoparasites
Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host. E.g.
• Lice on humans.
• Ticks on dogs.
• Ectoparasitic Copepods on many marine fishes.
• Cuscuta plant on hedge plants.

Cuscuta has no chlorophyll and leaves. It derives its nutrition from the host plant.
Female mosquito is not considered a parasite, because it needs our blood only for reproduction,
not as food.

2. Endoparasites
• Parasites that live inside the host body at different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, RBC etc).
• The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex.
• They have simple morphological & anatomical features and high reproductive potential.

Brood parasitism in birds:

• Here, the parasitic birds lay eggs in the nest of their host and let the host incubate them.
• During evolution, the eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble the host’s egg
in size and colour. So, the host bird cannot detect and eject the foreign eggs easily. E.g.
Brood parasitism between cuckoo and crow.
COMMENSALISM
Examples:
• Orchid (+) growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch (0).
• Barnacles (+) growing on the back of a whale (0).
• Cattle egret (+) & grazing cattle (0). The egrets forage close to where the cattle are
grazing. As the cattle move, the vegetation insects come out. Otherwise, it is difficult for
the egrets to find and catch the insects.
• Sea anemone (0) & clown fish (+). Stinging tentacles of sea anemones give protection to
fish from predators.

MUTUALISM
Examples:
• Lichen: It is a mutualistic relationship between a fungus & photosynthesizing algae or
cyanobacteria.
• Mycorrhizae: Associations between fungi & the roots of higher plants. The fungi help
the plant in the absorption of essential nutrients from the soil while the plant provides the
fungi with carbohydrates.
• Mutualism b/w plant & animal through pollination and seed dispersion:
• Examples:
- Fig trees & wasps. The fig species is pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species.
Female wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while searching for suitable egg-laying
sites in fruits. The fig offers the wasp some developing seeds, as food for the wasp
larvae.
- Orchids show a diversity of floral patterns. They can attract the right pollinator
insects (bees & bumblebees) to ensure pollination. Not all orchids offer rewards.
- ‘Sexual deceit’ of Ophrys (Mediterranean orchid). One petal of its flower resembles
a female bee in size, colour & markings. So male bees ‘pseudocopulates’ with the
flower and are dusted with pollen. When this bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with another
flower, it transfers pollen to it.
- If the female bee’s colour patterns change slightly during evolution, pollination
success will be reduced unless the orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the
resemblance of its petals to the female bee.
 CH:12 ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact each other and with the physical
environment.

ECOSYSTEM – STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

Types of ecosystems

• Terrestrial ecosystem: Forest, grassland, desert etc.

• Aquatic ecosystem: Pond, lake, wetland, river & estuary.
• Man-made ecosystem: Crop fields and aquarium.

- Entire biosphere is regarded as global ecosystem.

- In an ecosystem, biotic and abiotic components interact and function as a unit.
- Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification. E.g. in a
forest, trees occupy top strata (layer), shrubs the second and herbs & grasses the bottom layers.

Pond (Aquatic ecosystem)

A pond is a shallow, simple, self-sustainable water body that exhibits all basic components of an ecosystem.

• Abiotic components: Water and soil deposit.

• Climatic conditions: Solar input, cycle of temperature, day-length etc.
• Autotrophic components: Phytoplankton, some algae and the floating, submerged and marginal
plants.
• Consumers (heterotrophs): Zooplankton, free swimming and bottom dwelling forms.
• Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria and flagellates.

Pond performs all the functions of an ecosystem. E.g.

• Autotrophs convert inorganic into organic material using solar radiant energy.
• Heterotrophs consume the autotrophs.
• Decomposition and mineralization of the dead matter to release them back for reuse by the
autotrophs.
4 basic components of functioning of an ecosystem:

1. Productivity
2. Decomposition
3. Energy flow
4. Nutrient cycling

1. PRODUCTIVITY

Solar energy is the basic requirement for an ecosystem to function and sustain.

Amount of biomass (organic matter) produced per unit area over a time period by plants during
photosynthesis is called primary production. It is expressed in weight (g–2) or energy (kcal m–2).

The rate of biomass production is called productivity.

It is expressed in g–2 yr–1 or (kcal m–2) yr–1.
It is divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).

• Gross primary productivity (GPP): It is the rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is used by plants in respiration.
• Net primary productivity (NPP): It is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs
(herbivores & decomposers). i.e., NPP is the Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R).
•
NPP = GPP – R

Secondary productivity: It is the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

Primary productivity varies in different ecosystems because it depends on

• The plant species inhabiting an area.
• Environmental factors.
• Availability of nutrients.
• Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
Annual net primary productivity of whole biosphere is about 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter.
Of this, despite occupying about 70 % of the surface, the productivity of the oceans is only 55 billion tons.

2. DECOMPOSITION

-It is the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers into inorganic substances like CO2, water
and nutrients.
-It is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
-Raw material for decomposition is called Detritus. E.g. dead plant remains (leaves, bark, flowers etc.),
dead remains of animals, fecal matter etc.

Steps of decomposition

• Fragmentation: It is the breakdown of detritus into smaller particles by detritivores (e.g.

earthworm).
• Leaching: Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into soil horizon and precipitate as unavailable
salts.
• Catabolism: Degradation of detritus into simpler inorganic substances by bacterial and fungal
enzymes.
The above three processes occur simultaneously.
• Humification: Accumulation of humus (dark amorphous substance) in soil. Humus is resistant to
microbial action and so decomposes very slowly. Being colloidal, it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
• Mineralization: It is the release of inorganic nutrients due to the degradation of humus by some
microbes.
•
Factors influencing decomposition

1. Chemical composition of detritus:

• Decomposition is slow in detritus rich in lignin & chitin.
• It is quicker in detritus rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars.
•
2. Climatic factors (temperature & soil moisture):
 • Warm and moist environment favour decomposition.
• Low temperature & anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in buildup of organic materials.

3. ENERGY FLOW

• Sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems (except deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem).
• Of the incident solar radiation, less than 50% is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
• Plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix solar radiant energy to make food.
• Plants capture only 2-10% of the PAR. This energy sustains the entire living world.
• Ecosystems obey 2nd Law of thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to synthesize
the molecules. It helps to counteract the entropy.

Producers (Autotrophs):

- These are organisms that synthesize food.

- In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants. Primary producers in
an aquatic ecosystem are phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
- The energy trapped by the producer is passed on to a consumer or the organism dies.

Consumers (heterotrophs):

These are animals that directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They include:

• Primary consumers (herbivores): Feed on plants. E.g. insects, birds, mammals, molluscs, etc.
• Secondary consumers (primary carnivores): Feed on herbivores. E.g. frog, fox, man etc.
• Tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores): Feed on primary carnivores. E.g. tiger, lion etc.

The chain of feeding relationship between different organisms is called a food chain. It is 2 types:

• Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Here, primary consumer feeds on living plants (producer).
E.g.

• Detritus Food Chain (DFC): Here, primary consumer feeds on dead organic matter (detritus). Death
of organism is the beginning of the DFC.

- Detritus is made up of decomposers (saprotrophs)such as fungi & bacteria. They secrete digestive
enzymes that breakdown detritus into simple, inorganic materials, which are absorbed by them. Thus,
they get energy & nutrients.
- In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
- In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much amount of energy flows through the DFC than through the GFC.
- DFC may be connected with GFC at some levels. Some organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC
animals. Some animals (cockroaches, crows, human etc.) are omnivores. Such interconnections of
food chains are called food web.
A specific place of organisms in the food chain is known as their trophic level.

o The amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. When an organism dies it becomes
dead biomass (detritus). It is an energy source for decomposers.
o Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level for their energy.
o The amount of living material in a trophic level at a given time is called standing crop. It is
measured as the biomass (mass of living organisms) or the number in a unit area.
o Biomass of a species is measured in terms of fresh or dry weight. Dry weight is more accurate
because it is the exact mass of body which remains constant.
o Number of trophic levels in GFC is restricted as it follows 10% law (only 10% of energy is
transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level).

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

The representation of a food chain in the form of a pyramid is called ecological pyramid.

The base of a pyramid represents producers (first trophic level). The apex represents tertiary or top-level
consumer.

Ecological pyramids are 3 types: Pyramid of number, Pyramid of biomass and Pyramid of energy.

a) Pyramid of number:

E.g. grassland ecosystem.

b) Pyramid of biomass:

It shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels.

c) Pyramid of energy:

Primary producers convert only 1% of the energy in the sunlight available to them into NPP.

Any calculations of energy content, biomass, or numbers has to include all organisms at that trophic level.

A trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A species may occupy more than one
trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time. E.g. A sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats
seeds, fruits, peas. It is a secondary consumer when it eats insects & worms.

In most ecosystems, all the pyramids are upright, i.e., producers are higher in number, biomass and energy
than the herbivores, and herbivores are higher in number, biomass and energy than the carnivores.

But in some cases, inverted pyramids for number and biomass are present.

Inverted pyramid of number: E.g. Insects feeding on a tree.

Inverted pyramid of biomass: E.g.

• Small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large standing crop of zooplankton.

• Pyramid of biomass in sea is inverted because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of
phytoplankton.
Pyramid of energy is always upright because some energy is always lost as heat at each trophic level. So,
energy at a lower trophic level is always more than at a higher level.

Limitations of ecological pyramids

• It does not consider the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.

• It assumes a simple food chain that never exists in nature. It does not accommodate a food web.

• Saprophytes are not included.

 Ch-13 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

Biodiversity is the diversity of biological organisation ranging from cellular macromolecules to biomes.
Edward Wilson popularized the term ‘biodiversity’.

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

• Genetic diversity: Diversity shown by a single species at the genetic level.

E.g. Rauwolfia vomitoria (Himalaya) shows genetic variation in the potency & concentration of the
chemical reserpine. India has more than 50,000 different strains of rice and 1000 varieties of mango.

• Species diversity: Diversity at the species level. E.g. Western Ghats have greater amphibian
species than Eastern Ghats.
• Ecological diversity: Diversity at the ecosystem level.

E.g. In India, deserts, rainforests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries & alpine meadows are
seen.

NUMBER OF SPECIES ON EARTH (GLOBAL SPECIES DIVERSITY)

• According to IUCN (2004), more than 1.5 million species described so far.
• According to Robert May’s Global estimate, about 7 million species would have on earth. (He
considered the species to be discovered in the tropics. i.e. only 22% of the total species have been recorded
so far).
• Animals are more diverse (above 70%) than plants including Plantae and Fungi (22%).
• Among animals, insects are the most species-rich group (70%, i.e. out of every 10 animals, 7 are insects).
• The number of fungi species is more than the combined total of the species of fishes, amphibians,
reptiles & mammals.

• India has only 2.4% of the world’s land area but has 8.1% of the species diversity. India is one of
the 12 mega-diversity countries of the world. Nearly 45,000 plant species and twice as many
animals have been recorded from India.
• Applying May’s global estimates, India would have more than 1 lakh plant species and 3 lakh animal
species.
• Biologists are not sure about the total number of prokaryotic species because

➢ Conventional taxonomic methods are not suitable for identifying microbial species.
➢ In the laboratory, many species cannot be cultured.
 PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY

i. Latitudinal gradients

• Species diversity decreases from the equator to the poles.

• Tropics (latitudinal range of 23.5o N to 23.5o S) have more species than temperate or polar areas.

E.g. Number of bird species in different latitudes:

➢ Colombia (near the equator): about 1400 species.

➢ India (in the tropics): > 1200 species.
➢ New York (41o N): 105 species.
➢ Greenland (71o N): 56 species.

• Tropical forest region like the Equator has up to 10 times of vascular plant species as compared to a
temperate forest region like the Midwest of the USA.
• Tropical Amazonian rain forest (South America) is the greatest biodiversity on earth. It contains

➢ > 40000 species of plants

➢ 3000 species of fishes
➢ 1300 species of birds
➢ 427 species of mammals
➢ 427 species of amphibians
➢ 378 species of reptiles
➢ > 1,25,000 species of invertebrates

• Biodiversity (species richness) is highest in the tropics because

➢ Tropics had more evolutionary time.

➢ Relatively constant environment (less seasonal).
➢ They receive more solar energy which contributes to greater productivity.

ii. Species- Area relationship

According to the study of Alexander von Humboldt in South American jungles, within a region, species
richness increases with increasing explored area, but only up to a limit.
 The relation between species richness and area gives a rectangular hyperbola.

S= CAz
Where,

S= Species richness

A= Area

C= Y-intercept

Z= slope of the line (regression co-efficient)

• On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a straight line described by the equation Log S = log C + Z log A
• Generally, for small areas, the Z value is 0.1 to 0.2.
• But for large areas (e.g. entire continents), the slope of the line is steeper (Z value: 0.6 to 1.2).
• E.g. for frugivorous birds and mammals in the tropical forests of different continents, the Z value is 1.15.

IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY

• According to David Tilman, plots with more species shows less year-to-year variation in total biomass.
• Increased diversity contributes to higher productivity. It is essential for ecosystem health and survival of
the human race.
• ‘Rivet popper hypothesis’: It is an analogy used to understand the importance of biodiversity.
• It is proposed by Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich.
• In an aeroplane (ecosystem), all parts are joined with many rivets (species). If passengers pop a rivet
(extinction of a species), it may not affect flight safety (functioning of the ecosystem). But as more and
more rivets are removed, the plane becomes dangerously weak. Loss of rivets on the wings (key
species that drive major ecosystem functions) is more dangerous than loss of a few rivets on the seats or
windows.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

• The IUCN Red List (2004) says that 784 species (338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates & 87 plants) were
extinct in the last 500 years. E.g. Dodo (Mauritius), Quagga (Africa), Thylacine (Australia), Stellar’s
sea cow (Russia) and 3 subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger.
• 27 species have been disappeared in the last 20 years.
• More than 15,500 species are facing the threat of extinction.
• 12% of birds, 23% of mammals, 32% of amphibians, and 31% of gymnosperm species face the
threat of extinction.
• The current extinction rate is 100 - 1000 times faster than in pre-human times. If this trend continues,
nearly 50% of species might be extinct within the next 100 years.

Impacts of Loss of Biodiversity

• Decline in plant production.

• Environmental perturbations such as drought.
• Increased variability in ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use and pest & disease cycles.

Causes of Biodiversity losses (‘The Evil Quartet’)

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation: Most important cause.

• E.g. Tropical rain forests (loss from 14% to 6%).

• Thousands of hectares of rainforests are being lost within hours.
• The Amazon rainforest is being cut for cultivating soya beans or for the conversion of grasslands for
cattle.
• Fragmentation badly affects animals requiring large territories and migratory animals.

2. Over-exploitation: Stellar’s sea cow, Passenger pigeon etc. extinct due to over-exploitation.

3. Alien species invasions: Alien species cause the decline or extinction of indigenous species. E.g.

• Nile Perch introduced in Lake Victoria (East Africa) caused the extinction of more than 200 species
of cichlid fish.
• Invasive weed species like Parthenium (carrot grass), Lantana and Eicchornia (water
hyacinth) caused damage to our native species.
• Illegal introduction of the African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) for aquaculture is a threat to the
indigenous catfishes in our rivers.

4. Co-extinction: When a species becomes extinct, the species associated with it is also extinct. E.g.

• Extinction of the parasites when the host is extinct.

• In co-evolved plant-pollinator mutualism, the extinction of one causes the extinction of the other.

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

There are 3 categories of reasons for conservation.

a. Narrowly utilitarian arguments

• Human derive economic benefits from nature such as food, firewood, fibre, construction material,
industrial products (tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes) and medicines.
• More than 25% of the drugs are derived from plants.
• 25,000 species of plants have medicinal value.

b. Broadly utilitarian arguments

Biodiversity has many ecosystem services. E.g.

• Amazon forest (‘lung of the planet’) produces 20% of total O2 in the earth’s atmosphere.
• Pollination through bees, bumblebees, birds and bats.
• Aesthetic pleasures.

c. Ethical arguments

• Every species has an intrinsic value. We have a moral duty to care for their well-being.

Biodiversity conservation is 2 types: In situ (on-site) conservation and Ex-situ (off-site) conservation.

a. In situ conservation (on site)

It is the conservation of genetic resources within natural or human-made ecosystems in which they occur. E.g.
Protected areas such as National Parks, Sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, cultural landscapes, natural
monuments etc.
• National Park: Strictly reserved for the welfare of the wildlife where private ownership, cultivation, grazing
etc. are prohibited. E.g. Eravikulam National Park in Kerala.
• Sanctuary: Here, protection is given only to the animals. Collection of timbers, minor forest products and
private ownership are allowed so long as they do not harm the animals. E.g. Periyar wildlife sanctuary in
Kerala.
• Biosphere Reserves: Areas of land or coastal ecosystems for conservation and sustainable use.
• Sacred forests (Sacred groves): Forest fragments which are communally protected based on religious
beliefs. E.g.

➢ Sacred groves in Khasi & Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya.

➢ Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan.
➢ Western Ghat regions of Karnataka & Maharashtra.
➢ Sarguja, Chanda & Bastar areas (Madhya Pradesh).

India has 14 Biosphere Reserves, 90 National Parks and 448 wildlife sanctuaries.

b. Ex situ conservation (off site)

It is the conservation of organisms outside their habitats. E.g. genetic resource centres, zoological parks,
wildlife safari parks, botanical gardens, gene banks, cryopreservation etc.

Hotspots

• These are the regions with very high species richness and, high degree of endemism (species confined only
to a specific region) but most threatened.
• There are 34 hotspots in the world.
• 3 hotspots cover India’s biodiversity regions- Western Ghats & Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Himalaya.
• All hotspots together cover only < 2% of the earth’s land area. But the species richness is extremely high.
Protection of hotspots reduced the ongoing extinctions by 30%.

International Efforts for conserving biodiversity

• The Earth Summit or Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 1992) - 3 objectives:
a. Conservation of biodiversity.
b. Sustainable use of biodiversity.
c. Sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
• The World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002): 190 countries
pledged to reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss.