AKGEC/IQAC/QP/03

AJAY KUMAR GARG ENGINEERING COLLEGE, GHAZIABAD

DEPARTMENT OF Mechanical Engineering
Sessional Test 2 - Solution

Section-A (2*5=10)

1. What is the main function of I/O modules in PLC systems?

The main function of I/O (Input/Output) modules in Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
systems is to act as the interface between the PLC and the external devices in the industrial process.
They facilitate communication by receiving signals from input devices (e.g., sensors, switches) and
sending control signals to output devices (e.g., actuators, motors, relays).

2. Differentiate between active gripper and passive gripper?

3. Who proposed the laws of robotics, and what is their purpose?

The Laws of Robotics were proposed by Isaac Asimov, a science fiction writer in 1942. These laws are
a set of ethical guidelines intended to govern the behavior of robots and ensure their safe interaction
with humans.
The primary purpose of Asimov's Laws is to ensure that robots, while performing tasks, do not harm
humans or act in ways that could endanger human lives. These laws also aim to establish a framework
for robots to serve and protect humans while preserving their own functionality, creating a safe, ethical
foundation for robotics.

4. Define industrial robot and briefly outline its scope.

An industrial robot is defined as a mechanical machine that is programmed to automatically perform
production related tasks in industrial environments.

An Industrial Robot must carry out following functions:

 It must have sensing ability (get information from its surroundings)

 It must carry out different task
 It must be Re-programmable
 It must have minimum 3 axis (Prismatic or Revolute)
Scope:
1. Automation: Automates repetitive, labor-intensive tasks, improving speed and consistency.
2. Versatility: Used in industries like automotive, electronics, and food processing.
3. Precision: Ensures high accuracy and quality control.
4. Safety: Operates in hazardous environments to protect human workers.
5. Flexibility: Can be reprogrammed for different tasks.
6. Collaborative Robots (Cobots): Work alongside humans to assist in various tasks.

5. Define "manipulator" in terms of robot anatomy.

In terms of robot anatomy, a manipulator refers to the mechanical arm or structure of a robot that is
responsible for performing tasks such as picking up, moving, or interacting with objects. It typically
consists of multiple segments (links) connected by joints, allowing the robot to move and manipulate
objects within its workspace. The manipulator is often equipped with end-effectors (like grippers or
tools) to perform specific tasks.

Key Components:

1. Links: Rigid segments that form the structure of the manipulator.

2. Joints: Points where the links are connected, allowing movement.
3. End-Effector: The tool or device (e.g., gripper, welding torch) at the end of the manipulator used for
interaction with objects.
 Section-B (5*5=25)

6. Discuss the importance of forward kinematics in robotics. How does it help in determining the position
and orientation of a robot's end-effector based on its joint parameters?

Importance of Forward Kinematics in Robotics

Forward kinematics (FK) is a fundamental concept in robotics that deals with determining the position
and orientation of a robot's end-effector based on its joint parameters, such as angles or displacements. It
is a crucial tool for robot motion planning, control, and interaction with the environment.

Forward kinematics involves the use of mathematical models to compute the spatial position (x, y, z)
and orientation (roll, pitch, yaw) of a robot's end-effector given the joint parameters. These
computations rely on the robot’s kinematic chain, which consists of its links and joints, described using
coordinate transformations

The FK process typically involves the following steps:

1. Define Joint Parameters:

The first step is to establish the joint parameters, which include joint angles for revolute joints and link
extensions for prismatic joints.

2. Use of Transformation Matrices:

Homogeneous transformation matrices are employed to represent the relationships between different
links and joints in a robot. Each joint contributes a transformation matrix that combines rotation and
translation into a single representation. The final pose of the end-effector can be calculated by
multiplying these matrices together:

T=T01⋅T12⋅T23…
where T represents the overall transformation from the base of the robot to the end-effector.

3. Calculate End-Effector Pose:

By applying these transformations sequentially, one can derive the final position and orientation of the
 end-effector relative to a fixed reference frame (usually the robot's base). This calculation incorporates
all joint contributions into a comprehensive model of the robot's configuration.

In real-world applications, robots must interact with their environment accurately. Forward kinematics
helps determine the exact location and orientation of the end-effector, ensuring that it aligns correctly
with external objects or tools.

Forward kinematics is widely used in various robotic systems:

 Industrial Robots: For pick-and-place operations, assembly lines, and CNC machines.
 Medical Robots: To position surgical instruments with high precision.
 Humanoid Robots: To simulate human-like motions and interactions.
 Space Exploration: For controlling robotic arms on spacecraft or rovers.

7. Discuss the principles of hardwired control systems. Explain their components, working mechanism,
and limitations compared to programmable control systems.

Principles of Hardwired Control Systems

Hardwired control systems are a type of control mechanism where the logic for controlling operations is
implemented using fixed hardware components, such as combinational and sequential circuits. These
systems are designed for specific tasks, with all control logic embedded directly into the hardware.

Components of Hardwired Control Systems

1. Control Unit:
 The core of the system that generates control signals based on the current state and input signals.
 Typically implemented using flip-flops, gates, counters, and decoders.
2. Input Devices:
Sensors, switches, or other input components that provide signals to the control unit.
3. Output Devices:
Actuators, motors, or display units that execute the desired operations based on control signals.
4. Logic Circuits:
Fixed logic gates and circuits designed to process input signals and generate corresponding control
signals for outputs.
5. Clock Generator:
Provides timing signals for synchronization of sequential operations.

Working Mechanism
Hardwired control systems operate through predefined logic embedded into hardware. The control unit
transitions through a fixed sequence of states based on:

 Input signals: The current conditions or data from sensors.

 State transitions: Determined by combinational logic circuits that process inputs.
 Output generation: Produces signals to drive actuators or other components to execute tasks.
 For example, in a vending machine, the control logic processes the selection and payment inputs to
determine the appropriate item to dispense. This logic is hardwired into the system, enabling fast and
reliable operation.

Limitations of Hardwired Control Systems

1. Lack of Flexibility:
 The logic is fixed and cannot be reprogrammed or modified without redesigning the hardware.
 This makes hardwired systems unsuitable for applications requiring frequent updates or changes.
2. Complexity in Design:
As the complexity of tasks increases, the design of the control logic becomes more challenging and
error prone.
3. Scalability Issues:
Adding new features or modifying existing functionality often requires significant hardware
changes, increasing costs and time.
4. Cost and Maintenance:
Hardware-based systems can be more expensive to design and maintain compared to software-based
systems.

Comparison with Programmable Control Systems

Unlike hardwired systems, programmable control systems use software or firmware to define control
logic. This makes them:
 More Flexible: Easily reconfigurable for different tasks or updated requirements.
 Easier to Maintain: Modifications can be made through software changes without altering physical
hardware.
 Scalable: Suitable for complex and evolving applications.

8. Discuss the fundamental principles of transducers and sensors. Explain different types of transducers
and their applications.

Transducers and sensors are integral components in various technological applications, serving the
essential function of converting one form of energy into another. Understanding their fundamental
principles, types, and applications is crucial for advancements in fields such as automation, healthcare,
and environmental monitoring.

Fundamental Principles of Transducers and Sensors

A transducer is defined as a device that converts energy from one form to another, typically
transforming a physical quantity (like temperature or pressure) into an electrical signal. The process of
energy conversion is known as transduction. While all sensors are a type of transducer, not all
transducers function as sensors. Sensors specifically detect physical phenomena and provide usable
outputs based on that detection.
Key Principles of Operation

1. Energy Conversion: Transducers operate by converting various forms of energy:

 Mechanical: Changes in stress or strain can generate electrical signals (e.g., piezoelectric
transducers).
 Thermal: Temperature differences can produce voltage (e.g., thermocouples).
 Electrical: Variations in electrical properties can indicate changes in physical conditions (e.g.,
resistive sensors).
 Magnetic: Changes in magnetic fields can be converted into electrical signals (e.g., Hall effect
sensors).
 Radiant: Light intensity changes can be transformed into electrical signals (e.g., photodiodes).

2. Signal Processing: After sensing, the output signal often undergoes conditioning to enhance its
usability. This may involve amplification or conversion to a different format suitable for further
processing or display.

Types of Transducers
Transducers can be classified based on various criteria:
Based on Energy Source
 Active Transducers: These generate an output signal without needing an external power source.
Examples include thermocouples and piezoelectric devices.
 Passive Transducers: These require an external power source to operate and include resistive,
inductive, and capacitive transducers.
Based on Output Signal Type
 Analog Transducers: Produce continuous output signals proportional to the input (e.g.,
thermistors).
 Digital Transducers: Provide discrete output signals often represented in binary format (e.g., digital
temperature sensors).
Based on Physical Quantity Measured
 Temperature Transducers: Such as thermocouples and thermistors.
 Pressure Transducers: Including Bourdon gauges and piezoresistive sensors.
 Displacement Transducers: Like Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs).
 Flow Transducers: Such as flow meters used in fluid dynamics.

Applications of Transducers
Transducers find extensive applications across multiple domains:
 Industrial Automation: Used for measuring parameters like pressure, temperature, and flow rates,
ensuring efficient operations in manufacturing processes.
 Medical Diagnostics: Devices like ECG machines and blood pressure monitors rely on transducers
to convert physiological signals into readable data for analysis.
 Automotive Systems: Monitoring engine performance, tire pressure, and fuel levels through various
sensor technologies enhances vehicle safety and efficiency.
 Environmental Monitoring: Sensors track weather conditions, pollution levels, and other
environmental factors, aiding in research and policymaking.
 Consumer Electronics: Devices such as smartphones utilize capacitive touchscreens that respond to
user inputs via changes in capacitance.
9. Discuss the role of timers and counters in ladder logic programming.

Timers and counters are essential components of ladder logic programming, widely used in
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) to implement automation tasks. These elements enable the
execution of time-based and count-based operations, forming the backbone of many industrial control
systems.

Timers in Ladder Logic

Timers are used to introduce delays or measure the duration of events in ladder logic programs. They are
typically classified into the following types:

1. ON-Delay Timer (TON): Activates its output after a specified delay once the input condition is true.
Example: Delaying the start of a conveyor belt after a machine is powered on.

2. OFF-Delay Timer (TOFF): Deactivates its output after a specified delay once the input condition turns false.
Example: Keeping a fan running for a set time after a motor is turned off.

3. Retentive Timer (RTO): Retains its accumulated time even if the input condition turns false and can resume
timing when reactivated.
Example: Tracking machine runtime across multiple shifts.

Counters in Ladder Logic

Counters are used to count occurrences of events or conditions. They are essential for tasks that involve counting
inputs or outputs. The main types of counters include:

1. Up Counter (CTU): Counts upward each time the input condition is triggered.
Example: Counting the number of items passing through a sensor on a conveyor belt.

2. Down Counter (CTD): Counts downward each time the input condition is triggered.
Example: Tracking the remaining items to be processed in a batch.

3. Up/Down Counter (CTUD): Can count both upward and downward based on different input conditions.
Example: Maintaining an inventory count that increments with new stock & decrements with outgoing
items.

Working Mechanism
Timers and counters operate by monitoring the inputs and executing logic based on their parameters (e.g., preset
time or count values). These components interact with other ladder logic elements such as coils, contacts, and data
registers to perform tasks like sequencing operations, managing delays, and automating repetitive processes.
Applications in Industrial Automation

Timers:
 Controlling sequential operations, such as starting and stopping machinery.
 Synchronizing processes, like timed filling in packaging lines.
Counters:
 Monitoring production output to ensure targets are met.
 Triggering maintenance alerts after a specific number of machine cycles.
10. Analyze the challenges and significance of inverse kinematics in robotics. How does inverse kinematics
differ from forward kinematics?

Inverse kinematics (IK) is a critical concept in robotics, focusing on determining the joint configurations
required to position a robot's end-effector at a desired location and orientation in its workspace. This
process is essential for tasks such as robotic manipulation, path planning, and interaction with the
environment. However, it presents several challenges that differentiate it from forward kinematics (FK).

Challenges of Inverse Kinematics

1. Non-Uniqueness of Solutions:
One of the primary challenges in IK is that multiple joint configurations can yield the same end-effector
position. This non-uniqueness complicates decision-making regarding which configuration to use,
especially in applications requiring specific orientations or avoidance of obstacles.

2. Computational Complexity:
The IK problem is often nonlinear and can involve complex mathematical computations. For redundant
robots—those with more degrees of freedom (DOFs) than necessary to reach a target point—solving IK
can become computationally intensive. Real-time applications demand efficient algorithms that can
handle these complexities without significant delays.

3. Physical Constraints:
Robots have physical limitations, such as joint angle restrictions and maximum velocities. Solutions that
may mathematically satisfy the IK equations might not be physically realizable due to these constraints.
Therefore, ensuring that solutions adhere to these limits adds another layer of complexity.

4. Singularities:
Certain configurations lead to singularities where the robot loses one or more degrees of freedom,
making it impossible to achieve certain poses or resulting in infinite solutions. Understanding and
avoiding these singularities is crucial for effective robot operation.

5. Dynamic Environments:
In real-world applications, robots often operate in dynamic environments where obstacles may change
positions. This requires adaptive IK solutions that can quickly recalculate joint configurations in
response to new conditions.

Significance of Inverse Kinematics

1. Task Execution:
IK is vital for programming robots to perform specific tasks accurately, such as picking and placing
objects or following precise trajectories. Without IK, specifying a desired end-effector position would be
impractical since robots operate in joint space rather than directly in Cartesian space.
2. Robust Control Systems:
Effective IK algorithms enhance the robustness of robotic control systems by allowing them to
adaptively respond to changes in their environment and task requirements. This adaptability is essential
for applications ranging from industrial automation to service robotics.

3. Enhanced Manipulation Capabilities:

By utilizing IK, robots can navigate complex environments, around obstacles, and optimize their
movements for efficiency and safety. This capability is particularly important in fields like healthcare
and manufacturing, where precision and adaptability are crucial.

Differences Between Inverse Kinematics and Forward Kinematics

The fundamental distinction between FK and IK lies in their operational direction:

Forward Kinematics (FK):
FK calculates the end-effector's position based on known joint angles. It provides a unique solution for a
given set of joint parameters, making it straightforward but limited in flexibility.
Inverse Kinematics (IK):
In contrast, IK seeks the joint angles required to achieve a specified end-effector position and
orientation. This process often results in multiple valid configurations or may even lack a solution
altogether due to physical constraints or singularities
 Section-C (7.5*2=15)

11. Describe the working principles of hydraulic actuators. Discuss their components, operation, and
applications in industrial automation, highlighting their advantages and limitations.

Working Principles of Hydraulic Actuators

Hydraulic actuators are mechanical devices that use fluid pressure to create linear or rotary motion. They
are widely used in industrial automation due to their ability to generate high force and precise control.
The working principle of a hydraulic actuator is based on Pascal's Law, which states that pressure
applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions. This principle allows hydraulic
actuators to convert fluid pressure into mechanical energy effectively.

Components of Hydraulic Actuators:

1. Hydraulic Pump: Generates the fluid flow and pressure required for operation.
2. Hydraulic Fluid: The medium that transmits power; typically, oil or other specialized fluids.
3. Actuator (Cylinder or Motor): Converts the fluid pressure into linear or rotary motion. Cylinders
are used for linear motion, while hydraulic motors are used for rotary motion.
4. Control Valves: Regulate the flow and pressure of the hydraulic fluid, enabling precise control of
the actuator.
5. Reservoir: Stores the hydraulic fluid when not in use.
6. Pipes and Hoses: Transport the hydraulic fluid between components.
7. Seals and Filters: Prevent fluid leakage and ensure cleanliness of the hydraulic fluid.

Operation of Hydraulic Actuators

The operation begins with the hydraulic pump drawing fluid from the reservoir and pressurizing it. This
pressurized fluid is directed through control valves to the actuator. In the case of a hydraulic cylinder,
the pressurized fluid pushes against the piston, causing it to move linearly. For rotary motion, the fluid
flows into a hydraulic motor, driving its rotation. Control valves modulate the direction, speed, and force
of the actuator by controlling the flow and pressure of the fluid.
 Applications in Industrial Automation

 Manufacturing: Presses, injection molding machines, and material handling equipment.

 Construction: Excavators, cranes, and bulldozers.
 Aerospace: Landing gear systems and flight control surfaces.
 Marine: Steering systems and deck machinery.

Advantages of Hydraulic Actuators

1. High Force Output: Capable of generating significant force, suitable for heavy-duty applications.
2. Precise Control: Provides fine control over motion and force.
3. Compact Design: Offers a high power-to-weight ratio.
4. Durability: Robust and reliable under harsh operating conditions.

Limitations of Hydraulic Actuators

1. Maintenance Requirements: Regular maintenance is needed to prevent leaks and contamination.

2. Energy Inefficiency: Some energy loss occurs due to fluid friction and heat generation.
3. Complexity: The system requires multiple components, making it complex and costly.
4. Environmental Concerns: Leakage of hydraulic fluid can pose environmental hazards.

12. A point P in space is defined as BP = (2,3,5)T relative to frame B which is attached to the origin of
reference frame A and is parallel to it. Apply the following transformations to frame B and find AP.
(i) Rotate 900 about x-axis, then
(ii) Rotate 900 about local a-axis, then
(iii) Translate 3 units about y-axis, 6 units about z-axis, and 5 units about x- axis.