Course Name: Linguistics and Phonetics 1

Instructor Name: Dr. Lydia Idir

Lecture 2: Subfields and Branches of Linguistics

Linguistics is a broad field that studies language from various perspectives. It can be

broadly categorized into two main branches: macro-linguistics and micro-linguistics. Both

approaches provide valuable insights into the nature of language, but they focus on different

aspects and scales of linguistic analysis.

Note: A branch is a subdivision of any work for better understanding, a part of something

larger.

1. Branches of Linguistics (Scope of Linguistics)

1.1.Macro-linguistics

Macro linguistics examines language at a large scale, considering its relationship to social,

cultural, political, and historical contexts. It looks at language as a system that interacts with

broader societal factors. Macro-linguistics helps us understand how language functions within

society and how it reflects and shapes cultural norms, values, and power dynamics. Macro-

linguistics is further divided into various branches as discussed below.

a) Historical Linguistics / Comparative Historical Linguistics / Comparative Philology /

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c) Psycholinguistics
d) Cognitive Linguistics / Cognitive Psychology
e) Computational linguistics
f) Applied linguistics
g) Discourse analysis

1.1.1. Historical Linguistics / Comparative Historical Linguistics /

Comparative Philology / Philology

History means inquiry and the knowledge acquired by investigation. Incidents and

situations before the current time are studied in history. It is an umbrella term and keeps the

historical record of language also. Historical linguistics is the study of the development of

language over time. How do changes occur in language? What are the causes and effects of these

changes? According to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics

Fourth edition, by Jack C. RICHARDS and RICHARD SCHMIDT:

“A branch of linguistics which studies language change and language relationships. By

comparing earlier and later forms of a language and by comparing different languages”.

Examples of a historical linguistic analysis. Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the

hypothesized common ancestor of a large family of languages known as the Indo-European

languages, which includes languages such as English, Spanish, Russian, Hindi, and many others.

Historical linguists work to reconstruct aspects of PIE using comparative methods, analyzing

similarities and differences among its descendant languages. Linguists compare words and

structures in different Indo-European languages to identify regular sound correspondences and

reconstruct aspects of PIE.

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 For instance, the word for „mother‟ in various Indo-European languages can be traced

back to PIE: Latin: mater, old English: mōdor (which evolved into modern English „mother‟).

Historical linguists analyze the evolution of Latin into the Romance languages (Spanish,

French, Italian, etc.) is another key area of study, showcasing how a single language can diversify

over time due to geographic, social, and political factors.

1.1.2. Sociolinguistics

Socio means the study of the nature and development of society. Sociolinguistics is the

study of language in relation to society. Language is always meant for society. The social

interaction and communication of ideas and messages can be possible only through language.

JACK C. RICHARDS and RICHARD SCHMIDT define it as: “The study of language in

relation to social factors that is a social class, educational level and type of education, age, sex,

ethnic origin, etc.”

Examples of a sociolinguistic analysis. For instance AAVE is a distinct dialect spoken

primarily by African American communities in the United States. It has unique grammatical

structures, vocabulary, and pronunciation patterns. The sociolinguistic analyses of AAVE focus

on its social implications, including issues of identity, race, and stigma.

Key Aspects of Sociolinguistic Analysis:

Language and Identity: linguists examine how speakers of AAVE use the dialect to express

cultural identity and solidarity within the African American community. So, AAVE can serve as

a marker of group membership, allowing speakers to align themselves with their cultural heritage.

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Social Attitudes and Stigma: studies explore the societal perceptions of AAVE and how these

attitudes affect speakers. Often, AAVE faces stigmatization and is viewed as less „proper‟ or

"educated" compared to Standard American English (SAE). Researchers might analyze how

these negative attitudes impact employment opportunities, education, and social mobility for

AAVE speakers.

Code-Switching: code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between AAVE and SAE

depending on the social context. Sociolinguists study how and why speakers switch between

dialects, often using AAVE in informal settings and SAE in formal situations.

Linguistic Features: sociolinguistic analysis also involves examining the specific linguistic

features of AAVE, such as the the absence of the copula in certain contexts (e.g., „She nice‟

instead of „She is nice‟).

Community and Culture: sociolinguists investigate how AAVE is used in cultural expressions

such as music (e.g., hip-hop, rap) and literature, analyzing how these forms of expression

reinforce community identity and resistance to mainstream cultural norms.

1.1.3. Psycholinguistics

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and how it functions. Psycholinguistics is the

study of how mind process and produces language (relationship between mind and language). It

uses linguistics concepts to describe the mental process connected with acquisition and use of

language. According to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics

Fourth edition, psycholinguistics is: “The study of the mental processes that a person uses in

producing and understanding language, and how humans learn the language.”

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 Examples of a psycholinguistic analysis. A compelling example of psycholinguistic

analysis is the study of language acquisition in children, particularly how they acquire syntax—

the rules governing sentence structure.

For instance, The Critical Period Hypothesis suggests that there is a sensitive period

during early childhood when language acquisition occurs most easily and effectively. Research in

this area often involves observing children at different ages to determine how they acquire

syntactic rules. For example, studies have shown that children around age 2-3 begin to use two-

word combinations (e.g., „want cookie‟), indicating an emerging understanding of basic syntax.

1.1.4. Cognitive Linguistics

According to Merriam-Webster, the word „cognitive‟ is defined as „involving conscious

intellectual (mental) activity (such as thinking, reasoning, or remembering)‟. According to

Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Fourth edition, by Jack C.

RICHARDS and RICHARD SCHMIDT: “Cognitive linguistics is an approach to linguistics

which stresses the interaction between language and cognition forcing on language as an

instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.”

Examples of a cognitive analysis. A notable example of cognitive analysis in linguistics

is the study of semantic memory and how it influences language comprehension and production,

particularly in the context of word retrieval. Researchers investigate how words are organized in

the mind. Semantic networks are models that illustrate how concepts (words) are interconnected

based on meanings. For instance, the word „dog‟ might be connected to related concepts like

„pet,‟ „animal,‟ and specific breeds (e.g., „beagle,‟ „poodle‟). Understanding these connections

helps explain how people retrieve words during conversation.

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1.1.5. Computational Linguistics

Computational means using a computer. It is the study of language using techniques and

concepts of computer science especially with reference to the problems posed by the fields of

machine translation and artificial intelligence. The Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching

and Applied Linguistics Fourth edition describes it as: “The scientific study of language from a

computational perspective.”

Computational linguists are interested in providing computational models of natural

language processing (both production and comprehension) and various kinds of linguistic

phenomena. The work of computational linguists is incorporated into such practical applications

as speech recognition systems, speech synthesis, automated voice response systems, web search

engines, text editors, and language instruction materials.

1.1.6. Applied Linguistics

Applied means to use in a practical way. The universal rules of linguistics when applied

of a specific language. JACK C. RICHARDS and RICHARD SCHMIDT in Longman Dictionary

of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Fourth edition define applied linguistics as: “The

study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as lexicography,

translation, speech pathology, etc.”

A notable example of applied linguistic analysis is the study of language teaching

methodologies, particularly the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach.

Communicative Language Teaching developed in the 1970s by Dell Hymes as a response to

traditional methods that focused heavily on grammar and vocabulary memorization. CLT

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emphasizes interaction as the primary means of language learning, aiming to develop learners'

communicative competence.

Applied linguists analyze how this theory can be integrated into teaching practices to

foster more effective communication skills among learners.

CLT influences curriculum design by prioritizing real-life communication scenarios over

rote learning. Applied linguists study how to create syllabi that incorporate tasks, role-plays, and

discussions.

1.1.7. Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language „beyond the

sentence‟. Discourse analysts study larger chunks of language as they flow together. RICHARDS

says: “The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units

such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc.”

A compelling example of discourse analysis is the examination of political speeches to

understand how language shapes public perception and constructs identity. Political speeches are

rich texts for discourse analysis because they often reflect power dynamics, ideological positions,

and rhetorical strategies. Analysts study how language is used to persuade audiences, frame

issues, and construct identities.

For instance, analysts look at the rhetorical devices used in speeches, such as metaphors,

analogies, and repetition, to persuade and engage the audience. For example, in a speech, a

politician might use the metaphor of „fighting for the future‟ to frame their campaign as a battle

for better conditions, appealing to emotions and instilling a sense of urgency.

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1.1.8. Anthropological Linguistics

Anthropological linguistics is a subfield of linguistics that explores the relationship

between language and culture. It examines how language reflects social identity, cultural

practices, and historical context, and it seeks to understand how linguistic structures and use are

influenced by the cultural settings in which they are situated.

An anthropological linguist investigates how language shapes and is shaped by cultural

norms, values, and practices. He explores the ways language encodes cultural meanings and how

it influences thought processes.

For example, the use of kinship terms in different cultures can reveal how societies

structure familial relationships and social hierarchies.

1.1.9. Ethnolinguistics

Ethnolinguistics is a subfield of linguistics that studies the relationship between language

and culture, particularly how linguistic practices reflect and influence social identities, cultural

beliefs, and worldviews within specific ethnic groups. It examines how language is shaped by the

cultural context in which it is used and how it, in turn, shapes cultural identity and social

interactions.

An insightful example of ethnolinguistic analysis is the study of code-switching among

bilingual speakers, particularly within the context of Hispanic communities in the United States.

Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between two or more languages or

dialects within a conversation or discourse. In Hispanic communities, many bilingual individuals

frequently switch between Spanish and English, reflecting their cultural identity and social

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context. For example, using Spanglish (a blend of Spanish and English) can reflect cultural pride

and a shared experience among bilingual speakers.

1.2.Micro-linguistics

Micro-linguistics focuses on the internal structure and function of language itself. It examines

the components of language at a more granular level. It provides a detailed understanding of how

language operates at a structural level. Micro-linguistics is further divided into various branches

as discussed below.

a) Phonetics
b) Phonology
c) Morphology
d) Syntax
e) Semantics
f) Pragmatics

Note: the branches listed above are considered as the core branches of linguistics because

they deal with the levels of language (the different aspects of language).

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 1.2.1. Phonetics

The word phonetics comes from the Greek word “phone” which stands for „sound‟ or

„voice‟. It is usually referred to as “phonetics—the hardware,” which is the physical aspects of

sounds and what the ear hears. Katamba (1989, p. 1) postulates that the adequate definition of

phonetics is that of “the study of the inventory of all speech sounds which humans are capable of

producing.” In other words, phonetics deals with how the sounds of a language are produced,

perceived and described. The main goal of phonetics is to understand the physical and acoustic

properties of speech sounds. This representation is usually referred to as (phonetic

representation/surface representation).

1.2.1.1. Types of Phonetics

a. Articulatory Phonetics: examines how speech sounds are produced by the movement of the

vocal tract, including the lips, tongue, and vocal cords. It looks at the physical processes involved

in producing sounds.

b. Acoustic Phonetics: analyzes the physical properties of speech sounds as they travel through

the air. It focuses on the sound waves produced during speech, including frequency, amplitude,

and duration.

c. Auditory Phonetics: studies how speech sounds are perceived by the ear and processed by the

brain. It investigates how listeners distinguish between different sounds and how they understand

spoken language.

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1.2.2. Phonology

Phonology (also referred to as functional phonetics or phonology—the software) is

the abstract aspect of sounds and what the mind hears. In other words, it is a branch of linguistics

that investigates the sound system of a language, how speech sounds structure and function in a

language, and the ways in which they are used systematically to form words, utterances, and

convey meaning. The goal of phonology is to study the properties of the sound system, which

speakers must learn to use their language for the purpose of communication. All in all, phonology

is concerned with psychological, mental, or cognitive things rather than concrete ones. This

representation is usually referred to as (phonemic representation/underlying representation).

Note: Phonetics is about the “sound” itself, while phonology is about the “rules” governing

those sounds within a language.

1.2.3. Morphology

Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies the structure and formation of words.

It examines how words are built from smaller units called morphemes, which are the smallest

meaningful units of language. Morphology is essential for understanding how words function in a

language, how they can change form, and how they relate to one another (rules governing

morpheme combinations).

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1.2.3.1. Basic concepts in Morphology

a. Morphemes

A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. Morphemes can be classified

into four main types:

Free Morphemes: These can stand alone as words (e.g., „book,‟ „run‟).

Bound Morphemes: These cannot stand alone and must attach to other morphemes (e.g.,

prefixes like „un-„ in „unhappy,‟ or suffixes like „-s‟ in „cats‟).

Lexical Morphemes: These are morphemes that carry significant semantic content. They

typically represent concrete objects, actions, or concepts. Basically lexical morphemes are free

morphemes and content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs).

Grammatical Morphemes: These are morphemes that serve a grammatical purpose in a

sentence, helping to convey relationships between words, tense, mood, number, or case. Basically

grammatical morphemes are the bound morphemes and the function words (prepositions,

conjunctions, articles, and inflectional affixes that modify or specify the meaning of lexical

morphemes).

b. Types of Morphological Processes

Morphological processes describe how morphemes combine to form words. Basic

processes include:

Derivation: The process of creating a new word by adding a prefix or suffix to a base word (e.g.,

„happy‟ → „unhappy‟).

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Inflection: The modification of a word to express different grammatical categories, such as tense,

mood, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, and case (e.g., „cat‟ → „cats‟ to indicate plural).

Compounding: Combining two or more free morphemes to form a new word (e.g., „toothbrush,‟

„basketball‟).

Difference between Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes

In terms of function:

 Inflectional Morphemes: serve to convey grammatical information within a word. They

modify the grammatical category or relationship of a word without changing its meaning.

They indicate aspects such as tense, number, case, gender, or degree. Examples include

the -s in „cats‟ (indicating plurality) or the -ed in „walked‟ (indicating past tense).

 Derivational Morphemes: are involved in the creation of new words or the alteration of

the meaning or grammatical category of a base word. They can change the part of speech

or the core meaning of a word. Examples include the -er in „teacher‟ (changing a verb to a

noun) or the un- in „undo‟ (changing the meaning to the opposite).

In terms of their impact on meaning:

 Inflectional Morphemes: do not alter the core meaning of a word. Instead, they provide

additional information about the word‟s grammatical features.

 Derivational Morphemes: lead to a substantial change in the meaning of a word, often

creating a new word or a word with a different lexical category (e.g., changing a noun to

a verb).

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In terms of their productivity:

 Inflectional Morphemes: they are generally more consistent and productive across

different words and word classes. For example, the plural -s can be added to most nouns

to indicate plurality.

 Derivational Morphemes: productivity can vary, and the application of derivational

morphemes may be more constrained by linguistic and semantic factors. Not all

combinations of base words and derivational morphemes result in grammatical or

meaningful words.

In terms of their position in the word:

 Inflectional Morphemes: they are usually attached to the end of a base word and may

affect its form without changing its grammatical category.

 Derivational Morphemes: They can be attached to the beginning or end of a base word,

and they often result in a change of the base word‟s grammatical category.

c. Allomorphs

Allomorphs are different forms of a morpheme that appear in different contexts (e.g., the

plural morpheme in English can be realized as /s/, /z/, or /ɪz/, depending on the final sound of the

noun, as in „cats,‟ „dogs,‟ and „buses‟).

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d. Morphological Rules

Languages have specific rules governing how morphemes can be combined. These rules

dictate the permissible structures and transformations within a language. For instance, English

has rules about which prefixes can attach to which root words.

1.2.3.2. Morphology in Linguistics

The morphological systems of languages are diverse. Some languages, such as English,

rely heavily on word order and auxiliary words to convey grammatical relationships, whereas

others, such as Turkish or Finnish, employ complex morphological systems with numerous

inflections. Linguists can compare and contrast these systems using morphology, which reveals

the various ways in which languages express meaning and word relationships.

Morphology is a foundational concept in linguistics, providing a thorough understanding

of the structure and formation of words in a given language. Linguists investigate morphemes,

word formation processes, and the diversity of morphological systems across languages to

unravel the intricate web of linguistic expression. The study of morphology not only improves

our theoretical understanding of language, but it also has practical implications for literacy,

language acquisition, and our overall understanding of human cognition.

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