SCOE-BEE Notes

Basic Electrical Engineering

Unit No. -1
ELECTROMAGNETISM
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Review: EMF, Potential Difference, Current, Generally, for conducting materials, as
Resistance temperature increases, the resistance also
Q.1 Distinguish between resistance and increases.
resistivity and state the factors on which Resistivity: It is the property by virtue of which
resistance and resistivity depends.
it opposes the flow of current.
Ans: Resistance: It is defined on the actual Being property it is independent of physical
opposition to the flow of current through the
dimensions. It can be measured by considering the
material or substance.
It is denoted by a symbol (R) and it's unit is specimen of the same material.
ohm (Ω). The mathematical expression for Factor governing the Resistivity:
resistance is,
1. Temperature: As the temperature of the
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌 … … . (1) material increases, it is found that resistivity
𝑎
Where, also increases.
𝜌= Resistivity of material (Ω m), 2. Addition of Impurity: Resistivity also
l = Length of material (m),
changes by adding impurity in the material.
a = Cross-sectional area (m2)
3. Cold Working: Resistivity also changes with
Factors Governing the Resistance Value
the process of cold working.
From the expression of resistance (Equation 1)
4. Age Hardening: Due to age hardening, the
The resistance depends upon the following factors
resistivity of the material also changes.
1. Length (𝒍) : Resistance is directly
proportional to length it means as the length of
 Magnetic Circuit
conductor increases, it's resistance also Q.2 Define the following terms related to
increases and vice-versa. magnetic circuit
2. Cross-sectional area (𝒂) : Resistance is (i) Magnetic flux (ii) Magnetic flux density (iii)
inversely proportional to cross sectional area, Magnetic field strength (iv)Reluctance (v)
it means as the cross-sectional area of Permeance (vi) MMF (vii) Permeability (viii)
conductor increases, it's resistance decreases Absolute permeability (ix)Relative
and vice versa. permeability
3. Type of material: The resistance of material (i) Magnetic Flux (∅): The total number of lines
depends on the type of material used. of force existing in a particular magnetic field is
4. Temperature: As the temperature of the called magnetic flux.
material changes the resistance also changes.

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The unit of flux is Weber (wb) and flux is denoted 𝑀𝑀𝐹, 𝐹 = 𝑁𝐼 = ∅𝑆 = 𝐻𝑙

by symbol (∅). It's unit is AT and corresponds to electromotive
1 Wb= 108 Lines of Force force (EMF) in an electric circuit.
(ii) Magnetic Flux Density (B): It can be defined (vii)Permeability: It is defined as ability or ease
as 'The flux per unit area (a) in a plane at right with which the magnetic flux permeates through a
angles to the flux is known as 'flux density'. given medium.
Mathematically, 𝐵 = (∅⁄𝑎) (viii) Absolute permeability (𝝁): The ratio of
𝑤𝑏 magnetic flux density (B) in a particular medium
The unit of flux density is , or Tesla &
𝑚2
(other than vacuum or air) to magnetic field
denoted as T.
strength (H) producing that flux density is called
(iii) Magnetic Field Strength/ Magnetizing
absolute permeability of that medium.
Force/Magnetic Field Intensity (H)
𝑩
It can be defined as 'the force experienced by a 𝝁=
𝑯
unit N-pole (i.e. N-pole with 1 Wb of pole
Its unit is Henry per metre (H/m).
strength), when placed at any point in a magnetic
(ix)Relative Permeability ( 𝛍𝐫 ) : Relative
field is known as magnetic field strength at that
permeability of a material is equal to the ratio of
point.
the flux density produced in the material to the
𝐼
For Straight conductor 𝐻 = 2𝜋𝑟 flux density produced in vacuum by the same
𝑁𝐼 magnetizing force (H).
For Solenoid/ Toroid 𝐻 = 𝑙
B (Material)
Its unit is Newton per Weber i.e. (N/Wb) or 𝝁𝒓 = 𝝁 = 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓
Bo(Vacuum)
Amperes per meter (A/m) or Ampere Turns per
Q.3 State (i) Right Hand Thumb rule (ii)
meter (AT/m). Fleming’s left hand rule (iii) Fleming’s right hand
(iv) Reluctance(S): The opposition offered by the rule.
(i) Right Hand Thumb Rule
magnetic material to the passage of magnetic flux
is called it's reluctance.
𝑙
𝑆=𝜇 It's unit is AT/wb
0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎

(v) Permeance: It is reciprocal of reluctance and

is defined as ease or readiness with which
magnetic flux gets developed and is analogous to
It states that, “Hold the current carrying
conductance in an electric circuit. conductor in the right hand such that the thumb
1 pointing in the direction of current and parallel to
Permeance= 𝑆 It's unit is Wb/AT
the conductor, then curled fingers points in the
(vi) Magneto motive Force (MMF): It is the direction of the magnetic flux around it.”
force required to produce flux in a magnetic
circuit.

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(ii) Flemings Left hand rule:

Fleming’s left hand rule is used to find direction
of the force experienced by current carrying
conductor.
Consider a conductor carrying current of I amp.
As per current direction it produces flux around it.
So there will be two fluxes. One due to poles and
other due to current carrying conductor. Inter Statement:
reaction between two fluxes, causes the conductor Arrange three fingers of right hand mutually
to move in certain direction. Fleming’s left hand perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger and
rule will help to get direction of conductor thumb gives the direction of magnetic field and
movement or direction of force. conductor movement (motion) respectively, then
middle finger gives direction of induced emf /
current.

Statement:
Arrange three fingers of left hand mutually
perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger and
middle finger gives the direction of magnetic field Q4. Define Reluctance. State the factors on
and current respectively, then the direction of
force is given by thumb. which it depends
Reluctance is defined as the opposition offered by
the magnetic material to the passage of magnetic
flux is called it's reluctance.
𝑙
𝑆= It's unit is AT/wb
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎

Factors on which Reluctance depends

(iii) Fleming’s right hand rule 1. Length of the magnetic path
Fleming’s right hand rule is used to find direction 2. Relative permeability of the magnetic material
of the EMF / current induced in the conductor. 3. Cross section area of the magnetic path
The conductor inside the magnetic field is moved Q5. Find the relation between MMF,
in upward direction with some external Reluctance and flux in case of simple magnetic
arrangement. The conductor cuts flux due to its circuit.
movement inside magnetic field. The cutting of Consider a solenoid or a toroidal iron ring having
flux induces an EMF inside the conductor. a magnetic path of l meter, area of cross section a
Fleming’s right hand rule will help to get direction
m2 and a coil of N turns carrying I amperes wound
of induced EMF or current.
on it as shown in figure
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The magnetic field strength inside the solenoid is

NI AT (a) Series magnetic circuit (b) Equivalent Electrical Circuit
H= l m
The total reluctance is the sum of individual
orNI reluctances as they are joined in series.
Now, B=orH = Wb/m2
l l
Total reluctance S T  
oraNI a
Total flux = B  a = Wb
l
𝑁𝐼
= reluctance of A + reluctance of B + reluctance
 = Wb of C + reluctance of air
𝑙
⁄(𝜇0 𝜇
𝑟 𝑎)
The numerator 'NI' which produces a 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑙𝑎𝑔
=𝜇 +𝜇 +𝜇 +𝜇
0 𝜇𝑟1 𝑎1 0 𝜇𝑟2 𝑎2 0 𝜇𝑟3 𝑎3 0 𝑎𝑔
magnetization in magnetic circuit is known as
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑀𝐹
magneto motive force (MMF) 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 ∅ = as NI = Ø ST
𝑆𝑇

It's unit is Ampere Turn (AT). It is analogous

Total MMF= NI=Ø (reluctance of part A, B &
to EMF in an electric circuit. C+ reluctance of air) =Ø (ST)
l 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑙𝑎𝑔
The denominator is called the +𝜇 +𝜇 +𝜇 ]
orA =Ø[𝜇
0 𝜇𝑟1 𝑎1 0 𝜇𝑟2 𝑎2 0 𝜇𝑟3 𝑎3 0 𝑎𝑔

reluctance of the circuit and is analogous to NI AT

Also H= l m Or NI=H l
resistance in electric circuits. 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
Total MMF=Ø[𝜇 +𝜇 +𝜇 +
0 𝜇𝑟1 𝑎1 0 𝜇𝑟2 𝑎2 0 𝜇𝑟3 𝑎3
m.m.f.
 Flux= 𝑙𝑎𝑔
]
Reluctance 𝜇0 𝑎𝑔
F
Or = S =𝑎
∅ 1
[𝑙1 ] +
∅ 1
[𝑙2 ] +
∅ 1
[𝑙3 ] +
1 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟1 𝑎2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟2 𝑎3 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟3
∅ 1
Q.6 Explain Series Magnetic Circuit [𝑙𝑎𝑔 ]
𝑎𝑔 𝜇0 𝑎𝑔
Figure shows a composite series magnetic circuit
consisting of three different magnetic materials 1 1 1
=𝐵1 𝜇 [𝑙1 ] + 𝐵2 [𝑙2 ] + 𝐵3 [𝑙3 ] +
0 𝜇𝑟1 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟3
A, B, C of different permeability’s µr1, µr2 and µr3 1
and lengths l1, l2 and l3 and one air gap (µr = 1). 𝐵𝑔 𝜇 [𝑙𝑎𝑔 ]
0 𝑎𝑔
Each path will have its own reluctance.
NI=𝐻1 [𝑙1 ] + 𝐻2 [𝑙2 ] + 𝐻3 [𝑙3 ] + 𝐻𝑔 [𝑙𝑎𝑔 ]

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Q. 7 Compare electrical and magnetic Faradays second law:

circuits The magnitude of EMF induced is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.
Consider a coil having N turns. The initial flux
linking with coil is Ф1.

Magnetic circuit Electric Circuit

Similarities
Provides path for magnetic Provides path for electric
flux current
MMF (F) ; Amp Turn EMF (E) ; Volt

Flux (Ø); Wb Current (I); Amp

𝑀𝑀𝐹 𝐸𝑀𝐹 Hence, initial flux linkages=N Ф1.
∅= 𝐼=
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 When, the position of the magnet is changed, then
𝑙 𝑙
Reluctance (𝑆) = Resistance (𝑅) = 𝜌
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎 𝑎 the flux linking with coil changes to Ф2 within the
1 1 time interval of dt seconds.
Permeance = Conductance =
Reluctance Resistance
𝐼
∅
Flux density; 𝐵 = (wb/m2) Current density; 𝐽=
𝑎
𝑎
(A/m2).
Permeability Conductivity

Kirchhoff's MMF and flux Kirchhoff's voltage and

law is applicable to the current law is applicable to
magnetic circuit. the electric circuit.

Dissimilarities Hence, Final Flux linkages=N Ф2.

Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit 𝑁 Ф2 −𝑁 Ф2
Rate of change of flux linkages= 𝑑𝑡
Flux does not actually flows The current actually flows
in the sense which current i.e. there is movement of 𝑁 Ф2 −𝑁 Ф2 𝑑Ф
flows. electrons in electric circuit. As per second law, 𝑒 = = 𝑁 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
No magnetic insulator as Many insulators like air,
This EMF induced in coil produces a current in
flux can pass through all theP.V.C., synthetic resin etc.
materials, even air. from which current cannot such a direction to oppose the main cause
pass.
Energy is required to create Energy must be supplied
responsible for producing it (Lenz’s Law)
the magnetic flux, but not continuously to maintain Thus the induced emf is mathematically expressed
required to maintain it. the flow of current.
𝑑Ф
as 𝑒 = −𝑁 𝑑𝑡

 Electromagnetic Induction Q 9. Explain the following terms:

Q.8 State faradays first and second laws of 1. Dynamically EMF 2. Statically induced EMF
electromagnetic induction Ans: 1. Dynamically induced EMF: The EMF
Faradays first law: induced in a conductor due to the relative
An EMF get induced in the coil or conductor,
when the magnetic flux linking with it changes.
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physical movement with respect to steady Statically induced EMF is further divided into
magnetic field. following types:
Explanation: Consider conductor A of length 'l' Self Induced EMF
mtr. as shown below within a uniform magnetic Self-induced EMF is the EMF induced in the coil
field of B wb/m2. due to the varying flux produced by it linking with
Suppose the conductor moves through a small its own turns.
distance dx in dt seconds, across the right angle to Explanation:
the magnetic field. The area swept by the
conductor is l dx.

As shown in Fig., when the current through the

coil is changed by changing resistance inserted in
series with it, a magnetic field produced gets
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
changed. This variable flux when links with coil
induction, EMF induced in the conductor is given
induces an EMF in the coil. This EMF is known
by,
as self-induced EMF. The EMF induced in terms
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝐶𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = of Inductance L is given as
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Flux cut by conductor = Flux density x area swept 𝑑𝑖

𝑒𝑠 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡
by conductor = B ( l dx)
The EMF induced in the primary winding of the
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝐶𝑢𝑡 𝐵 𝑙 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = = = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 transformer is a good example of statically self-
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑡
If the conductor moves at an angle 𝜃 to the induced EMF.
magnetic field then e.m.f. induced in the Mutually Induced EMF
conductor, EMF induced in a coil when varying magnetic
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 flux created by some other coil links with it.

The direction of the induced EMF can be Example: EMF induced in the secondary winding

determined by Fleming's right hand rule. of the transformer.

Example: D.C. Generator. Explanation:

2. Statically induced EMF:

The EMF induced in a conductor when it links
with time varying magnetic field without any
relative physical movement with respect to
magnetic field.

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Let us consider the two coils A and B placed some another coil get linked with coil then the
adjacent to each other as shown in Figure. Part of inductance possessed by the coil is called as
the flux produced by coil A links the coil B. If the mutual inductance.
current flowing through coil A changes, the flux The mutual inductance is defined as it is flux
produced by coil A changes. Hence the flux linkage to one coil with respect to change in
linking to the coil B also changes, thus EMF is current in other coil. It is denoted by M and
induced in the coil B. The EMF induced in the measured in Henry.
coil B is called as mutually induced EMF. The 𝑁2 ∅2 𝑁1 ∅1 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎
𝑀= = = = Henry
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑆 𝑙
magnitude of mutually-induced EMF is given by
Q 11. Derive Expression for following terms
𝑑∅2 𝑁2 ∅2 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖1
𝑒𝑀 = 𝑒21 = −𝑁2 =− = −𝑀 1. Self-induced EMF and Self Inductance
𝑑𝑡 𝐼1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

(EMF induced in second coil due to current change in first 2. Mutually induced EMF and Mutual
coil)
Inductance
𝑑∅1 𝑁1 ∅1 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2
𝑒𝑀 = 𝑒12 = −𝑁1 =− = −𝑀 Self Induced EMF
𝑑𝑡 𝐼2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

(EMF induced in first coil due to current change in second

coil)
Q10. Define the following terms
1. Self inductance 2. Mutual inductance
1. Self inductance A coil possesses an inductance whenever the flux
When current in the coil increases, the changing linking with it is changed. If the own flux link
magnetic field produced by the current links with with the coil then the inductance possessed by the
coil, hence according to Faraday's law's an EMF is coil is called as self-inductance.
induced in the coil. The EMF induced in the coil As shown in above figure, current I is responsible
opposes the cause producing it i.e. it opposes for producing flux . Therefore,
increase in current in the coil. When current in the i
coil decreases, the changing magnetic field again  = Ki
induces EMF in the coil which opposes decrease 
K= I = constant
in current in the coil.
The flux  can be written as,
This property of the coil which opposes change in ∅
= 𝐼
𝑖
current through it is called as self inductance or

= I i
inductance of the coil.
𝑁∅ 𝑁2 𝑁 2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎 d  di
𝐿= = = Henry Differentiating, dt = I dt …(1)
𝐼 𝑆 𝑙

2. Mutual inductance When current i in the coil is changed EMF

induced in the coil is given by,
A coil possesses an inductance whenever the flux
d
linking with it is changed. If the flux produced by E = – N dt

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 di When 21 links with coil B, according to

From equation (1), e= – N I dt
Faraday's law a mutually induced e.m.f. e21 is
di induced in coil B given by:
e = – L dt …(A) d2
e21=– N2 dt
Self Inductance
N –N22 di1
where, L = I …(B) From (1)e21= I dt
1

L  Self inductance of the coil di1

e21=– M dt …(A)

Mutual Induced EMF This is magnitude of mutually induced e.m.f.

Mutual Inductance
If the flux produced by some another coil get N22
M= I
linked with coil then the inductance possessed by 1

the coil is called as mutual inductance. =Mutual inductance

As 2 is part of 1
The mutual inductance is defined as it is flux
2 =K1 1
linkage to one coil with respect to change in
K1 indicate amount of flux linking with coil B
current in other coil. It is denoted by M and N2 K1 1
measured in Henry. M= …(2)
I1
Q 12. State the factors on which self
inductance and mutual inductance depends.
The self and mutual inductance's are given as…
𝑁 2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴 𝑁1 𝑁1 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
𝐿= , 𝑀=
𝑙 𝑙

1. Self-inductance is directly proportional to

square of number of turns of the coil.
Let, 1 : Flux produced by current I1 again called 2. Mutual inductance is directly proportional to
as self-flux of coil A. product of number of turns of both coils.
2 : Part of 1 linking with coil B, again 3. They are directly proportional to cross
called as mutual flux.
As 21 and sectional area of magnetic circuit.

1 i1 4. They are inversely proportional to length of

2i1 magnetic circuit.
2=K i1 5. They are directly proportional to relative
2 permeability (µr) of core. Coils having
K= I = constant
1
magnetic material as a core possesses large
2
2= I · i1 inductance as compared to the coils having
1

d2 2 di1 non-magnetic material as a core like air

Differentiating, dt = I dt …(1) possesses less inductance.
1

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6. As µr varies with flux density, the inductance between the two coils to maximum possible mutual
varies with respect to flux density. inductance between two coils.
Q13. Derive expression for coefficient of Q14. Derive expression for energy stored in
coupling. inductor per unit volume.

When the coil of inductance 'L' Henry is

The mutually induced EMF in coil B due to connected across supply, the lines of forces are
current I1 is.. created.
𝑑𝑖1
𝑒21 = −𝑀 ---(1) Due to the lines of force linking to the coil, EMF
𝑑𝑡
The mutually induced EMF in coil A due to is induced in the coil. It is given as
current I2 is..
di
𝑒12 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑖2
---(2) e = – L dt
𝑑𝑡
Hence, the mutual inductance between the two But e = –v (as induced e.m.f. is always opposed
coils is given by ………
𝑁2 ∅2 𝑁2 𝐾1 ∅1
by the cause producing it as per Lenz's law)
𝑀= = ---(3)
𝐼1 𝐼1 di di
𝑁1 ∅1 𝑁1 𝐾2 ∅2
– v = – L dt , v = L dt … (1)
𝑀= = ---(4)
𝐼2 𝐼2
Multiplying both sides of equation (1) by i dt we
Multiplying equation (1) and (2)
have
2 𝑁2 𝐾1 ∅1 𝑁1 𝐾2 ∅2 𝑁1 ∅1 𝑁2 ∅2
𝑀 = = 𝐾1 𝐾2
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2 v i dt = L i di
2
𝑀 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐿1 𝐿2 But v i dt be the electrical energy supplied to the
𝑁1 ∅1 𝑁2 ∅2 coil by source.
where, 𝐿1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 =
𝐼1 𝐼2
Total energy supplied by the source to the coil
Taking square root
when current varies from 0 to I
M= √𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐼
Energy stored =∫ 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑖
Whenever there is 100% flux linkage between two
𝐼
𝑖2 1
coils, the mutual inductance between the two = 𝐿 [ 2 ] = 2 𝐿𝐼 2 Joule
0
coils is said to be maximum. (𝐾1 = 𝐾2 = 1)
Energy stored per unit volume
If 𝐾 = √𝐾1 𝐾2 1 𝑁∅ 2 1 𝑁∅
Energy stored= 2 𝐼 = 2 𝑁𝐼∅ (As 𝐿 = )
𝐼 𝐼
Then coefficient of coupling
Also 𝑀𝑀𝐹 = 𝑁𝐼 = 𝐻𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅ = 𝐵 𝑎
𝑀
𝐾= ---(5) 1
√𝐿1 𝐿2 Therefore Energy stored=2 𝐵𝐻𝑎𝑙
From above equation coefficient of coupling is ( where a l is the volume)
defined as it is a ratio of actual mutual inductance
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1
Energy stored per unit volume =2 𝐵𝐻 Joule

List of Formulas
∅
 𝐵=𝑎
𝑁𝐼
 𝐻= ;
𝑙

 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 ;
 𝑀𝑀𝐹 = 𝑁𝐼 = ∅𝑆 = 𝐻𝑙;
𝑙
 𝑠=
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎
𝑑∅
 e =-N 𝑑𝑡 Volt;

 e = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 ;

𝑑𝑖
 𝑒𝑠 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅2 𝑁2 ∅2 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖1
 𝑒𝑀 = 𝑒21 = −𝑁2 =− = −𝑀 ;
𝑑𝑡 𝐼1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅1 𝑁1 ∅1 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2
 𝑒𝑀 = 𝑒12 = −𝑁1 =− = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝐼2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑁∅ 𝑁2 𝑁 2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎
 𝐿= = = ;
𝐼 𝑆 𝑙
𝑁2 ∅2 𝑁1 ∅1 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎
 𝑀= = = =
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑆 𝑙

 𝑀 = 𝐾√𝐿1 𝐿2
1
 Energy Stored=2 𝐿𝐼 2 Joule;
1
 Energy Stored per unit volume = 2 𝐵𝐻 Joule

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