MODULE - 4

Embedded Systems –
Definition
Embedded systems vs general computing systems
Classification of Embedded Systems
Major application areas of Embedded Systems
Elements of an Embedded System
Core of the Embedded System
Microprocessor vs Microcontroller
RISC vs CISC

Sensors and Interfacing –

Instrumentation and control
systems Transducers
Sensors Actuators
LED and 7-Segment LED
Display
Embedded and General-
Purpose Computer Systems
A computer system is built using a combination of hardware and
software that dictates what the system can do and how it can do it.
The software is made up of programmed instructions for interacting
with the hardware and handling data.

Computer systems can be described in terms of:

 Receiving data from inputs, for example, a touchscreen or

sensor
 Storing the data in memory so it can be accessed
 Processing the data to make it more meaningful
 Outputting data so that it can be experienced by a user or
another device
All computer systems are designed using this general model: input,
storage, process, and output. However, there are some fundamental
differences in how computer systems can be constructed and used.
Computer systems can be split into two main categories: general-
purpose and embedded systems.

General-Purpose Systems

A general-purpose system is a computer system that can be

programmed to perform a large number of tasks. General-purpose
computers are designed so that users or devices can interact with
them in a variety of ways to meet a broad range of needs.
The ability to run many different pieces of software allows a general-
purpose system to be quite versatile in terms of the types of tasks it
can perform. Software can be added, updated, and removed fairly
easily, which alters the functionality of a system.
Typically, a general-purpose system has a wide range of inputs and
outputs that can be connected to it. For example, including USB ports
on a laptop allows other devices to change the capabilities and
features available to the laptop.

As general-purpose systems are designed to carry out many different

types of process, they are often not fully optimised to perform each
individual task. For some tasks, optimisation is key!

Embedded Systems

Embedded systems are computer systems that carry out a small

number of tasks. When designing an embedded system,
manufacturers will focus on the dedicated functions that the system
needs to perform. They will optimise the system until it performs
eachof these tasks very efficiently.

An example of an embedded system is a pacemaker, a small

device placed inside a person that monitors and controls their
heartbeat to ensure it is beating regularly. If the sensors pick up that
the heart rhythm is abnormal, the device sends electrical pulses to
the heart toregulate the heartbeat.

Embedded systems are built to have very close control over the
hardware using firmware, which is a type of software used for this
purpose. Assembly language is often used to develop firmware, as it
provides direct control over specific hardware components.

Modern embedded systems contain a microcontroller, which consists

of a central processing unit (CPU) to process data, as well as a fixed
amount of RAM and ROM. Earlier embedded systems were based
on microprocessors that contained only the CPU.

Most embedded systems solely run the firmware added to the device
by the manufacturer. However, some devices can have their
firmware updated by the user.
Types of Embedded Systems

Embedded systems can be broken down into four main categories

based on their performance and functional requirements. The
categories are not mutually exclusive and a system could represent
a combination of these.

Stand-alone Embedded Systems

Stand-alone embedded systems work by themselves and do not

require a host system to handle the communication of data between
devices or other computer systems. Examples of stand-alone
embedded systems are digital watches and video games consoles.

Real-time Embedded Systems

A real-time embedded system is designed to perform a task within a

specific time period, such as streaming video and audio. These can
be further classified into three types: hard, firm, and soft real-time
systems.

Networked Embedded Systems

Networked embedded systems are connected to a network of

devices so that they can share and access resources. An example of
a networked embedded system is a card machine for taking
payments by credit or debit card.

Mobile Embedded Systems

Mobile embedded systems are found in portable electronics. These

are easy to transport but may have limitations, such as the amount
of memory or resources available. Examples of mobile embedded
systems are fitness trackers and digital cameras.
Design and Prototype Embedded Computer Systems
System is a set of interrelated parts/components which are
designed/developed to perform common tasks or to do some specific work for
which it has been created.
Embedded means including something with anything for a
reason. Or simply we can say something which is integrated or
attached to another thing.
Embedded System is an integrated system that is formed as a
combination of computer hardware and software for a specific function. It can
be said as a dedicated computer system has been developed for some
particular reason. But it is not our traditional computer system or general-
purpose computers, these are the Embedded systems that may work
independently or attached to a larger system to work on a few specific
functions. These embedded systems can work without human intervention or
with little human intervention.
Three main components of Embedded systems are:
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Firmware

Some examples of embedded systems:

 Digital watches
 Washing Machine
 Toys
 Televisions
 Digital phones
 Laser Printer
 Cameras
 Industrial machines
 Electronic Calculators
 Automobiles
 Medical Equipment
DEFINITION
An embedded system is a microcontroller or microprocessor based system which is designed to perform a
specific task in combination of both hardware and software.

E.g. Electronic Toys, Mobile Handsets, Washing Machines, Air Conditioners, Automotive Control Units, Set
Top Box, DVD Player etc…

For example, a fire alarm; it will sense only smoke.

Laser printers; it only prints

Firmware: programming instructions, referred to as firmware, are stored in read-only memory (ROM).

3.1 Embedded Systems Vs General Computing Systems

General Computing System Embedded Systems

It is microprocessor based system It is microcontroller based system
A computer needs human interaction to perform Embedded device does not need human interaction to
tasks. perform tasks.
Architecture examples: Architecture examples:
Analog / Digital computer, Hybrid computer, Small Scale Embedded System,
Harvard /Von Neumann architecture, Medium Scale Embedded Systems,
Reduced instruction set computer Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems
It has 2 parts: Hardware and Software. It has 3 parts: Hardware, Firmware and Software.
It can perform many tasks. It performs specific tasks
(End user programmable) can be reprogrammed (Not end user programmable) only for a specific set of
to for a new purpose. purposes.
Computers are usually bigger in size with larger Embedded Devices are smaller in size than Computers,
hardware and input output devices attached to it. with limited hardware.
Power consumption is high Power consumption is less
3.2 Classification of Embedded Systems
 Based on Generation
 Based on Complexity & Performance Requirements
 Based on deterministic behavior
 Based on Triggering

3.2.1 Based on Generation

First Generation
The earlier first-generation embedded systems were built around 8-bit microprocessors and 4-bit
microcontrollers. Such embedded system possesses simple hardware and firmware developed using assembly
code.
Ex: Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units.
Second Generation
After the evolution of the second generation embedded systems, the 8-bit processor and 4-bit controllers are
replaced by 16-bit microprocessors and 8-bit microcontrollers. They are more powerful and complex
compared to previous generation processors.
Ex: Data acquisition systems, SCADA systems.
Third Generation
Embedded Systems built around high performance 32-bit microprocessors and 16-bit microcontrollers. Hence,
its operation has become much more powerful and complex than the second generation.
During this period, domain-specific processors/controllers like Digital Signal Processors (DSP), Application-
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) and the concept of instruction pipelining, embedded real-time operating
system evolved into the embedded system industry.
Ex: Robotics, industrial process control, embedded networking.
Fourth Generation
Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoCs), Re-configurable processors and multi-core
processors, coprocessors also emerged into the embedded market to add more powerful performance
These systems also make use of the high-performance real-time operating system for their operation.
Ex: Smart devices, digital cameras, etc.

3.2.2 Based on Complexity and Performance Requirements

Small Scale Embedded Systems

Small Scale Embedded Systems are built with a single 8 or 16-bit microprocessor or controller. The main
programming tools used are an editor, assembler, cross assembler and integrated development environment
(IDE).
The hardware and software complexities in small-scale embedded system are very low. It may or may not
contain an operating system for its functioning. An electronic toy is an example for a small-scale embedded
system.
Medium Scale Embedded Systems
The Embedded system with medium performance 16-bit or 32-bit microprocessor or controller, ASICs or
DSPs fall under the medium scale embedded systems. They have both hardware and software complexities.

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The main programming tools used are C, C++, JAVA, Visual C++, RTOS, debugger, source code engineering
tool, simulator and IDE.
Large scale Embedded Systems
The embedded systems have highly complex hardware and software, built around 32-bit or 64-bit
processors/controllers, RISC processors, SoC, scalable and configurable processors. They are also called
sophisticated embedded systems.
They are used for cutting-edge applications that need hardware and software co-design, where components
have to be assembled into the final system. They also contain a high-performance real-time operating system
for task scheduling, prioritization and management.

3.3 Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems

 Consumer Electronics:
Cam-corders, Digital Cameras, Laptop, CCTV etc.
 Household Appliances:
Television, DVD players, Washing machine, Fridge, Microwave Oven etc.
 Home Automation and Security Systems:
Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder detection alarms, Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.
 Automotive Industry:
Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition Systems, Automatic Navigation Systems etc.
 Telecom:
Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications etc.
 Computer Peripherals:
Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.
 Computer Networking Systems:
Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.
 Health Care:
X-ray, Scanners, EEG, ECG, BP monitor, pulse monitor etc.
 Measurement & Instrumentation:
Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers PLC systems etc.
 Banking & Retail:
Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters,
 Card Readers:
Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

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3.4 Elements of an Embedded System

• Chip – works as brain

• Controller can be 8051,8086, FPGA or DSP
• Embedded Firmware – Designed to regulate a state of device through control signals
• Memory – For holding the algorithm & other configuration details.
• I/O devices: Sensors and actuators.

3.5 The Core of the Embedded Systems

The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories.
3.5.1 General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
3.5.1.1 Microprocessors
3.5.1.2 Microcontrollers
3.5.1.3 Digital Signal Processors (DSP)

3.5.2 Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)

3.5.3 Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
3.5.4 Commercial off the shelf Components (COTS)

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 Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller

Microprocessor Microcontroller

Consists of a CPU, performs Arithmetic and Highly integrated chip contains CPU, RAM, onchip
Logical operations ROM/flash memory, I/O ports
Ex: Intel 8086 microprocessor Ex: Intel 8051 microcontroller

It is mainly used in Personal Computers It is mainly used in an embedded system

Complex and expensive, with a large number of Simple and inexpensive with less number of
instructions to process. instructions to process.
Dependent Unit Self contained unit
Consumes more power Consumes less power
Limited power saving options Includes lot of power saving features
Architecture is based on Von Neumann model Architecture is based on Harvard architecture
Uses an external bus to interface to RAM, ROM,and Uses an internal controlling bus.
other peripherals

RISC CISC
Reduced Instruction Set Computer. Complex Instruction Set Computer.
Software centric design. Hardware centric design.
Low power consumption. High power consumption.
Requires more RAM Requires a minimum amount of RAM
Simple decoding of instruction. Complex decoding of instruction.
Processors are highly pipelined. Processors are not pipelined or less pipelined.
Execution time is very less Execution time is very high
Uses multiple registers. Uses a single register.
It does not require external memory for calculations It requires external memory for calculations
Compound addressing mode. Limited addressing mode.
RISC architecture can be used with high-end applications CISC architecture can be used with low-end
like telecommunication, image processing, applications like home automation, security system,
video processing, etc. consumer goods etc.
Small Code Size. Large Code Size.
Fixed Instruction format (32-bit) Varying formats (16 to 64 bits for each instruction).
Examples: ARM, PIC, Power Architecture, Alpha, Examples: VAX, Motorola 68000 family,
AVR, ARC and the SPARC. System/360, AMD and the Intel x86 CPUs.

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3.6 Sensors and Interfacing

Instrumentation and control systems

Instrumentation: Technology of measurement
An instrument is a device that measures or manipulates process physical variables such as flow,
temperature, level, or pressure etc.

Fig. 1 Instrumentation system

Fig.1 shows the arrangement of an instrumentation system. The physical quantity to be measured (e.g.
temperature) acts upon a sensor that produces an electrical output signal.
This signal is an electrical analogue of the physical input but there may not be a linear relationship between
the physical quantity and its electrical equivalent.
Also, the output produced by the sensor may be small or may suffer from the presence of noise (i.e. unwanted
signals). Therefore, further signal conditioning will be required before the signal will be at an acceptable level
and in an acceptable form for signal processing, display and recording. The signal processing may use digital
rather than analog signals for this purpose ADC may be required.
Control systems

Fig.2 shows the arrangement of a control system

As seen from the fig.2, it uses negative feedback in order to regulate and stabilize the output. It thus becomes
possible to set the input or demand (i.e. what we desire the output to be) and leave the system to regulate itself
by comparing it with a signal derived from the output (via a sensor and appropriate signal conditioning).
A comparator is used to sense the difference in these two signals and where any changes detected, then input
to the power amplifier is adjusted accordingly. This signal is referred to as an error signal (it should be zero
when the output exactly matches the demand).

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The input (demand) is often derived from a simple potentiometer connected across a stable DC voltage source
while the controlled device can take many forms (Ex: a DC motor, linear actuator, heater, etc.).

3.7 Transducers
Transducers are devices that convert energy in the form (sound, light, heat, etc.,) into an equivalent electrical
signal, or vice versa.

 Examples:
 A microphone is a transducer converting sound pressure variations into voltage or current.
 A loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low frequency electric current into audible sounds.
Difference between Sensor and Actuator:

SENSOR ACTUATOR
It converts physical quantity into electrical signals. It converts electrical signals into physical quantity.
It takes input from environment. It takes input from the electric or electronic system.
Sensor generated electrical signals. Actuator generates heat, motion, vibration,etc.
It is placed at input port of the system. It is placed at output port of the system.
It is used to measure the physical quantity. It is used to measure the continuous and discrete
process parameters.
It gives information to the system about It accepts command from the system to perform a
environment. function.
Example: Photo-voltaic cell which converts light Example: Stepper motor where electrical energy
energy into electrical energy. drives the motor.

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3.7.1 Sensor
A sensor is a transducer which converts energy from physical form to electrical form for any measurement or
control purpose. Sensors act as input device.

Example 1:

Physical quantity: sound

Input transducer: Microphone

Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a

magnetic field. Movement of the diaphragm causes
current to be induced in the coil.

Example 2:
Physical quantity: Temperature
Input transducer: Thermocouple

Small e.m.f (mV) generated at the junction between

two dissimilar metals (e.g. copper & constantan).
Requires reference junction (cold) and compensated
cables for accurate measurement.

Example 3:

Physical quantity: Angular position

Input transducer: Rotary potentiometer

Fine wire resistive element is wound around a circular

frame. Slider (wiper) attached to the control shaft makes
contact with the resistive element.
A stable DC voltage source is connected across the ends
of the potentiometer. Voltage appearing at the slider will
then be proportional to angular position.

Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive.

An active sensor generates a current or voltage output.
A passive sensor requires a source of current or voltage and it modifies this by virtue of a change in the
sensor’s resistance. The result may still be a voltage or current but it is not generated by the sensor on its own.
Sensors can also be classified as either digital or analog.
The output of a digital sensor can exist in only two discrete states, either ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’, ‘LOW’ or ‘HIGH’,
‘logic 1’ or ‘logic 0’, etc. The output of an analogue sensor can take of voltage or current levels. It is thus said
to be continuously variable.
Transducers are also known as Input-Output subsystems. The I/O subsystem facilitates the interaction of the
embedded system with external world. The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to

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the input and output ports of the embedded system. The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the input
ports, instead they may be interfaced through signal conditioning and translating systems like ADC, Opto-
couplers etc.

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3.7.2 Actuator
Actuator is a transducer which converts electrical signals to corresponding physical action (motion). Actuator
acts as an output device.

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Example :1

Physical Quantity: Sound (pressure change)

Output transducer: Loudspeaker

Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a magnetic

field. Current in the coil causes movement of the diaphragm
which alternately compresses and rarefies the air mass in
front of it.

Examples: electric motors, stepper motors, jackscrews, electric muscular stimulators in robots,

3.8 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an output device for visual indication in any embedded system. It can be used
as an indicator for the status of various signals or situations. Typical examples are indicating the presence of
power conditions like device ON, battery low or charging of battery etc.
LED is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode (+)
and a cathode (-). For proper functioning of the LED,
the anode is connected to +ve terminal and cathode to
the –ve terminal of supply voltage (forward bias
condition). The current flowing through the LED must
limited to a value below the maximum current that it can
conduct. A resister is used in series between the power
supply and the resistor to limit the current through it.

 LED can be interfaced to the port pin of microcontroller in two methods:

 Method:1- (current sourcing) Anode of LED is connected to port pin. Cathode is connected to ground
(0V) through resistor. When port pin of microprocessor goes logic 1, the LED is forward biased and
emits light. When the port pin goes 0, LED is off. That means port pin sources current to LED.
 Method:2- (current sinking) Cathode of LED is connected to port pin. Anode is connected to external
supply through resistor. LED turns on when the port pin is at logic 0. Here port pin sinks current, such
that the brightness of LED can be increased to the required level. See fig.3.

Fig.3 LED interfacing to the port pin of microcontroller

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3.9 7-Segment LED Display
The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric (0–9 and A–F) characters. It
contains eight LED segments arranged in a special form. Out of the 8 LED segments, 7 are used for
displaying alpha numeric characters. The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED
segment is named as DP. The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and
characters.
The 7 – segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
i) common anode and ii) common cathode
In the common anode configuration, the anodes of all LEDs connected together to +Vcc, and in the common
cathode configuration, the cathodes of all LEDs connected together to ground as shown in the fig.4.

Fig.4 7-segment LED interfacing with microcontroller

Based on the configuration of the 7 – segment LED unit, the LED segment anode or cathode is connected to
the port of microcontroller in the order. A segment to the least significant port pin and DP segment to the most
significant port pin or vice versa. The current through each segment can be limited by connecting a resistor.

In order to display the required numbers (0 - 9) or HEX characters (A - F), the correct combination of LED
segments need to be illuminated based on the type of configuration.

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