Calculus 09/23/2024

Topics
Basic definite integrals

Basic definite integrals involve finding the area under a curve within specified boundaries. They
are fundamental in determining accumulated quantities of various functions.

Knowing the limits of integration is crucial for obtaining accurate results.

The definite integral represents the signed area between the curve and the x-axis over a given
interval.
Reverse of the derivative process, definite integrals provide the total change in a function over
a specific range.
Riemann sum is a common approach to approximating definite integrals by partitioning the
interval into smaller segments.

Chain rule

The chain rule is a calculus rule that allows you to differentiate composite functions. It states
that the derivative of a composite function is equal to the derivative of the outer function
multiplied by the derivative of the inner function.

The chain rule is used when you have a function within a function, such as f(g(x)).
To apply the chain rule, you need to find the derivative of the outer function and then multiply
it by the derivative of the inner function.
It is important to use the correct notation when applying the chain rule, particularly with
respect to the variables.
The chain rule can be used to differentiate functions with multiple layers of nested functions.

Continuity

Continuity refers to the uninterrupted, smooth behavior of a function across its entire domain.

Continuity can be tested using three conditions: existence, single value, and limit
One type of discontinuity is a removable discontinuity, where the function can be made
continuous by filling in the hole
A function is continuous at a specific point if the limit exists, the function is defined at that
point, and the limit matches the function value
The Intermediate Value Theorem states that if a function is continuous on a closed interval, it
takes on every value between the endpoint values

Derivatives of exponential functions

Exponential functions involve derivatives that maintain their original form, making differentiation
of functions like y = 3^x straightforward.

The derivative of e^x is e^x, demonstrating the unique property of exponential functions in
differentiation.
Derivatives of functions involving a constant base, like a^x, follow a similar pattern as the
derivative of e^x.
When differentiating exponential functions, the constant base (a) is retained while the natural
logarithm of the base is used as a coefficient for the derivative.
Understanding the derivative rules for exponential functions helps in finding rates of change
and solving growth and decay problems.

Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

When finding the derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions, remember to use the chain rule
and the derivatives of the original trigonometric functions.

Use the relationship between inverse trigonometric functions and their derivatives to simplify
calculations.
Be familiar with the derivatives of the main trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, tangent,
etc.) to apply them correctly.
Remember to apply the chain rule when differentiating compositions of functions involving
inverse trigonometric functions.
Practicing differentiating various functions involving inverse trigonometric functions can help
reinforce understanding and improve skills.

Derivatives of logarithmic functions

When finding the derivative of a logarithmic function, apply the chain rule and the derivative of
the natural logarithm.

For y = ln(u), the derivative is dy/du = 1/u, so dy/dx = (1/u) * du/dx using the chain rule.
To differentiate y = log_a(u), where 'a' is the base, use the rule dy/du = 1/(u * ln(a)).
The derivative of ln(x) is 1/x, while for log_a(x), it is 1/(x * ln(a)).
Be mindful of applying the different rules for natural logarithms and logarithms with any other
base.

Derivatives of trigonometric functions

When finding derivatives of trigonometric functions, apply specific formulas for each function
such as sin, cos, tan to determine the rate of change at a given point.

Remember the derivative of sin(x) is cos(x) and the derivative of cos(x) is -sin(x).
For tan(x), the derivative is sec^2(x), and for cot(x) it is -csc^2(x).
 Use chain rule when differentiating compositions involving trigonometric functions.
Trigonometric identities can be helpful in simplifying expressions before finding derivatives.

Differentiability

Differentiability refers to the ability of a function to have a unique tangent line at any point on its
graph, indicating smoothness and absence of sharp corners or breaks.

Functions that are differentiable at a point must also be continuous at that point.
A function is differentiable at a point if its derivative exists at that point.
If a function is not differentiable at a point, it means the slope of the tangent line is not well-
defined.
For a function to be differentiable on an interval, it must be differentiable at every point within
that interval.

Higher-order derivatives

Higher-order derivatives refer to finding the rate of change of a function not just once, but
multiple times, by taking successive derivatives.

Higher-order derivatives can be useful in analyzing the behavior of functions at different

levels of complexity.
Each higher-order derivative provides information about the curvature and behavior of the
function at various points.
Higher-order derivatives can help determine if a function has maximum or minimum values at
critical points.
Higher-order derivatives can be calculated by taking the derivative of the previous derivative.

Implicit Differentiation

Implicit differentiation is a technique used to find the derivative of an equation that is not in a
form that allows for straightforward differentiation.

It is particularly useful when the equation cannot be easily solved for the dependent variable.
To apply implicit differentiation, treat the dependent variable as a function of the independent
variable and differentiate both sides of the equation.
When differentiating, use the chain rule for any terms that involve the dependent variable.
Implicit differentiation is commonly used when finding derivatives of curves and surfaces
defined by implicit equations.

Integration by Substitution

Integration by Substitution involves replacing variables with new ones to simplify integrals. The
Chain Rule is often used when differentiating the new variable.
 Choose a suitable substitution to simplify the integral.
Calculate the differential of the new variable.
Express the integral in terms of the new variable.
Replace the original variables with the new ones and integrate, then switch back to the
original variables if necessary.

Product Rule

The Product Rule is a formula used to find the derivative of a product of two functions.

The Product Rule states that the derivative of the product f(x)g(x) is equal to f'(x)g(x) +
f(x)g'(x).
The Product Rule is derived from the basic limit definition of the derivative.
The Product Rule can be used to find the derivative of functions that are expressed as a
product.
The Product Rule is important in calculus as it allows us to differentiate functions that involve
multiplications.

Quotient Rule

The Quotient Rule is a method used to find the derivative of a quotient of two functions by taking
the derivative of the numerator times the denominator minus the numerator times the derivative
of the denominator, all divided by the square of the denominator.

The Quotient Rule is a formula that helps find the derivative of a function that is a quotient of
two other functions.
It is especially useful when the numerator and denominator of the function have their own
separate functions and cannot be simplified further.
This rule is derived from the Product Rule and provides an efficient way to find the derivative
of a quotient.
The Quotient Rule can be used to differentiate functions that involve fractions, rational
functions, and ratios of functions.

Two-sided limits

Two-sided limits determine the behavior of a function as it approaches a specific point from both
the left and right sides simultaneously.

Two-sided limits indicate overall function behavior at a point.

Exist when left and right side limits are equal.
Used to evaluate continuity of a function.
Provide insight into function behavior near critical points.