Psychotherapy Volume 30/Fall 1993/Number 3

THE IMPOSTOR PHENOMENON:

JOE LANGFORD
PAULINE ROSE CLANCE
Georgia State University
Research on the impostor phenomenon, their successes not to their abilities but to external
an experience of feeling incompetent and circumstances or to attributes unrelated to actual
of having deceived others about one's talent (e.g., personal charm, ability to read and
meet other's expectations), they reported feelings
abilities, is reviewed. Impostor feelings of being an impostor or a fake. They chronically
are shown to be associated with such feared not being able to maintain their success.
characteristics as introversion, trait Both research and clinical experience have re-
anxiety, a need to look smart to others, vealed that impostor feelings are frequently ac-
a propensity to shame, and a conflictual companied by worry, depression, and anxiety re-
and non-supportive family background. sulting from pressure to live up to one's
successful image and fear that one will be exposed
The findings are discussed in terms of as unworthy and incompetent. In a competitive,
self psychological theory, with the achievement-oriented society, in which personal
impostor phenomenon seen as a result of worth is often equated with how much one has
seeking self-esteem by trying to live up accomplished, psychotherapists are frequently
to an idealized image to compensate for presented with clients who are unrealistically in-
secure about themselves in achievement situations
feelings of insecurity and self-doubt. and who need help in internalizing a sense of
Therapeutic approaches drawing on self competency and a belief that they deserve the
psychology and cognitive therapy are successes they have earned.
suggested. Several research studies have shed light on per-
sonality traits related to the impostor phenome-
non, providing a basis for making more refined
The psychological experience of believing that choices about therapeutic strategies in helping cli-
one's accomplishments came about not through ents overcome this debilitating experience. This
genuine ability, but as a result of having been article will: a) review research findings on the
lucky, having worked harder than others, or hav- impostor phenomenon and b) discuss therapeutic
ing manipulated other people's impressions, has theories and strategies suggested by these data.
been labeled the impostor phenomenon (Clance As a research construct, the impostor phenome-
& Imes, 1978). This common pattern was first non has been operationalized through two scales,
observed in highly successful female college stu- the Harvey IP Scale (Harvey, 1981) and the
dents and professionals who, despite their accom- Clance IP Scale (Clance, 1985). Both scales in-
plishments, were unable to internalize a sense of clude items which tap: a) fear of failure; b) attribu-
themselves as competent and talented. Attributing tion of success to luck, error, or charm; c) the
desire to stand out; d) the feeling of having given
Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed others a false impression; and e) the discounting
to Pauline Rose Clance, Dept. of Psychology, Georgia State of recognition from others. The Clance IP Scale
University, University Plaza, Atlanta, GA 30303-3083. (198S) additionally includes items which address:

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J. Longford & P. R. Clance

a) fear of evaluation; b) fear that successes cannot impostor feelings and two personality features
be repeated; and c) the feeling that one is less that would appear to be related to the impostor
capable than peers. The Harvey IP Scale (1981) experience—self-esteem and self-monitoring. In
has a reported interitem reliability coefficient of her sample, self-esteem scores, derived from the
.85, and has shown evidence of convergent and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (1965), accounted
discriminant validity. An interitem reliability co- for only 9% of the variance in impostor phenome-
efficient of .96 has been reported for the Clance non scores. Self-esteem presumably measures a
IP Scale (Holmes et al., in press). Impostor status broader domain of attitudes and feelings about the
as identified by the Clance scale has correlated at self than does the impostor phenomenon. These
a high level with individuals' reports of impostor findings indicate that it is possible to have gener-
feelings in structured interviews and clinicians' ally adequate self-esteem, but to have the nega-
judgments of their clients' impostor concerns, tive feelings about the self in the area of achieve-
giving evidence of convergent validity for the ment associated with the impostor phenomenon.
scale (Holmes et al., in press). High correlations Snyder's (1972, 1974) construct of self-moni-
have been found between the two impostor phe- toring is defined as a tendency to monitor and
nomenon scales. alter one's self-presentation according to the cues
present in the social situation, a behavior pattern
Review of the Research on the Impostor similar to that described by impostors (Clance,
Phenomenon 1985). Harvey (1981) found only a weak associa-
The impostor phenomenon was originally tion between the two constructs. Her analysis was
thought to be particularly pervasive among fe- that the self-monitoring construct is a measure of
males (Clance & Imes, 1978). Surveys of several the degree to which people use "chameleon-like
populations, however, have found no differences behaviors" (p. 50), often in a positive way with-
between the sexes in the degree to which they out any particular negative feelings about the self,
experience impostor feelings. Based on their clin- while the impostor phenomenon reflects feelings
ical observations, Clance & Imes (1978) postu- of insecurity that may be associated with chame-
lated that the experience would be more prevalent leon-like behaviors in some individuals. Harvey's
among females because of societal stereotyping finding that self-esteem and self-monitoring are
of women as less capable than men, an attitude only marginally related to the impostor phenome-
that many of their clients seemed to internalize. non has been replicated with a population of col-
Attribution theory holds that attribution is a func- lege professors (Topping, 1983).
tion of expectation. When a successful outcome In a study of college professors, Topping (1983)
is unexpected, that outcome is likely to be attrib- found a strong positive correlation between the im-
uted to temporary, external causes, such as luck postor phenomenon and trait anxiety, as measured
or effort (Deaux, 1976). Thus, if females are less by Spielberger's State-Trait Personality Inventory
likely to expect success, they might well attribute (STPI-Trait portion). This finding lent further con-
it to factors other than ability. Studies of college firmation to the many clinical reports that the phe-
students (Harvey, 1981; Bussotti, 1990; Lang- nomenon is an anxiety-related experience (Clance
ford, 1990), college professors (Topping, 1983), & Imes, 1978), and suggested that people who
and successful professionals (Dingman, 1987) have impostor feelings are likely to be people who
have all failed, however, to reveal any sex differ- experience anxiety in many situations.
ences in impostor feelings, suggesting that males A positive correlation has consistently been
in these populations are just as likely as females found between the impostor phenomenon and in-
to have low expectations of success and to make troversion, as measured by the Myers-Briggs
attributions to non-ability related factors. Type Indicator (Lawler, 1984; Holmes et al., in
What has been learned from research about the press; Prince, 1989) in populations of students.
personalities of men and women who experience According to the Jungian theory of psychological
the impostor phenomenon? The findings revealed type, introverts keep important aspects of their
below will give an overview of the profile that personality hidden from the world. The resulting
has begun to emerge. separation between what is experienced internally
In seeking to establish the divergent validity of and what is presented outwardly may give rise to
the construct, Harvey (1981) found low correla- feelings that one is not seen for who one really
tions in a population of college students between is, a feeling that is a central component of the

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impostor experience. Research has also shown difficulties on the task. There was a strong posi-
that introverts are more likely than extroverts to tive correlation between a pattern of helpless reac-
describe themselves as being shy and anxious and tions and impostor feelings as measured by the
as having low self-confidence, attributes which Clance IP Scale. Impostors also described mem-
impostors frequently report in describing them- selves as holding, to a high degree, a view of
selves (Clance, 1985). intelligence as a fixed entity rather than as a mal-
Langford (1990) attempted to determine if the leable quality.
feelings and behaviors exhibited by impostors This study thus provides evidence that many
might be related to the pattern of behaviors that of the achievement-oriented behaviors that people
people have been found to display when they are who experience impostor feelings engage in are
motivated to achieve in order to look good to motivated by the need to look smart to others and
others rather than for the sake of learning itself. are shaped by an overriding concern with others'
Dweck and her colleagues (Dweck, 1988; Dweck impressions. Considering the reported feelings of
& Elliott, 1983; Elliott & Dweck, 1988) have shame that result from a failure experience, then-
formulated a model, based on extensive research, sense of self-worth seems to be unusually depen-
which may help explain individual differences dent on others' feedback. Langford (1990) drew
in such achievement-related variables as task on the narcissism literature in speculating on the
choice, perseverance, and emotional reaction to dynamics that might be involved. Perhaps impos-
failure. The Dweck model holds that people's tors are persons who invest heavily in trying to
achievement-related behavior tends to fall into live up to an idealized self-image of being intelli-
one of two patterns, determined by the cognitive gent in order to get the validation necessary to
set resulting from the implicit goals that they feel good about themselves. As long as admira-
bring to the achievement situation. Those who tion from others is present, they may maintain a
believe that intelligence is a malleable quality feeling of worth, but when others are not validat-
tend to be motivated by "learning goals," in which ing them, their good self-feeling may plummet
the primary aim is to increase one's knowledge since it is based on external feedback.
and skills. In the Dweck research, subjects who Bussotti (1990) investigated the family back-
are driven primarily by the need to learn react to ground of people who experience the impostor
failure in a resilient way, renewing their efforts phenomenon by examining correlations with the
as necessary to master the task and suffering no Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos,
particular feelings of inadequacy. In contrast, 1986), a measure of family functioning which
those who view intelligence as a fixed entity tend assesses the social environment of the family,
to be motivated by "performance goals," in which relationships between family members, and the
one is motivated primarily by the wish to prove family's basic organizational structure. Impostor
one's intelligence. Dweck has found that, when phenomenon scores were negatively correlated
people with performance goals experience mis- with the Cohesion subscale, which measures the
takes or failure, they tend to react in a "helpless" degree of support family members provide one
behavioral pattern in which they withdraw from another, and the Expressiveness subscale, which
the task, blame themselves for the failure, and measures the degree to which family members
experience anxiety and shame. These reactions are allowed to be open with their feelings. The
are similar to behaviors and feelings that have impostor experience was positively correlated
been described in association with the impostor with the Conflict subscale, which assesses the
phenomenon (Clance, 1985). amount of expressed anger and conflict in the
To see if impostors exhibit the characteristics family, and the Control subscale, which measures
of the performance goal pattern, Langford (1990) the degree to which rules and procedures are used
had college student subjects work on an anagrams to govern family behaviors. Together, these four
task in which, without their prior knowledge, scales accounted for 12% of the variance in im-
many of the anagrams were impossible to deci- postor phenomenon scores, giving evidence that
pher. To measure the degree to which they experi- people who experience impostor feelings are
enced a "helpless" reaction, subjects' responses likely to come from families in which support
to the failure experience were ascertained through for the individual is lacking, communications and
a questionnaire that inquired about the thoughts behaviors, are controlled by rules, and consider-
and feelings that they had when they encountered able conflict is present.

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An additional family pattern which may be as- systems might prevent them from putting relation-
sociated with the impostor phenomenon was sug- ships at risk by taking the kinds of chances that
gested by Bussotti's (1990) examinationof family males might take in order to prove themselves
role assignments. From questions covering a through achievements.
range of family roles, it was found that impostor From the combined research findings, we can
feelings were highly correlated with a need to now draw a fuller picture of some of the personal-
please others in the family. Bussotti (1990) sug- ity features that may lead to the impostor experi-
gested that, in families in which support for the ence. Although people who exhibit impostor feel-
child's feelings and individual development was ings do not seem to suffer from generalized low
lacking, the child who becomes an impostor may self-esteem, their self-esteem, at least in the area
have experienced parentification or in some other of achievement, is precarious, requiring a system
way been required to develop a "false self" in of defenses that is taxing and anxiety-producing.
order to receive validation, similar to Langford's Impostors are motivated to achieve primarily to
(1990) finding about the importance for impostors "look smart," reflected in a strong focus on the
of getting outside validation. That false self is self during achievement attempts and a concern
then likely to carry over into adulthood as insecu- for what their performance indicates to others
rity about one's true identity, often felt as impos- about their abilities. Impostors' worries about
tor feelings in those who are successful achievers. their impression on others indicates a high vulner-
Two researchers (Beard, 1990; Prince, 1989) ability to feelings of shame and unworthiness.
have used the Personality Research Form (PRF) This apparent shaky sense of self and fear of
to explore therelationshipbetween impostor tend- shame in impostors may help explain the introver-
encies and a wide range of personality traits in sion and the high degree of defendence found
populations of college students. The PRF consists consistently in the research. Trusting others
of 22 scales, each of which assesses a specific enough to expose one's weaknesses and risk criti-
trait corresponding to one of the psychological cism is difficult for impostors to tolerate, although
needs conceptualized by Murray (1938). Both one study has suggested that males with impostor
studies found that the impostor phenomenon was tendencies may have more of a risk-taking style
positively correlated with a high degree of "defen- than females.
dence," indicating a mistrustful, self-protective Based on initial research, there appears to be
attitude toward others, and, in women subjects, a characteristic family background which has set
a low degree of "affiliation," an enjoyable the stage for the development of these impostor-
involvement with other people, and "play," a related traits of excessive concern with impress-
tendency to do things for fun. When Beard (1990) ing others and protection of the self from criti-
compared the PRF traits associated with impostor cism. Families in which there is a good deal of
feelings in men and women, he found differing underlying conflict without channels of expres-
patterns which suggest that, though both male sion and without much active support for the child
and female impostors are high in defendence and appear to foster these traits. The impostor may
untrusting of others, they mayresponddifferently be a person who tried to gain support in this dry
to this perception of threat from others in achieve- emotional environment of the home by working
ment situations. For females, impostor, feelings excessively hard to please others.
had low correlations with impulsivity and need As Langford (1990) and Bussotti (1990) have
for change, consistent with the usual description suggested, we can perhaps gain added under-
of impostors as cautious and unlikely to engage standing of the impostor phenomenon by examin-
in risk-taking. For males, on the other hand, im- ing the apparent ties which exist between the per-
postor feelings were associated with high impul- sonality features of the impostor indicated by the
sivity and a strong need for change, as well as a research and the theme central to several personal-
low need for order. Beard (1990) speculated that, ity theories of a true self/false self dichotomy.
instead of dealing with their sense of inadequacy Winnicott (1965), Kohut (1984), Homey (1950),
in the withdrawing style typical of females impos- and Rogers (1961) have all provided interpreta-
tors, male impostors may tend to compensate by tions of how alienation from the self may occur
pushing themselves in a frenetic manner in order as individuals present false images in an attempt
to prove their competency. Beard speculated that to meet the demands of the social world. Kohut's
the primacy of relationships in females' value (1984) view of narcissistic personality dynamics

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may provide a particularly relevant framework needs, as it decreases the necessity of presenting
for understanding the impostor phenomenon. In facades or images to win others' affirmation (Ko-
his view, in order to develop a secure sense of hut, 1984; Rogers, 1961). In Rogers' terms, suc-
identity and stable self-esteem, children need to cessful therapy with impostors would result in a
have an environment in which their feelings and decrease in performance goals as the client's "lo-
strivings are responded to and respected ("mir- cus of evaluation" (p. 354) shifts to the self. Us-
rored"). Such an affirming atmosphere allows the ing Perls' (1969) concept, therapy with impostors
development of a cohesive sense of self with sta- should decrease their need to manipulate the envi-
ble self-esteem. When validation of the self is ronment for support (performing to win praise)
lacking, as appears to be the case in the families as they begin to respect and respond to their own
of those who develop impostor feelings, the child learning needs. Clance and others have elsewhere
may compensate by trying to live up to an ideal- delineated in detail strategies and techniques for
ized image that will win the affirmation from oth- understanding and changing the dynamics of the
ers that is necessary for self-esteem. The good impostor phenomenon (Clance, 1985; Clance &
self-feeling brought about by this affirmation is Imes, 1978; Clance & O'Toole, 1987; Imes &
precarious, however, since it is derived from the Clance, 1984). A few ideas about therapy, sug-
presentation of a false self. When these dynamics gested by the research, will be given here.
are present, feelings about the self oscillate be- Since recent research (Bussotti, 1990; Lang-
tween grandiosity on the one hand, when admira- ford, 1990) has supported the idea that the impos-
tion from others is forthcoming, to shame and tor experience is related to the presentation of a
feelings of worthlessness on the other hand when false self, like that described by Rogers (1961)
others are not fully validating. Defensive strate- and Kohut (1984), it is important to recall then-
gies may be developed to protect oneself from the views of how therapy facilitates the emergence
rapid, sudden loss of self-esteem, with attendant and strengthening of the client's true inner self.
feelings of humiliation and shame, that can occur Rogers' and Kohut's thoughts about therapeutic
when one is criticized or in some other way fails goals and methods are extremely similar, al-
to live up to the idealized image (Kohut, 1984; though their formulations emerged from different
Rothstein, 1980). Consistent with this model of traditions and have some differences in emphasis
narcissistic dynamics, the impostor phenomenon (Kahn, 1989). Rogers believes that three condi-
research suggests that impostors may be people tions provided by the therapist will allow the cli-
who are in the difficult bind of needing to achieve ent's defenses to diminish and the inner self to be
in order to earn the praise necessary to feel good incorporated into awareness and expressed more
about themselves, while at the same time having freely: a warm acceptance of all aspects of the
a strong need to protect themselves from narcis- person, an empathic understanding of the person's
sistic injury. Since their self-esteem is apparently internal world, and an attitude in the therapist
not well internalized and derives largely from oth- of genuineness and emotional honesty. Kohut's
ers' feedback, they appear to be both more need- concept of "mirroring" the client is based on his
ing of praise and more sensitive to criticism view that the development of a cohesive self in
than others. childhood requires continuous affirmation and
appreciation of the child by the parents. To
strengthen the self in adulthood, those same re-
Psychotherapy with Impostors sponses must be supplied by the therapist. Arising
The central task of psychotherapy with impos- from psychoanalysis, Kohutian therapy may be
tors is to lessen the client's dependence on others' somewhat more interpretive and may make more
positive evaluations for his or her self-esteem and links to the past than Rogerian therapy. Addition-
to build a more internalized sense of serf-worth. ally, Kohut did not suggest that the therapist need
Clance (198S) has described the impostor behav- be emotionally congruent or concerned with being
iors resulting from this preoccupation with others' a genuine person (Kahn, 1989). Nonetheless, the
impressions as a "mask." The goal of therapy central thesis of both Rogers and Kohut is that,
is to make that mask no longer necessary. The for therapy to succeed, the therapist must provide
metaphor of a mask recalls the writings of theo- an accepting, affirming atmosphere. Considering
rists who have believed that successful therapy impostors' sensitivity to criticism and tendency
helps people accept and live out of their own inner to experience shame, such a therapeutic stance is

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J. Longford & P. R. Clance

probably a precondition for success with this advantages and disadvantages of viewing intel-
population. ligence as fixed and as malleable, recording in
Therapy with impostors will probably need to a notebook how daily experience would be af-
focus specifically on the family dynamics and fected differently by the two beliefs. Other ba-
early experiences which may have caused them sic assumptions of the belief system that under-
to invest so heavily in proving to others that they lie the client's performance concerns could also
are bright. Exploration of family background will be brought into focus and worked with using
likely lead to new awarenesses of the pressures the same methods—for example, the belief that
and forces within the family that led the child to self-worth depends on performance and what
adopt a role aimed at pleasing others to win sup- others think, and the belief that mistakes indi-
port and approval (Bussotti, 1990). This examina- cate a personal deficiency. This work with the
tion of the past may tap into feelings of sadness client's cognitions would probably be most ef-
and anger at the lack of genuine nurturing present fective when combined with attention to under-
in childhood. The therapist can validate these lying feelings and needs, work on self-expres-
feelings as the client gets in touch with the deeper sion, examining the origins of the impostor
needs of the self. pattern, and focusing on behavioral change
Therapy may also focus on behavioral change (Clance & O'Toole, 1987).
in the present by exploring the catastrophic fears
of failure that make performance concerns so References
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