One Love. One Future.

Fundamentals of
Intrumentation
A s s o c. P r o f. B U I D a n g T h a n h
T h a n h . b u i d a n g @ h u s t. e d u . v n
September
2020
LECTURER INFORMATION

Assoc. Prof., Dr. BUI Dang Thanh

Lecturer at SEEE, Vice-director of ICEA
▪ Address: Room 305, Hi-tech Building, Hanoi University of Science of Technology
▪ Phone: 024 3868 3518
▪ Email: [email protected]
❑ Education: PhD, ENS Cachan, France - Field: Automation
❑ Research Directions:
▪ Wireless Smart Device
▪ Industrial Instrumentation and Control Systems (PLC, SCADA, DCS)
▪ Envirronment Monitoring Systems
▪ IoT Application for Smart Agriculture

2
Course Objectives

Basic knowledge of instrumentation

Principles of electrical measurement

Principles of non-electrical measurement

3
 Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Current & Voltage Measurement
Power & Energy Measurement
Timing Parameters Measurement
Overview of Non-electrical Measurement
Course Temperature Measurement

Contents Strain & Force Measurement

Pressure Measurement
Flow Measurement
Kinetic Parameters Measurement
Gas Measurement
Communication in Measuring System 4
 Hanoi University of Science and
Technology

Chapter 1. Fundamentals of
Instrumentation

One Love. One Future.

References
1) Micheal Grout, Patrick Salaun, “Instrumentation Industrielle”, L'uisine
nouvelle, 2015
2) Prof. Dr. Murat Aşkar, “EEE342:Lecture 1 - Fundamentals of Measurement”,
İzmir University of Economics,
3) CRCnetBase, “Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook”,
CRC Press LLC, 1999
4) Jon Willson, “Sensor Technology Handbook”, Elsevier Inc, 2005
5) Instrumentation Reference Book, BE Noltingk, Butter Worth Heinemann ,
1994
6) Electronic instrumentation, P.P.L. Regtien, VSSD.
7) Fundamental of Instrumentation and Measurement, Dominique Placko,
Published in Great Britain and the United States in 2007 by ISTE Ltd. 6
Contents

Terminology

History of Measurement

Measurement Classification

Absolute and Relative Errors

Measurement Signal
7
Terminology

❑ Measurement:
▪ Determining the value of the
quantity to be measured
▪ Measurement results are
presented as:
𝑿
𝑨=
𝑿𝟎
Where:
▪ A: the value of measurement
▪ X: measured quantity
▪ X0: unit of measurement
8
Terminology
❑ Measurement signal:
▪ Carries information about the value of a
measurand.
▪ Examples:
✓Vibration Position scan with light signal
✓Acoustic
✓Light
✓Electric current
✓Temperature Depth measure
with echo sound
▪ Digital and Analog Signal (acoustic signal)
▪ Predetermined and random signal
9
Terminology

❑ A measurand:
▪ Description of the specific quantity we
intended to measure.
▪ Should be detailed to avoid any ambiguity.
▪ Examples:
✓ the amount of substance concentration of
glucose in plasma
✓ the depth of the Mariana trench

10
Terminology

❑ Unit of measure:
▪ SI – International System of Units
✓ 7 base units

The Canadian Standard Kilogram.

Kilogram is the only unit in the
metric defined by an actual object.
11
Measurement Classification
❑ Direct measurement
▪ Result is obtained directly from a single measurement.
▪ Result is the value of the quantity to be measured without having to be
calculated through any expression.

E.g: Ohmmeter to E.g: Ammeter to

measure resistor measure current

16
Measurement Classification

❑ Indirect measurement
▪ Result is derived from the combination of
results of multiple measurements using a
direct measurement.

E.g: Using Ammeter and Volmeter to

measure current and voltage, to calculate
power:
P = U.I
17
Measuring Methods Classification
❑ Straight convert measuring method (No feedback)
▪ Concept:

▪ Measuring process: ▪ Examples:

Start

X0->N0 (Labelling)
X -> NX (Encoding)

EC
Calculate NX/N0
PC DP
Results:
EC EC - Encoding
PC - Processing
DP - Displaying

End

19
Measuring Methods Classification
❑ Comparative measuring method (With feedback)

▪ Concept:

20
Measuring Equipment Classification

❑ Sample (Standards):
▪ Equipment for restoring a certain physical
quantity.
▪ Very high accuracy from 0,001% to 0,1% depends
on each accuracy class and type of equipment.
▪ Can be devided into 4 classes:
✓Class 1 – International Standard : in Paris, France
✓Class 2 – National Standard:
✓Class 3 – Zone Standard:
✓Class 4 - Laboratory Standard:

21
Standards and Samples

❑ International standard:
▪ Defined by international agreements

❑ National Standard

❑ Industry standard

22
Standards and Samples

National
Standard
❑ Primary standard

❑ Secondary standard:
▪ 1st order standard Class 1 sample device

▪ 2nd order standard

Class 2 sample device

Operating measuring device

23
Measuring Equipment Classification

❑ Sample (Standards):
❑ Measuring device:
▪ Process signals
✓To bring measurement information into a
convenient form for the observer.

24
Measuring device structure
❑ Simple:

❑ With amplifier and digital output:

25
Sensor structure

❑ Analog:

❑ Digital:

26
Instrument Characteristics

❑ Sensitivity:
▪ S=const -> x,y have linear relationship.
▪ S= f(x) -> x,y have nonlinear relationship - > nonlinear
error exists.
❑ dS/S = s : Sensitivity error of instruments
❑ Span:
DX=Xmax – Xmin

27
Instrument Characteristics
❑ Sensitivity threshold of measuring equipment: εX
▪ Is the lowest value that instruments can discriminate.

❑ Dissociation capacity of the device (RX)

▪ Analogue instruments: RX = DX / εX
✓is the fraction of the reading that can be read (usually 1/5 of the scale).
▪ Digital device: RX = DX / εg = Nn
✓is the threshold of ADC or the value of an LSB of the encoder

28
Instrument Characteristics
❑ Includes instrumentation accuracy and
precision Errors

▪ The electromechanical instruments have

accuracy class: 0.05; 0.1; 0.2; 0.5; 1; 1.5; 2; 2.5 Types of
error
Absolute Relative Converted Relative

and 4
▪ Digital measuring equipment with accuracy Causes Systemetrical Random

class: 0.005; 0.01; 0.02; 0.05; 0.1; 0.2; 0.5; 1

Relationship with X Plus Multiple
❑ Measurement with incompleteness that
causes errors in the measurement results. Input Signal (Xt) Static Dynamic

❑ Errors: Technical Conditions Basic Extra

▪ systemmetrical
▪ random
29
Absolute error

❑ The absolute error determined by the deviation of a measuring instrument or

measurement is determined as:
ΔX = |Xreal - Xmeasured|
Where:
▪ ΔX: Deviation of the measurement of quantity X
▪ Xmeasured: Result of the first measurement of quantity X
▪ Xtrue: True value, which is the measurement provided by a sample or the
result of measuring X by the precision grade measuring instrument many
times higher than the measuring device used.

30
Relative error

❑ Absolute error does not allow a measurement to be evaluated. Relative error

is used to evaluate the accuracy of a measurement:

 = X/Xreal. 100%

Where:
❑ Xmeasured is the measured value
❑ Xreal is the true value
❑ ΔX is the absolute error

31
Absolute error
ΔX= Δsys+ Δrandom
❑ Systematic error:
While:
▪ ΔX: Absolute error.
▪ Δsys: Systematic error – Due to reasons that can be analyzed and
compensated.
▪ Δrandom: Random error whose cause cannot be determined and according to
the law of randomness.

32
Absolute error
ΔX= Δsys+ Δrandom
❑ Systematic error:
▪ Systematic error is caused by frequent factors or factors having laws, making
the measurement results with the same error of each measurement, the
cause:
▪ Due to the tool, the measuring machine is not perfect.
▪ Due to the method of measurement, how the measurement result is
handled or influencing factors are ignored.

33
Random error

❑ Random error is the error caused by abnormal factors, without a law.

❑ Based on the measured values, it is possible to determine the
changing law of random error thanks to statistical mathematics and
probability theory.
❑ Most measurements with random error obey the normal distribution law
(Gausse) and are based on the assumption:
▪ Random errors with the same value (magnitude) have the same probability
▪ Having a small value, the probability appears large and vice versa
▪ If the error exceeds a certain limit, it is assumed that the probability of
occurrence is 0, and the mean of the random errors approaches 0 when the
number of measurements reaches infinity.

34
Random error calculation

❑ Random error of i-times measurement:

❑ Gaussian distribution law:

35
Random error calculation

❑ Probability distribution density:

Δ is the absolute random error and σ is the square deviation

❑ Variance D:

❑ Probability of random error in a given interval:

36
Random error calculation

❑ Processing measurement results:

▪ Mathematical expectations:

▪ Squared deviation (Bessel's formula):

▪ Estimate the average deviation of the algebraic mean:

37
Random error

❑ Processing measurement results:

◼ Number of measurement is big enough: n -> ∞:

k is constant in the table

◼ Number of measurement: n ≥ 20:

◼ Number of measurement: n < 20:

hst is student constant

38
Measurement results process

◼ Measurement results:

◼ Relative square error:

39
Homework

◼ We use the voltage measurement with the same precision and

we get the results shown in the following table:

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
U(V) 200,03 200,05 200,02 199,92 199,98 200,04 199,96 199,97 200,03

▪ The distribution law is normal and the reliable probability is 0.98 (hst = 1.9).
▪ Calculate the confidence interval and the relative squared error of the
measurement result

40
Measurement signal

❑ Signals are often described as being either analog, digital, or

pulse. They are defined by how they convey useful information
(data). Attributes such as amplitude, state, frequency, pulse
width, and phase can represent data.
❑ In instrumentation and control applications most analog
signals are in the range of -10 to +10 volts or 4 to 20 mA.
❑ Digital and pulse signals have binary amplitude values, they
are represented by only two possible states–low and high.
Transistor-transistor-logic (TTL) levels are often used.
❑ The electrical equivalents produced by input transducers are
most commonly in the form of voltage, current, charge,
resistance, or capacitance
41
Analog & Digital Signal
Prof. D r. M . Z ahurul Haq ( B UET ) Signals M E 361 1 / 16

Natural processes tend

❑ to vary smoothly over time (analog).
Signals
❑ Computers manipulate data in digital form of 0 & 1’s.
Analog & ❑Digital Signals
Digital form of data transmission involves noise immunity.
❑ Pulses are easier to detect than to read analog values.

Volts Volts
10

0 0
Time Time

-10

Digital Analog

42
 Signals

Analog & DigitalAnalog

Signal& Digital Signal Concepts

❑ Examples

e561. eps

).

e562. eps
M E 361 3 / 16 Prof. D r. M . Z ahurul Haq ( B UET ) Signals 43 M E 361 4 / 16
 Signals

Dynamic
Dynamic Signal Signal Representation
Representation

❑ Eg

e563. eps

e564. eps
Prof. D r. M . Z ahurul H aq ( B UET ) Signals 44 M E 361 5 / 16
 Signals

Basic signal conditioning requirements for interfacing

Basic Signal Conditioning Requirements for Interfacing

❑ Diagram

e046. eps 45
Analog Input Flow Diagram
e564. eps

❑ Multiplexer (MUX)Prof.
- AD switching
r. M . Z ahurul H aq ( B UET )
device that sequentially Signals
connects multiple inputs MorE 361 5 / 1

outputs in order to process several signal channelsSignals with a single A/D or D/A
converter.
❑ Sample-and-Hold Analog
(S/H) Circuit Input Flow Diagram
- to acquire and store an analog voltage on a
capacitor for subsequent processing.

46
 Signals

Analog to DigitalAnalog to Digital Conversion

Conversion
In A/ D conversion process continuous electrical signals are converted
❑ In A/D conversion process continuous electrical signals are converted to the digital
to the digital language of computers.
language of computers.
If a 8-bit ADC has a 0-to-2.56 V input signal range, then a 0 V input
❑ If a 8-bit ADC has a 0-to-2.56 V input signal range, then a 0 V input could produce an
could produce an output word of 000000002 , while the + 2.56 V level
output word of 00000000 seen2, while the +2.56 V level seen at the input would produce
at the input would produce an output word of 111111112 .
an output word of 111111112.
Numbers
01010101
01010111
01100110

V
01111001
connects ........
channels ........

n analog t
47
 Signals
Analog to Digital Conversion Steps
Analog to Digital Signal Conversion Steps
❑ Algorithm

e049. eps 48
General Signal Conditioning Function

❑ Scaling - Low level signals should be amplified to increase the resolution and to
reduce noise. Conversely, high voltage signals may need to be attenuated.
❑ Filtering - A variety of physical devices and circuits are available to keep separate
desired signals from specific frequencies of undesirable electrical noise such as ac
line pick-up or other EMI/RFI.
❑ Isolation - Used to protect personal and equipment from high voltages and spikes.
Isolators block circuit overloads while simultaneously passing signal of interest.
❑ Excitation - Signal conditioning also generates excitation for some transducers. Strain
gauges, thermistors, and RTDs, for example require external voltage or current
excitation.

49
General Signal Conditioning Function

❑ Linearization - Many transducers, such as thermocouples, have a nonlinear response

to changes in the phenomenon being measured. Signal conditioning is applied to
have linear output for a given nonlinear input signal.
❑ Current-to-voltage conversion - Many transducers generate a current signal, usually
4 to 20 mA or 0 to 20 mA. Current signals are less sensitive to noise and voltage drop
due to lead resistance & these can be readily converted to a voltage signal using a
simple resistor.

50
 Signals

Examples
Examples of Processing
of Signal Signal Conditioning Parameters
Requirements

Sensor Electrical Characteristics Signal Conditioning Needs

T hermocouple L ow voltage output C old-junction compensation
L ow sensitivity H igh amplification
N onlinear output L inearization
RT D Resistance output C urrent excitation
L ow resistance (100 ohms ty pical) 4-wire/3-wire confi gurations
L ow sensitivity L inearization
N onlinear output
T hermistor Resistance output Voltage or current excitation
H igh resistance and sensitivity Reference resistor
D rastically nonlinear output L inearization
I C Temp. Sensor rent output
H igh level voltage or cur Power source
L inear output M oderate gain
Strain G auge Resistance output E xcitation
L ow resistance Bridge configuration
Ver y low sensitivity 3-w ire connection
N onlinear output L inearization

e050. eps
51
Signal Filter Classification

❑ Low Pass Filter - Lower frequencies are passed to the output with little attenuation,
and the higher frequencies are significantly attenuated (i.e., not passed).
❑ High Pass Filter - Lower frequencies are attenuated.
❑ Band Pass - Only a narrow band of frequencies are passed and all others are
significantly attenuated.
❑ Band Reject/Notch Filter - A narrow band of frequencies are highly attenuated. A
common use of this filter is to eliminate 50 Hz interference found on signal lines.

52
 Signals

Characteristics of Real Filters

Characteristics of Real Filters

❑ E

hly

e051. eps
53
 Signals

Example of Filtering
Example of Filtering
2.0
Input signal
1.5 Low-pass filtered signal
Band-pass filtered signal
1.0 High-pass filtered signal

0.5
V (volts)
0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
time (s)
e052. eps
Prof. D r. M . Z ahurul H aq ( B UET ) Signals 54 M E 361 15 / 16
 Frequency Spectrum Diagram
Frequency Spectrum Diagram
2

V (volts)
0

V = V 1 + V2 + V3
-1 V1 = 1.0 sin( t)
V2 = 0.3 sin( 5t)
V3 = 0.2 sin(10t)
-2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
time (s)
Amplitude (volts)

1.4
1.2 V1
1.0
0.8
0.6 V2 V3
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 5 10 15

frequency (w)
e053. eps
55
Thank you for your attention

56