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GENETICS
Prepared by:

Zuela C. Cabading
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RECAP
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DNA REPLICATION
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Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a) explain the step-by-step process of DNA replication;
b) describe the roles of the enzymes involved in DNA
replication;
c) illustrate and label a diagram of DNA replication; and
d) share the importance of DNA replication by citing its role in
cellular function and inheritance, as well as its role in
preserving genetic information across generations.
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DNA REPLICATION: GUIDE QUESTIONS

o What is DNA replication, and why is it important for cells?
o In which part of the cell does DNA replication occur in
eukaryotic cells?
o When does DNA replication happen during the cell cycle, and
why is this timing important?
o What are the main enzymes involved in DNA replication, and
what are their specific roles?
o Why is a primer needed for DNA replication, and what is it
made of?
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DNA REPLICATION: GUIDE QUESTIONS

o What are the functions of single-stranded binding proteins
(SSBs) and topoisomerase during DNA replication?
o What does it mean for DNA strands to be "anti-parallel," and
how do the terms "5’ to 3’" and "3’ to 5’" relate to this?
o What is the difference between the leading and lagging
strands during DNA replication, and why are Okazaki fragments
formed?
o What role does DNA polymerase play in proofreading, and why
is this function important?
o What might happen if DNA polymerase fails to correct an error
during replication?
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DNA REPLICATION: GUIDE QUESTIONS

o What might be the consequences for an organism if DNA
replication didn’t happen correctly before cell division?
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DNA REPLICATION: GUIDE QUESTIONS

o What is DNA replication, and why is it important for cells?
o In which part of the cell does DNA replication occur in
eukaryotic cells?
o When does DNA replication happen during the cell cycle, and
why is this timing important?
o What are the main enzymes involved in DNA replication, and
what are their specific roles?
o Why is a primer needed for DNA replication, and what is it
made of?
 Embracing world-class standards

DNA REPLICATION: GUIDE QUESTIONS

o What are the functions of single-stranded binding proteins
(SSBs) and topoisomerase during DNA replication?
o What does it mean for DNA strands to be "anti-parallel," and
how do the terms "5’ to 3’" and "3’ to 5’" relate to this?
o What is the difference between the leading and lagging
strands during DNA replication, and why are Okazaki fragments
formed?
o What role does DNA polymerase play in proofreading, and why
is this function important?
o What might happen if DNA polymerase fails to correct an error
during replication?
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DNA REPLICATION: GUIDE QUESTIONS

o What might be the consequences for an organism if DNA
replication didn’t happen correctly before cell division?
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DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

The molecule that carries the
genetic instructions for all living
organisms. It contains the
information needed to build,
maintain, and reproduce cells. It is
made up of two long strands that
twist together to form a double
helix.
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DNA REPLICATION
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DNA REPLICATION
The process by which a cell copies its DNA before it
divides. It ensures that each new cell gets an exact
copy of the DNA.
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Biological molecules, typically proteins, that act as
catalysts to speed up chemical reactions in the
body. Enzymes are highly specific – each catalyzes
a particular reaction or type of reaction.
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Unwinds the double-stranded DNA by

breaking the hydrogen bonds between
the nucleotide bases. It creates two
single strands of DNA that can be used
as templates for replication.
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Adds new nucleotides to the growing DNA

strand, complementary to the template
strand. It can only add nucleotides to an
existing strand, hence the need for a
primer.
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Synthesizes a short RNA primer, which

serves as the starting point for DNA
synthesis. DNA polymerase requires this
primer to begin adding nucleotides.
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Joins the fragments of DNA on the lagging

strand, known as Okazaki fragments, by
forming phosphodiester bonds between
them, resulting in a continuous strand.
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SSBs prevent the single-stranded DNA from

re-annealing (reforming the double helix)
or forming secondary structures, which
can interfere with replication.
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Prevents the DNA from becoming too

tightly coiled ahead of the replication fork.
It relieves the strain by creating temporary
breaks in the DNA strand and then
resealing them.
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Initiation Stage
Elongation Stage
Termination Stage
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ELONGATION STAGE
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TERMINATION STAGE
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ELONGATION STAGE
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ELONGATION STAGE
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ELONGATION STAGE
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ELONGATION STAGE

Tsuneko Okazaki Reiji Okazaki

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ELONGATION STAGE
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TERMINATION STAGE
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STAGES PROCESSES

INITIATION

ELONGATION

TERMINATION
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STAGES PROCESSES
The process begins at specific sites called origins of replication. The enzyme helicase unwinds the DNA
double helix, creating a Y-shaped replication fork by separating the two strands. Single-strand binding
proteins then bind to the separated strands to keep them apart and prevent them from reannealing.
INITIATION As helicase continues to unwind the DNA, it causes supercoiling ahead of the replication fork.
Topoisomerase alleviates this tension by temporarily cutting the DNA strands, allowing them to
unwind, and then resealing the strands to maintain the DNA’s stability. Meanwhile, primase synthesizes
a short RNA primer to provide a starting point for DNA polymerase.

The synthesis of new DNA strands takes place. DNA polymerase III binds to the RNA primer and adds
complementary DNA nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction, creating the new strands. Because the DNA
strands are antiparallel, replication occurs differently on each strand: the leading strand is synthesized
ELONGATION continuously in the same direction as the replication fork, while the lagging strand is synthesized
discontinuously in short segments known as Okazaki fragments. DNA polymerase III also possesses
proofreading capabilities, allowing it to check for and remove incorrectly paired nucleotides to
ensure accuracy. After the lagging strand is synthesized, DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragments by
sealing the gaps, resulting in a continuous DNA strand.
The process concludes as the replication forks meet at specific termination sites, completing the
synthesis of new DNA strands. RNA primers used to initiate DNA synthesis are removed, typically by the
enzyme RNase H or DNA Polymerase I, and DNA polymerase III fills in the resulting gaps with DNA
TERMINATION nucleotides. Any remaining Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand are joined together by DNA
ligase to create a continuous DNA strand. Additionally, topoisomerase resolves any supercoiling or
intertwining of the DNA, ensuring that the two newly formed double helices can separate cleanly.
Finally, the proteins involved in replication, including DNA polymerases and helicase, are released,
allowing the new double-stranded DNA molecules to exist independently and ready for the next
phase of the cell cycle.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF DNA REPLICATION IN

CELLULAR FUNCTION, INHERITANCE, AND
PRESERVING GENETIC INFORMATION
ACROSS GENERATIONS.
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Performance Task:
Create a DNA Replication model.
Submission Date: October 28, 2024
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Illustration of the 55LCC complex courtesy of Cameron
Baines (Phospho Biomedical Animation).

Biologists from the Perelman School of When 55LCC is absent, the researchers found
Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania and that replication is likely to become stuck, and
from the University of Leeds have identified a affected cells cease dividing.
multi-protein “machine” in cells that helps
govern the pausing or stopping of DNA
replication to ensure its smooth progress.

In the study, the researchers used cryo-electron

microscopy, CRISPR-based mutation analyses,
and other advanced techniques to identify a
protein complex that has a central replication-
stopping role for the lagging strand.

This discovery highlights how 55LCC acts as a

checkpoint during DNA replication, particularly
on the lagging strand, pausing the process to
correct errors such as mismatched nucleotides
or breaks in the DNA strand. This mechanism is
crucial for maintaining genomic stability, as
errors in DNA replication can lead to severe
consequences, including cancer.