FLUID MECHANICS.

Module 1- (Definition & Properties)

Fluid Mechanics may be defined as the branch of Engineering-science which
deals with the behavior of fluids {gasses or liquids}
Fluid mechanics are divided into three parts;
1. Fluid statics
2. Fluid kinematics
3. Fluid dynamics
Fluid Statics: The study of fluids at rest
Fluid Kinematics: The study of fluids in motion neglecting pressure forces.
Fluid Dynamics: The study of fluids in motion considering the pressure forces.
Fluid: A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing or a fluid is a
substance which deforms continuously when subjected to external shearing
force.
Characteristics of Fluid
1. It has no definite shape of its own, it only takes the shape of the
containing vessel.
2. A small amount of shear force exerted on a liquid/fluid will cause it to
undergo a deformation which continues as long as the force continues to
be applied.
A fluid may be in form of the following:
(i) Liquid (ii) Gas (iii)Vapour
Liquid: A liquid is a fluid which possesses a definite volume (which varies only
slightly with temperature and pressure). Liquid is assumed to be incompressible.
A liquid will withstand a slight amount of tension due to molecular attraction
between the particles which will cause an apparent shear resistance between two
adjacent layers (viscosity)
Gas: it possesses no definite volume and is compressible
Vapour: It is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near
the liquid state (e.g steam)
Fluid may be classified as Ideal fluids and Real Fluids
Ideal Fluids: An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity and surface tension
and is incompressible. In true sense no such fluid exists in nature. However
fluids which have low viscosity such as water and air can be treated as ideal
fluids under certain conditions.
Real fluids: a real fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension and
compressibility as well as density.

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS:
The following properties will be considered:
(i) Type equation here.Density (ii) Specific Volume (iii) Specific gravity (iv)
Viscosity
(v) Surface Tension (vi)Vapour pressure & Cavitation (vii) Capillarity
(viii) Compressibility
Density or Mass density: It is defined as the ratio of the mass of fluid to the
volume of fluid.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝐾𝑔)
Mathematically, Density{𝜌} =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑚3 )
𝑚
∴ 𝜌= kg/m3 or kgm-3
𝑣

Density for standard liquid (water) = 1000kgm-3

Water will be regarded as our Reference liquid

1.1. Weight Density: It is defined as the ratio of weight of fluid to the

volume of fluid.
Mathematically,
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑊) 𝑊
Weight density (𝜔) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑉)
∴𝜔 = 𝑉
, 𝑚𝑁3 𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑁
𝑚3

Note W = mg where m – mass, a – acceleration due to gravity

𝑚𝑔 𝑀
𝜔= , 𝑟𝑒𝑚. 𝜌 = 𝑉
∴ 𝜔 = 𝝆𝒈 (specific weight)
𝑉
therefore, weight density of water = 1000 x 9.81 = 9810N
 1.2. Specific volume: It is defined as the ratio of volume per unit mass
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑉)
Mathematically, Specific volume (v) =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑚)
𝑉 𝑚3 1
∴𝑣= , →𝑣=
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝜌

2. Specific Gravity: It is defined as the ratio of weight density of liquid to

the weight density of standard liquid (water)
Mathematically,
Sp. Gravity (s) = weight density of liquid (𝜌 x g)
weight density of water (𝜌 x g)

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

Also, (s) =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Example 1
Calculate specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid
which weighs 7N
Given data;
i. 𝜔=?
ii. 𝜌 =?
iii. s =?
V = 1 litre – 10-3 m3 (1𝑚3 = 1000 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠)
W = 7N
Solution;
(i)Specific weight or weight density
𝑊 7
𝜔= Therefore 𝜔 = = 7000N/𝑚3
𝑉 10−3
(ii)Mass density : remember𝜔 = 𝜌 x g
𝜔 7000
𝜌= = = 713.5kg/𝑚3
𝑔 9.81

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

(iii)specific gravity of liquid (s) =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 7000
S= = 0.7135
(1000 𝑥 9.81)

This means the liquid is lighter than water. If (s) = 1, the liquid is water, if (s) is
more than 1, the liquid is heavier than water.

VISCOSITY (Dynamic Viscosity)

It is defined as the resistance offered to a layer of fluid when it moves over
another layer of fluid.

𝜇 max
y
𝜇=0

𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
𝑦 Fig 1.1: Velocity Profile
𝑢
Refer Fig 1.1. When two layers of fluid, at a distance ‘𝑑𝑦 ′ apart, move one over
the other at different velocities, say 𝑢 and 𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢, the viscosity together with
the relative velocity causes shears stress between the fluid layers. This shear
stress is proportional to the rate of change of the velocity with respect to y. it is
denoted by 𝜏 (called Tau)
𝑑𝑢
Mathematically, 𝜏 ∝
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 = 𝜇. 𝑑𝑦

Where 𝜇 = Constant of proportionality and is known as Dynamic Viscosity or

𝑑𝑢
only viscosity and = Rate of shear stress or rate of shear deformation or
𝑑𝑦
velocity gradient.
 𝜏
∴ 𝜇= 𝑑𝑢 Thus viscosity may also be defined as the shear stress
[ ]
𝑑𝑦
required to produce unit rate of shear strain
𝑁𝑠 1
It’s unit is 2
or poise. 1poise = Ns/𝑚2
𝑚 10
1
Note: The viscosity of water at 20℃ is poise or one centipoise.
100

Kinematic Viscosity
It is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density (mass density) of a
fluid.
Mathematically,
Dynamic viscosity (𝜇)
Kinematic viscosity (v) =
Density (𝜌)
𝜇
∴𝑣=
𝜌
; Unit is 𝑚 𝑠 or stoke; 1stoke = 10−4 𝑚2 ⁄𝑠
2⁄

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

It states that “the shear stress in a flowing fluid is directly proportional to the
rate of shear strain”
Mathematically,
𝑑𝑢
𝜏 ∝ { } → rate of shear strain
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜏= 𝜇 where 𝜇= viscosity (dynamic viscosity)
𝑑𝑦
Significance: The fluids which follows Newton’s law of viscosity are called
“Newtonian Fluid” eg Water, Gasoline
Non – Newtonian fluids: These are fluids which do not follow the linear
relationship between shear stress and the rate of deformation. Eg – suspensions
(slurries), polymer solution, blood etc.

Fig. 1.2: Types of Fluids

Fig. 1.3: Summary of relations between shear stress (𝜏) and the rate of angular
deformation for various types of fluids:
(i) Ideal fluids: 𝜏 = 0
𝑑𝑢
(ii) Newtonian fluids: 𝜏 = 𝜇.
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝑛
(iii) Non – Newtonian Fluids: 𝜏 = 𝜇 . ( )
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
(iv) Ideal Plastics: 𝜏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. +𝜇. , Eg Sewage sludge, drilling mud
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝑛
(v) Thixotropic fluids: 𝜏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. + 𝜇. ( ) , Eg The printer’s ink
𝑑𝑦

(n = Flow behavior index, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. denoted as[B]is the Yield stress)

There are mainly two types of non-Newtonian Fluids
1. Time Independent
(a) Pseudo Plastic
(b) Dilatant Fluids
(c) Ideal Bingham

2. Time dependent
(a) Thixotropic Fluids
(b) Rheopectic Fluids
Characteristics of the Various Fluid Types
Thixotropic Fluids
1. It has definite yield stress
2. Non-linear relationship between shear stress and angular deformation
3. n < 1, and B ≠ 0
4. It’s time dependent e.g. printer ink, lipstick
5. Viscosity increases with time
Bingham Plastic Fluid or Ideal Plastic
1. Definite yield stress
2. Linear relationship between shear stress and angular deformation
3. n = 1 and B ≠ 0
4. It’s time independent E.g. sewage sludge, tooth paste, apple sauce, oil
paints, jellies, drilling muds
Rheopectic
1. Definite yield stress
2. Non-linear relationship between shear stress and angular deformation
3. n > 1 and B ≠ 0
4. Time dependent E.g. gypsum solution, bentonite solution
5. Viscosity decreases with time
Pseudo-plastic Fluids
1. Apparent viscosity decreases with increasing deformation rate
2. n < 1 and B = 0
3. Time independent E.g. Slurries, mud, milk, polymer, gums, colloidal
suspension, paper pulp in water, quicksand
Dilatant Fluids or Shear thickening Fluid
1. Apparent viscosity increases with increasing deformation rate
2. n > 1 and B = 0
3. Time independent E.g. Suspension of sand or starch, butter, sugar
solution
Ideal Fluids
1. Zero Viscousity
2. Shear stress = always zero
3. So represented by horizontal axis
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity
Viscosity is affected by temperature. The viscosity of liquids decreases but that
of gases increases with increase in temperature. This is due to the reason that in
liquids the shear stress is due to the inter-molecular cohesion which decreases
with increase of temperature. In gases the inter-molecular cohesion is negligible
and the shear stress is due to exchange of momentum of the molecules, normal
to the direction of motion. The molecular activity increases with rise in
temperature and so does the viscosity of gas.
𝛽 ⁄𝑇
For liquids: 𝜇 𝑇 = 𝐴𝑒

𝑏𝑇 1⁄2
For gases: 𝜇 𝑇 = 1+𝑎⁄𝑇
Where, 𝜇 𝑇 = Dynamic viscosity at absolute temperature T,
A, 𝛽 = Constants (for a given liquid), and
a, b = Constants (for a given gas)

Effect of Pressure on Viscosity

The viscosity under ordinary conditions is not appreciably affected by the
changes in pressure. However, the viscosity of some oils has been found to
increase in pressure.

Example 2: A plate 0.05mm distant from a fixed plate moves at 1.2m/s and
requires a force of 2.2N/𝑚2 to maintain this speed. Find the viscosity of the
fluid between the plates
Solution:
Velocity of the moving plate, u = 1.2m/s
Distance between the plates, dy = 0.05mm = 0.05 x 10−3 m
Force on the moving plate, F = 2.2N/m2
Viscosity of the fluid, ?
du
We rememeber: 𝜏 = 𝜇.
dy

Where 𝜏 = shear stress or force per unit area = 2.2N/m2

 du = change of velocity = u – 0 = 1.2m/s
dy= change of distance, =0.05 x 10−3 m
1.2
∴ 2.2 = 𝜇 x
0.05 x 10−3

2.2 x 0.05 x10−3

𝜇=
1.2
1 𝑁.𝑠
= 9.16 x 10−5 N.s/m2 or 9.16 x 10−4 poise [1 poise = 10 𝑚2
]

Example 3: The space between two parallel plates 5mm apart is filled with crude oil. A
force of 2N is required to drag the upper plate at a constant velocity of 0.8m/s. The lower
plate is stationary. The area of the upper plate is 0.09m2 . Determine (i) The dynamic
viscosity (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of oil is 0.9.
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 where 𝜏 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜇 = viscosity, du = change of velocity
𝑑𝑦
between plates (0.8m/s), dy = thickness of oil (5mm = 0.005m).
force 2
𝜏= = = 22.2N/ m2
area 0.09
0.8
∴ 22.2 = 𝜇.
0.005

𝜇 = 0.139 N.s/ m2 or 1.39poise

Dynamic viscosity (𝜇) ω
(dii) Kinematic viscosity (v) = where (𝜌) = and ω = sg
Density (𝜌) 𝑔

= 0.9 x 9.81 = 8.83KN/ m3 = 8830N/ m3

ω 8830
𝜌= = = 900.10kg/ m3
g 9.81

𝜇 0.139
∴ (v) = = = 0.000154 m2 /𝑠 or 1.54 stokes
𝜌 900.10

Surface Tension
It is defined as tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with air
(gas) or between two immiscible liquids.

Surface tension is denoted by 𝜎 (sigma). Its unit is N/m

The surface tension and pressure force relation for a water droplet
4σ
P=
d
where P = Pressure force (intensity of pressure)
σ = Surface tension
d = diameter of water droplet

Surface tension for soap bubble is given as:

8σ
P=
d
Example 4 A soup bubble of 60mm diameter has a gauge pressure 2𝑁/𝑚2. Estimate the
surface tension of the soap bubble

8σ
For Soap bubble, P = d
8σ
2= ; 𝜎 = 0.015 𝑁/𝑚
0.06

Capillarity
Capillarity is a phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon its specific
gravity) rises into a thin glass tube above or below its general level. This
phenomenon is due to the combined effect of cohesion and adhesion of liquid
particles. In other words - Surface tension is the attractive force between
molecules at the surface of a liquid. It allows the liquid to resist external forces
and form droplets and bubbles.
Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
Compressibility is the measure of how much a fluid's volume changes when
subjected to external pressure. The property by virtue of which fluids undergo a
change in volume under the action of external pressure. It decreases with the
increase in pressure of fluids as the volume modulus increase with the increase
of pressure.
Water is considered to be an incompressible liquid. However, the
compressibility in Fluid Mechanics is considered mainly when the velocity of
flow is high enough reaching 20% of speed of sound in the medium.
Elasticity of fluids is measured in terms of bulk modulus of elasticity (K) which
is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity.
Vapour Pressure and Cavitation
Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapour on a liquid. All liquids
have a tendency to evaporate or vaporize (i.e. to change from liquid to the
gaseous state). Molecules are continuously projected from the free surface to the
atmosphere. These ejected molecules are in gaseous state and exert their own
partial vapour pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as the
vapour pressure of the liquid (pv ). If the surface above the liquid is confined,
the partial vapour pressure exerted by the molecules increase till the rate at
which the molecules re-enter the liquid is equal to the rate at which they leave
the surface. When the equilibrium condition is reached, the vapour pressure is
called saturation vapour pressure (pvs ).
Note:
1. If the pressure on the liquid surface is lower than or equal to the
saturation vapour pressure, boiling takes place.
2. Vapour pressure increases with the rise in temperature
3. Mercury has a very low vapour pressure and hence, it is an excellent
fluid to be used in a barometer.

Cavitation: Cavitation is a destructive phenomenon that occurs when a fluid is

subjected to rapid changes in pressure, causing the formation and collapse of
vapor-filled cavities or bubbles in the fluid. Cavitation can occur in any type of
fluid flow, including liquid, gas, or mixed-phase flows, and is often observed in
hydraulic systems, pipelines, pumps, propellers, and other fluid machinery.
When cavitation occurs, the rapid formation and collapse of vapor-filled
bubbles generates high-pressure shock waves that can erode or damage nearby
surfaces, leading to equipment failure and reduced efficiency.
Some techniques for avoiding cavitation include designing machinery with
smooth surfaces, reducing the speed of propellers and turbines, or changing the
shape and size of components to control fluid resistance. Using fluids with high
physical properties and viscosity, and controlling the temperature of the fluid
can also help prevent cavitation. In advanced technology, some systems even
use special coatings that prevent cavitation-induced damage.

Overall, understanding cavitation is important in preventing machinery damage

and optimizing system performance, especially in industries such as aerospace,
marine engineering, and energy production where fluid mechanics and
machinery systems are prevalent.