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Pasquale Cavaliere

Clean
Ironmaking and
Steelmaking
Processes
Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse
Emissions Abatement
Clean Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes
Pasquale Cavaliere

Clean Ironmaking
and Steelmaking Processes
Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse
Emissions Abatement
Pasquale Cavaliere
Department of Innovation Engineering
University of Salento
Lecce, Italy

ISBN 978-3-030-21208-7 ISBN 978-3-030-21209-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21209-4

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or
information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

World steel demand and production is continuously growing. Being a high energy-
intensive and high-impact industry, the energy consumption and the greenhouse
gases emissions are destined to double by 2050 if the actual processing routes are
completely preserved. To avoid this, new paradigms must be developed and
approached in order to transform the sector, making it sustainable in the future and
compatible with the global warming reduction. By introducing and optimizing
energy-efficient solutions to the actual route, only a maximum of 25% of global
saving is expected; this target is insufficient for the goals, leading to global warming
control and reduction. So, based on current climate change forecast, it is predicted
that the steel industry will face greater challenges which cannot be solved with the
past incremental technologies in the future. US and European reports underline that
if the global warming should be avoided, the only way is to develop and apply
breakthrough technologies very fast. The book describes the main available tech-
nologies employed in the traditional or innovative routes capable of reducing the
energy consumption and the dangerous greenhouse emissions as well as the research
efforts that see many scientists involved all around the world from industry, acade-
mia, and research centers. Obviously, the energy topic is largely described, taking
into account the direct and indirect consumption per each analyzed technology and
suggested solution. Regarding coke making, the last years’ technological innova-
tions led to lowering air emissions and to the deep limiting of hazardous solid
wastes. It is showed that the different technological choices are driven by regional
and logistic issues. The treatment of wastewater as a very crucial issue in coke
making is largely described. The development and the diffusion of technologies,
such as coke dry quenching and coke stabilization quenching, are discussed. The use
of coke oven gas in order to abate the dangerous emissions is largely taken into
account. Those technologies leading to operational efficiency, coke quality, and
productivity are underlined. Another fundamental process for raw materials prepa-
ration in the integrated ironmaking/steelmaking route is sintering. CO2, NOx, SOx,
PCDD/Fs, and particulate matters are continuously produced during the whole
sintering cycle; this is because of the fuel combustion, carbon in the fed material,

v
vi Preface

and other carbonaceous sources such as limestone and dolomite. All those solutions
leading to these dangerous compounds’ abatement are described. The employment
of biomass as inhibitor and the energy consumption reduction solutions are
underlined. Heat recovery at the sinter plant is a means for improving the efficiency
of sinter making. Exhaust gases are processed, adsorbed, decomposed, and/or
collected as nontoxic by-products to increase the quantity and improve the quality
of steam recovery, reaching high fuel savings; all the most efficient methods are
reviewed. Computer control technologies for the sintering process were developed
along with sinter technology, as sinter quality requirements for the blast furnace
were upgraded. Many parameters are involved during sintering. The optimization of
these parameters control can lead to the increase in productivity and in the quality of
the sintered ores. All the emissions optimized sintering technologies are largely
described. The technological evolution of the blast furnace plants led to high
efficient reactors very close to their thermodynamic limits. The blast furnace-based
production route covers the majority of the steel production all around the world with
hundreds of plants. One of the main disadvantages of the integrated route is the
necessity of a coke plant with high energy intensity and very high emissions levels.
In the direction of reducing these impacts, the injection of carbon-bearing reductants
at the tuyere level has given new impetus to blast furnace operational practice to
reduce the coke consumption significantly. Another important innovation is
represented by the top gar recovery technologies. In the new-generation blast
furnaces, oxygen is employed as substitute of the air. Many online process moni-
toring and control are in use or under development with the overall goal of increasing
the process efficiency and fuel consumption and environmental impact reduction.
Conversion operations are necessary in the integrated steel plant. Large effort has
been devoted to the energy efficiency improvement and to the greenhouse gases
emissions reduction. The actual converting technologies are based on a combination
of blowing oxygen from the top laces and inert gas or oxygen plus inert gases from
the bottom of the reactors. Today’s highly efficient electric arc furnaces consume
roughly 300 kWh/t-steel. The appropriate greenhouse gas reduction strategy is
strongly influenced by the source of electricity generation (i.e., fossil fuel or
nuclear). Reduction of indirect emissions requires reducing electrical energy con-
sumption. The current trend toward increased addition of fuel and oxygen has
resulted in chemical energy sources supplying a greater proportion of the furnace’s
energy inputs. Oxyfuel burners in the furnace have become a necessity to increase
the rate of scrap melting in cold spots and thereby make scrap melting more uniform
and to reduce the electricity needing for the metal fusion. Waste gases recovery and
utilization as well as foamy slag practices allow to reduce energy consumption. The
bottom stirring practice is getting more and more important and even essential,
especially for the furnaces having big temperature gradient in the bath, such as big
shell furnace. Modern controls which use a multitude of sensors help to achieve
power saving and precise process monitoring to a greater extent than older controls.
Direct reduced iron production is destined to increase in the next and far future. This
is due to the continuous innovations of the plants leading to less energy consumption
and carbon dioxide emissions. In this direction, the technological solutions push
Preface vii

toward the waste energy recovery and the use of CO and H2 as reductant agents. The
gas-based processes are located in those regions where natural gas is available in
abundance and at reasonable prices. Hydrogen production from water electrolysis to
obtain the reducing agent is under development and appears exceptionally promis-
ing for the zero-emissions ironmaking. The current CO2 capture and usage solutions
that are available or under development are reviewed. Only the capture of CO2 will
be responsible for the achievement of the goals of the Blue scenario. Intergovern-
mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenarios associated with a more than even
chance of achieving the 2
C target are characterized by average capture rates of
10 GtCO2 per year in 2050, 25 GtCO2 per year in 2100, and cumulative storage of
800–3000 GtCO2 by the end of the century. Carbon capture, storage, and utilization
are recognized as crucial in climate change mitigations and in particular in a NET
contest to limit warming well below the 2
C scenario. The capture technologies are
grouped as chemical/physical absorption, solid adsorbents capture, membranes or
molecular sieves physical separation, cryogenics separation, and carbonation. Obvi-
ously, this best available technology could be applied globally at current production
levels, taking into account precise energy balances, economic feasibility, transition
rates, and regulatory and social factors. The principal iron ore electrolysis routes
under investigation and development are the molten oxide electrolysis and the
electrowinning. Since electrolysis produces no CO2, it could theoretically be zero-
carbon but only if the electricity needed to power the process is produced without
generating CO2 emissions (renewable sources). They are very promising even if at a
basic research and pre-industrialization stage.
My special thanks to all the Springer editorial office people for their profession-
alism. Finally, I would like to dedicate the work to my “miracle” son Alessandro.

Lecce, Italy Pasquale Cavaliere

Contents

1 Clean Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes: Efficient

Technologies for Greenhouse Emissions Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction and Global Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Main Approaches to the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Technological Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Main Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2 Coke Making: Most Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse
Emissions Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2 Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3 Coke Dry Quenching (CDQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.4 Use of Coke Oven Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5 Coke Making Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.6 Coal Stamp Charging Battery (CSCB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.7 High-Pressure Ammonia Liquor Aspiration System
(HPALA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.8 Coal Moisture Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.9 Non-Recovery Coke Ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.10 Variable Speed Drive Coke Oven Gas Compressors . . . . . . . . 95
2.11 Coke Stabilization Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.12 Single-Chamber System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.13 SCOPE 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.14 Use of Biomass and Waste Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.15 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

ix
x Contents

3 Sintering: Most Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse Emissions

Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.2 Waste Heat Recovery in Sinter Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.3 Exhaust Gas Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.4 Improved Process Control and Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.5 Improved Ignition Oven Efficiency with Multi-slit Burners . . . 134
3.6 Emissions Optimized Sintering (EOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.7 EPOSINT Process, Selective Waste Gas Recycling . . . . . . . . . 137
3.8 Improved Charging of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.9 Low Emissions and Energy Optimized Sintering Process . . . . . 142
3.10 Sectional Gas Recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.11 Curtain Flame Ignition System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.12 Utilization of Waste Fuels in Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.13 Charcoal in Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.14 Biomass in Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.15 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4 Blast Furnace: Most Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse
Emissions Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.2 High-Quality Ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.3 Pulverized Coal Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.4 Top-Pressure Recovery Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.5 Increased Blast Furnace Top Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.6 Improved Hot Stove Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.7 Blast Furnace Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.8 Heat Recuperation from Hot Blast Stoves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.9 Increased Hot Blast Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.10 Injection of Coke Oven Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.11 Improved Recovery of Blast Furnace Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.12 Injection of Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.13 Natural Gas (NG) Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.14 Plastic Waste Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4.15 Oxy-Oil Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.16 Injection of Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.17 Biomass Combustion in the BF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
4.18 Charging Carbon Composite Agglomerates (CCA) . . . . . . . . . 232
4.19 COURSE50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.20 Top Gas Recycling Blast Furnace (TGRBF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.21 Slag Heat Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.22 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Contents xi

5 Basic Oxygen Furnace: Most Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse

Emissions Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
5.2 Use of Metallized Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
5.3 BOF Heat and Gas Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5.4 Energy Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
5.5 BOF Bottom Stirring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
5.6 Improved Process Monitoring and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.7 Improved Ladle Preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5.8 In-Furnace Post-Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
6 Electric Arc Furnace: Most Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse
Emissions Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
6.2 Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.3 Oxyfuel Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
6.4 Flue Gas Monitoring and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
6.5 Post-Combustion Optimization in Steelmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6.6 Foamy Slag Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
6.7 Scrap Preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.8 Shaft Furnace Scrap Preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
6.9 Tunnel Furnace Preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
6.10 Bottom Stirring/Stirring Gas Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
6.11 Direct Current (DC) Arc Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
6.12 Waste Heat Recovery for EAF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
6.13 Contiarc Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
6.14 Twin-Shell DC Arc Furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
6.15 Post-Combustion of EAF Flue Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
6.16 Process Optimization and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
6.17 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
7 Smelting Reduction: Most Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse
Emissions Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
7.2 Corex Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
7.3 FINEX Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
7.4 HIsmelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
7.5 Tecnored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
7.6 Flash Ironmaking Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
7.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
xii Contents

8 Direct Reduced Iron: Most Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse

Emissions Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
8.2 MIDREX® Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
8.3 Hyl-ENERGIRON Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
8.4 FASTMET© and FASTMELT© . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
8.5 ITmk3® Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
8.6 MXCOAL™: MIDREX© with Coal Gasification . . . . . . . . . . 443
8.7 SL/RN Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
8.8 Waste Heat Recovery for Rotary Kiln Direct Reduction . . . . . . 449
8.9 FINMET Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
8.10 Iron Carbide Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
8.11 CIRCORED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
8.12 Redsmelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
8.13 Hydrogen Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
8.14 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
9 Carbon Capture and Storage: Most Efficient Technologies
for Greenhouse Emissions Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
9.2 Energy Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
9.3 Shift Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
9.4 Chemical/Physical Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
9.5 Solid Adsorbents Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
9.6 Membrane Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
9.7 Cryogenics Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
9.8 Carbonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
9.9 CHG Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
9.10 Post-combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
9.11 Chemical Looping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
9.12 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
10 Electrolysis of Iron Ores: Most Efficient Technologies
for Greenhouse Emissions Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
10.2 Molten Oxide Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
10.3 Electrowinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
10.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Abbreviations

A/O1/O2 Anoxic/aerobic1/aerobic2
A2/O Anaerobic-anoxic-aerobic system
AA Annual average
AC Alternating current
ACARP Australian Coal Industry’s Research Program
AcC Activated carbon
ADP Aquatic depletion potential
AER Adsorption-enhanced reforming
AFT Adiabatic flame temperature
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
AOD Argon oxygen decarburization
AOP Advanced oxidation process
AP Acidification potential
ARA Auxiliary reducing agents
ASCM Adsorption-selective carbon membrane
ASU Air separation unit
BAT Best available techniques
BET Brunauer-Emmett-Teller
BF Blast furnace
BFB Bubbling fluidized bed
BFD Blast furnace dust
BFR Blast furnace route
BFS Blast furnace slag
BFSG Blast furnace shaft gas
BFTG Blast furnace top gas
BHZ Bottom heat exchange zone
BIS Blast furnace inner reaction simulator
BM Biomass
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand
BOF Basic oxygen furnace
BOFG Basic oxygen furnace gas
xiii
xiv Abbreviations

BOFS Basic oxygen furnace slag

BOP Basic oxygen process
BOS Basic oxygen steelmaking
BTP Burn-through point
BTX Benzene toluene xylene
CA Chronoamperometry/chronoamperogram
CaL Calcium looping
CAP Long-term CO2 capture scenario
CBP Composite burnout potential
CC Continuous casting
CCA Carbon composite agglomerates
CCD Charge-coupled device
CCF Cyclone converter furnace
CCPP Combined cycle power plant
CCS Carbon capture and storage
CCSC CO2 Capture by slag carbonization
CCU CO2 Carbon capture and utilization
CCUS Carbon capture use and storage
CDA Carbon direct avoidance
CDLC Coal direct chemical looping
CDQ Coke dry quenching
CDRI Cold direct reduced iron
CE Counter electrode
CFB Circulating fluidized bed
CFP Carbon footprint
CHG Compressed hydrogen gas
CHP Combined heat and power
CLC Chemical looping combustion
CLH Chemical looping hydrogen
CMC Coal moisture control
CMCP Coal moisture control process
CMSM Carbon molecular sieving membrane
CN Cyanide
CNT Carbon nanotube
COD Chemical oxygen demand
COG Coke oven gas
COS Carbonyl sulfide
COSS Continuous optimized shaft system
COURSE50 CO2 Ultimate reduction in the steelmaking process by innovative
technologies for cool earth 50
CP Coke plant
CP/C Chronopotentiometry/chronopotentiogram
CRACCK CO2 Recycling and conversion to CO in Korea
CRI Index of reactivity to CO2
Abbreviations xv

CRR Coke replacement rate

CRW Cold-rolling wastewater
CS Cold steel
CSCB Coal stamp charging battery
CSN Crucible swelling number
CSQ Coke stabilization quenching
CSR Coke strength after reaction
CTM COG to methanol
CTMCR COG to methanol with CO2 recycle
CTMWOSC COG to methanol without supplementary carbon
CTMWSC COG to methanol with supplementary carbon
CV Calorific value
CV/V Cyclic voltammetry/voltammogram
CW Combined water
CW-EDI Concentrated water from electrodeionization
CWHS Coke oven gas with H2 separation
CWOHS Coke oven gas without H2 separation
CWQ Coke wet quenching
CWW Coke wastewater
DAC Direct air capture
DAPS Dry-cleaned and agglomerated pre-compaction system
DAV Direct alloying with vanadium
DC Direct current
DDQ Double dry quenching
DEA Diethylamine
DFB Dual fluidized bed
DHE Dynamic hydrogen electrode
DI Deadman inlet
DIPA Disopropanolamine
DIPAM Tetrahydrothiopene
DMR Dry methane reforming
DRI Direct reduced iron
DRIP Direct reduction iron plant
DSG Dry slag granulation
DTCR Dry-type top-gas cleaning and recovery
DTF Drop tube furnace
DU Drying unit
EAF Electric arc furnace
EAFD Electric arc furnace dust
EBF Experimental blast furnace
EBT Eccentric bottom tapping
EC European Commission
ECOARC Ecologically friendly and economical arc
ECS Evaporative cooling system
xvi Abbreviations

ED Electricity demand
EF Anodic electro
EII Energy-intensive industry
EINO Emission index of NO
EMF Electromotive force
EMS Electromagnetic stirring
EMSy Environmental management system
EoL End of life
EOR Enhanced oil recovery
EOS Emissions optimized sintering
EP Eutrophication potential
EPA Environmental protection agency
EPB Environment protection bureau
EPOSINT Environmentally process optimized sintering
EQ Equilibrium
EQS Environmental quality standards
EROI Energy return on investment
ESCS Electrostatic space cleaner super
ESP Electrostatic precipitator
ETC Energy transitions commission
ETS Emissions trading system
EU European Union
EUA European emission allowances
EUD Energy utilization diagram
EW Electrowinning
EWC European waste catalogue
EWHR Exergy of waste heat recovery
FA Fly ash
FAETP Freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential
FAF Fuel arc furnace
FB Fluidized bed
FC Fixed carbon
ffs Flame front speed
FGR Flow gas recirculation
FGR Flue gas recirculation
FGRS Flue gas recirculation sintering
FIT Flash ironmaking technology
FOG Fluidized bed reactor’s off-gas
FSCM Fixed site carrier membranes
FST Final sinter temperature
FT Fischer-Tropsch
FWC Freshwater consumption
GA Genetic algorithm
GAC Granular activated carbon
Abbreviations xvii

GaCTO Coke-Oven Gas-Assisted Coal to Olefins

GBFS Granulated blast furnace slag
GCCSI Global carbon capture and storage initiative
GHG Greenhouse gas
GOD Gas-oxidation degree
GR Gas recycling
GSC Gas switching combustion
GWP Global warming potential
HAP Hazardous air pollutants
HB Hot blast
HBI Hot briquetted iron
HC Hydrocarbons
HCI Hot compacted iron
HCMB High-carbon metallic briquettes
HDPE High-density polyethylenes
HDRI Hot direct reduced iron
HECA Hydrogen energy California
HF Hearth furnace
HHF Hearth heating furnace
HHV Higher heating value
HM Hot metal
HOD Heat of decomposition
HPALA High-pressure ammonia liquor aspiration system
HpCDD Heptachlorodibenzo-P-dioxin
HpCDF Heptachlorodibenzo-P-furan
HR High reactivity
HRC Hot rolled coil
HRT Hydraulic retention time
HS Hot stoves
HTIR High-temperature indirect reduction
HTP Human toxicity potential
HV High volatile
HVM Heating value of mixture
HW Hardwood
HxCDD Hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
HxCDF Hexachlorodibenzo-p-furan
ICHB Iron coke hot briquette
IEA International energy agency
IGAR Injection de GAz Réformé
IGCC Integrated gasifier combined cycle
inj Injected
IOSP Iron ore sintering plant
IPCC Intergovernmental panel on climate change
IR Indirect reduction
xviii Abbreviations

ISF Intensified sifting feeder

ISM Integrated Steel Mill
ISO International Organization for Standardization
I-TEF International toxicity equivalent factors
JISF Japan Iron and Steel Federation
JSM Japanese Steel Mill
KET Key enabling technology
KPI Key performance indicators
LCA Life cycle assessment
LD Linz-Donawitz
LDG Linz-Donawitz gas
LEEP Low emission and energy optimized sinter process
LF Lower furnace
LGMgO Low-grade MgO
LHV Low heating value
LIBS Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy
LNG Liquefied natural gas
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
LPM Lignin-rich press mud
LPMC Lignin-rich press mud-derived carbons
LPR Liquid-phase reduction
LRI Low-reduced iron
LS Liquid steel
LSV Linear scan voltammetry/voltammogram
LTIR Low-temperature indirect reduction
LV Low volatile
M Moisture
M40 Percentage of coke remaining on the +40 mm round hole after
100 revolutions
MAC Maximum allowable concentration
MAETP Marine ecotoxicity potential
MBBR Moving bed biofilm reactor
MBF Magnetic braking feeder
MDEA Methyldiethanolamine
MEA Monoethanolamine
MEEP Moving electrode electrostatic precipitator
MES Multifunctional energy system
MFA Materials flow analysis
MLSS Mixed liquor
MOE Molten oxide electrolysis
MP Medium pressure
MPO Methane partial oxidation
MSFB Magnetically stabilized fluidized bed
MSR Methane steam reforming
Abbreviations xix

MSWI Municipal solid waste incineration

MTL Metallization
MTO Methanol to olefins
MWCNT Multiwalled carbon nanotube
NEDO New energy and industrial technology development
organization
NET Negative emissions technologies
NF Nanofiltration
NG Natural gas
NGO Nongovernmental organization
NHE Normal hydrogen electrode
NI Normal Inlet
NMI Nonmetallic inclusions
O&M Operation and maintenance
OBF Oxygen blast furnace
OBM Oxygen bottom Maxhütte
OCDD Octachlorodibenzodioxin
OCDF Octachlorodibenzofuran
OCOG Original coke oven gas
ODP Ozone depletion potential
OECD the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OEE Overall equipment effectiveness
OGS Operation guidance system
OP Oxygen plant
OPC Ordinary portland cement
OR Oxidation ratio
OSD One-step decarbonization
OS-RVFLNs Online sequential random vector functional-link networks
OTI Optical texture index
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PARAFAC Parallel factor analysis
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCC Post-combustion capture
PCDDs Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
PCDFs Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
PCI Pulverized coal injection
PCM Phase change materials
PCOP Photochemical oxidation potential
PCR Pulverized coal ratio
PE Polyethylene
PeCDD Pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
PeCDF Pentachlorodibenzo-p-furan
PEM Proton exchange membrane
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
xx Abbreviations

PG Process gas
PI Pipe inlet
PID Proportional integral derivative
PIT Polymer injection technology
PLA Waste plastics
PM Particulate matter
PM10 Particulate pollution (10 μm)
PM2.5 Particulate pollution (2.5 μm)
PMDR Point of minimum direct reduction
POP Persistent organic pollutants
POR Partial oxidation reforming
POSCO Pohang Iron and Steel Company
POX Partial oxidation
PP Polypropylene
PS Polystyrene
PSA Pressure swing adsorption
PSu Priority substance
PtCR Post-combustion ratio
PU/TU Pyrolysis/torrefaction unit
PVC Polyvinylchloride
PwP Power plant
Q-BOP Bottom-blowing process
R&D Research and development
R&I Research and innovation
R/H Reforming gas/hematite
RAC Regenerated activated carbon
RAFT Raceway adiabatic flame temperature
RC Regression coefficient
RCA Reactive coke agglomerate
RCAt Rotary cup atomizer
RCLA Rotary cylinder atomizer
RCOG Reformed coke oven gas
RD Reduction degree
RDI Reduction disintegration
RE Reference electrode
RHF Rotary hearth furnace
RMP Refractory material plant
RNG Reformed natural gas
RPB Rotating packed bed
RVI Reduction velocity index
RWGS Reverse water gas reaction
S/F Sloping flue
S/S Solidification/stabilization
SBR Sequential batch reactor
Abbreviations xxi

SCF Standard cubic feet

SCL Syngas chemical looping
SCM Supplementary cementitious material
SCNT Thiocyanate
SCPS Selective crystallization and phase separation
SCR Selective catalytic reduction
SCS Single chamber system
SDQ Single dry quenching
SECOS Sintering energy control system
SER Secondary energy resource
SES Synthesis energy system
SF Sinter feed
SFu Shaft furnace
SI Shaft injection
Sil Silicate
SL/RN Stelco-Lurgi/Republic Steel-National Lead
SMR Steam methane reforming
SMS Steel melting shop
SNG Syngas
SP Specific Pollutant
SPARG Sulfur passivated reforming
SPH Scrap preheating
SR Steam reforming
SRe Smelting reduction
SS Suspended solids
SSAB Svenskt stål AB
SSB Supersonic burner
SSDO Solid-state diffusion of oxygen
SSW Segregation slit wire
ST Hot stoves
STA Simultaneous thermal analysis
SW Softwood
SWV Square wave voltammetry/voltammogram
T Tapping
TBF Traditional blast furnace
TCDD Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin
TCDF Tetrachlorodibenzofuran
TCE Thermal and chemical energy of hearth gases
TCLP Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure
TCT Theoretical combustion temperature
TEP Terrestrial ecotoxicity potential
TFN Technological fuel number
TG Top gas
TGN Technological greenhouse number
xxii Abbreviations

TGRBF Top gas recycling blast furnace

THM Ton of hot metal
THZ Top heat exchange zone
TI Tuyeres injection
TLS Ton of liquid steel
TmI Tumble index
TOC Total organic carbon
TP Torrefied pellets
TRL Technology readiness level
TRM Tri-reforming of methane
TRS Thermal reactor system
TRT Top-pressure recovery turbine
TRZ Thermal reserve zone
TSG Tata Steel Group
TSP Total suspended particulates
TSPM Total suspended particulate matter
TTN Technological total number
TW Terrified wood
TWC Total water consumption
UBS Unione di Banche Svizzere
UCS Unconfined compressive strength
UF Upper furnace
UHP Ultrahigh power
ULCOS Ultralow CO2 steelmaking
UNFCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UV Ultraviolet
VAI Voest-Alpine Industrieanlagenbau
VIU Value in use
VLD Vacuum ladle degasser
VM Volatile matter
VOC Volatile organic compounds
VODC Vacuum oxygen decarburization converter
VPSA Vacuum pressure swing adsorption
VSA Vacuum swing adsorption
VSD Variable speed drive
WAC Waste acceptance criteria
WACC Weighted average cost of capital
WB Wind box
WCP Water cooled panels
WE Working electrode
WFD Water framework directive
WFGD Wet flue gas desulfurization
WGSR Water gas shift reaction
Abbreviations xxiii

WHRS Waste heat recovery system

WISCO Wuhan Iron and Steel Company
WL Wind leg
WP Wood pellets
WPI Waste plastic injection
WRZ Wüstite reserve zone
WTCR Wet-type top-gas cleaning and recovery
YSZ Yttria stabilized zirconia
ZR Zero reformer
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Global crude steel production (worldsteel.org) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Fig. 1.2 Primary and secondary steelmaking production in the main
producer countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fig. 1.3 China crude steel production growing rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fig. 1.4 MFA of iron in the world for year 2000 presented as a
standard MFA diagram . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . 8
Fig. 1.5 World total industry final energy consumption of the iron
and steel sector in 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 1.6 Energy employed and wasted in the BF-BOF-CC route . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 1.7 Wasted energy in the integrated route (all the numbers refer
to GJ/ton steel) . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . 12
Fig. 1.8 CO2 emissions levels from the Chinese iron and steel
industry . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 1.9 Ironmaking and steelmaking processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 1.10 Schematic of the different processing routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 1.11 Major carbon flow in the integrated still mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 1.12 Emissions type in the integrated steel mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 1.13 CO2 emissions in the integrated steel mill . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . 18
Fig. 1.14 Temperature anomaly May 2018 (NASA.gov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 1.15 CO2 emissions depending on the technological structure . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 1.16 Direct emissions reduction potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 1.17 Pathways of technologies for GHG emissions abatement . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 1.18 Energy-saving potential for the BAT applied to the integrated
steel mill .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . 32
Fig. 2.1 World coke production in 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 2.2 Coal in Europe 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 2.3 Materials flow and emission sources in coke making . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fig. 2.4 Water consumption in an integrated steel plant, FWC (a);
TWC (b) . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 43
Fig. 2.5 COD removal efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 2.6 Coke wet quenching . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 51
xxv
xxvi List of Figures

Fig. 2.7 Coke dry quenching plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Fig. 2.8 Carbon flow analyses . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . 56
Fig. 2.9 Energy recovery and use in the integrated steel plant . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. 2.10 Energy balance for a coke plant (European IPPC Bureau
2011, values in MJ/t coke) . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . 59
Fig. 2.11 Coke oven gas utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig. 2.12 Separation of coke oven gas by employing a PSA System . . . . . . 65
Fig. 2.13 Integrated COG-DRI plant .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . 66
Fig. 2.14 Process flow diagram of syngas processing units of GaCTO . . . . 67
Fig. 2.15 Schematic diagram of GaCTO process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Fig. 2.16 Schematic of the CWOHS and CWHS processes
(units in kmol-C/h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Fig. 2.17 Energy balance of the CWOHS and CWHS processes
(units in MW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 76
Fig. 2.18 Hydrogen Energy California (HECA) Facility Process . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 2.19 Coke temperature monitoring . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. 81
Fig. 2.20 Coal stamp process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fig. 2.21 Compressive strength as a function of the coal density . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fig. 2.22 Coal charge density in different coke making technologies . . . . . 86
Fig. 2.23 Coal moisture control plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Fig. 2.24 Non-recovery coke plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Fig. 2.25 Non-recovery and recovery coke ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Fig. 2.26 Coke properties for non-recovery coke oven products . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Fig. 2.27 Annual emissions for non-recovery coke ovens compared
to conventional ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Fig. 2.28 CSQ . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 96
Fig. 2.29 Schematic diagram of the single-chamber system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 2.30 SCOPE 21 plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig. 2.31 Energy saving trend in Japan ironmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 2.32 Energy intensity vs. country for ironmaking operations . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. 3.1 Sintering operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Fig. 3.2 Longitudinal section of the sinter bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Fig. 3.3 Reaction zones vs. temperature during the sintering process . . . . 114
Fig. 3.4 Energy-saving solutions in sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Fig. 3.5 Heat recovery in the WHRS system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Fig. 3.6 Activated coke method . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 122
Fig. 3.7 Gas treatment through selective catalytic reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 3.8 Dust after ESP vs. alkali input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Fig. 3.9 Activated carbon adsorption performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig. 3.10 Adsorption of PCDD/Fs on activated carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig. 3.11 PCDD/Fs adsorption efficiency for activated carbon
and MWCNTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig. 3.12 Regenerated activated carbon system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig. 3.13 Low-temperature plasma treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
List of Figures xxvii

Fig. 3.14 Additive injection and bag filter dedusting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Fig. 3.15 SIMETAL schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Fig. 3.16 Ignition control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 134
Fig. 3.17 Multi-slit burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Fig. 3.18 Emissions optimized sintering plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 3.19 EPOSIT process configuration plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Fig. 3.20 Improving charging system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 3.21 Pre-reduced agglomerates .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . 141
Fig. 3.22 Energy optimized sintering process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 3.23 Sectional gas recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 3.24 BFG employment in the sinter process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 3.25 Concentrations of CO and CO2 during sintering with 0%, 20%,
50%, and 100% replacement of coke breeze energy with
charcoal . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . 150
Fig. 3.26 Concentrations of targeted PCDD/F congeners observed
during sintering with coke breeze and with 20% and 50%
replacement of the coke energy with charcoal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 3.27 Effects of biochar replacing coke breeze on yield and quality
of sinter .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . 156
Fig. 3.28 Effects of biochar replacing coke on pollutant concentration
of flue gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Fig. 3.29 Technological solutions for environment impact mitigation . . . . . 159
Fig. 4.1 Blast furnace plant . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . 168
Fig. 4.2 Low reducing agent rate operation of blast furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Fig. 4.3 Approaches for lowering carbon in blast furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fig. 4.4 Coke rate range predicted in various processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fig. 4.5 Dependence of the gas mixture and the solid-phase
equilibrium composition on the temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Fig. 4.6 Gas-phase equilibrium of hematite reduction by CO and H2 . . . . 175
Fig. 4.7 Solid-phase equilibrium of hematite reduction by CO (a)
and H2 (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Fig. 4.8 Gas-phase equilibrium of reactions relating to hydrogen,
carbon, and oxygen . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . 177
Fig. 4.9 BF main reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig. 4.10 CO2 emissions in the traditional iron and steel production
process . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 179
Fig. 4.11 Fossil fuel and materials flows in the BF-BOF steelmaking
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fig. 4.12 Pulverized coil injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Fig. 4.13 BF tuyeres . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 184
Fig. 4.14 Heat balance in the BF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Fig. 4.15 VIU for BF injectants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Fig. 4.16 Top gas recovery system . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 189
Fig. 4.17 Top-pressure control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
xxviii List of Figures

Fig. 4.18 Hot blast stove control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Fig. 4.19 BF control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 4.20 Process monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 4.21 Example of process monitoring and control . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . 196
Fig. 4.22 Measurements at tuyeres level . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . 197
Fig. 4.23 Torpedo infrared monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Fig. 4.24 BF stack status monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Fig. 4.25 Stove hot gas recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Fig. 4.26 Hot blast use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Fig. 4.27 Coke oven gas injection in the BF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Fig. 4.28 IGAR schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Fig. 4.29 Comparison of the coke rate, CO2 intensity, and coke
replacement rate (CRR) relative to the baseline case,
for 180 kg/t-HM direct reduced iron in the furnace feed,
180 kg/t-HM cold CH4 injected through the tuyere, 180 kg/t-HM
CH4 (preheated to 1200 K) partially combusted
with O2 (1200 K) to yield hot CO + 2H2 and then injected
in the furnace shaft, and 180 kg/t-HM CH4 (preheated to 1200 K)
injected through the tuyeres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Fig. 4.30 Comparison of the gas flow rate into the furnace and the heat
transfer required to preheat the blast air and injectants
for these cases, together with the net calorific value
of the blast furnace top gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Fig. 4.31 Plastic waste injection plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Fig. 4.32 Flame temperature as a function of the injection rate . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Fig. 4.33 Reduction potential of different plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Fig. 4.34 Residue injection scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Fig. 4.35 Comparison of PCI and biomass injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Fig. 4.36 Reducing agent rates in different injection cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Fig. 4.37 Thermochemical conversion products from woody biomass . . . . 226
Fig. 4.38 Emissions reduction potential through the employment
of charcoal in primary ironmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Fig. 4.39 Life cycle CO2 emissions of various biomass .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . 228
Fig. 4.40 Schematic of biomass pretreatment setup in the simulated steel
plant .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . 229
Fig. 4.41 Combustion behavior of char, pulverized coal, and coke
by rapid heating . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . 231
Fig. 4.42 Change of biomass composition and effect of CO2 reduction
by carbonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Fig. 4.43 Model of the CCB reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Fig. 4.44 Results for the CCB model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Fig. 4.45 Gas generation rate from iron carbon ore composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Fig. 4.46 Gas generation rate from different iron carbon
ore composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fig. 4.47 Schematic of reduction of iron ore by biomass carbon . . . . . . . . . . . 238
List of Figures xxix

Fig. 4.48 Reacted fraction of a volatile carbon and b nonvolatile carbon

at different temperatures during reduction . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 239
Fig. 4.49 COURSE50 technologies scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Fig. 4.50 Iron reduction with H2 use . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . 242
Fig. 4.51 Schematic gas flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Fig. 4.52 CO2 emissions in BF with different solutions . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . 244
Fig. 4.53 Scheme of the TGR-OBF plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Fig. 4.54 BF configuration . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 246
Fig. 4.55 Hydrogen reduction to the entire indirect reduction
of iron-bearing burdens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Fig. 4.56 Carbon consumption for direct reduction in TBF . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . 249
Fig. 4.57 Pilot plant for the top gas recycling OBF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Fig. 4.58 Carbon consumption for direct reduction in OBF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Fig. 4.59 Carbon consumption vs. degree of direct reduction in OBF . . . . . 252
Fig. 4.60 Conventional BF vs. advanced oxygen BF .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . 253
Fig. 4.61 Slag heat recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Fig. 4.62 Slag granulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Fig. 5.1 BOF process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Fig. 5.2 BOF reactions . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 277
Fig. 5.3 Melt composition variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Fig. 5.4 Slag composition variation .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. 278
Fig. 5.5 Materials flow and emission sources during the BOF process . . . 280
Fig. 5.6 Sensible heat in iron and steelworks, (1) cooler exhaust gas; (2)
main exhaust gas; (3) main exhaust gas after heat recovery; (4)
coke oven flue gas after heat recovery; (5) COG sensible heat; (6)
COG ammonia water; (7) BF slag sensible heat; (8) hot stove
gas; (9) slag granulation tank water; (10) BOF slag sensible
heat; (11) BOF gas sensible heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Fig. 5.7 BOF gas recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Fig. 5.8 RecoDust schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Fig. 5.9 Energy saving potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Fig. 5.10 Inert gas injection . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 292
Fig. 5.11 Censoring for process parameters monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 294
Fig. 5.12 Ladle preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Fig. 5.13 High-volume ladles preheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Fig. 6.1 Electric arc furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Fig. 6.2 Percentage of electric steel production in the different regions
(2017) . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . 305
Fig. 6.3 Energy sources for ironmaking and steelmaking in the different
regions . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 306
Fig. 6.4 Scrap charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Fig. 6.5 Major technology developments in the EAF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Fig. 6.6 EAF electricity consumption as a function of the charged
DRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
xxx List of Figures

Fig. 6.7 Energy consumption for the DRI addition in the EAF . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Fig. 6.8 Energy consumption for the DRI by varying the temperature . . . 320
Fig. 6.9 EAF outputs as a function of DRI charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Fig. 6.10 Burners for the EAF . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 323
Fig. 6.11 EAF electrodes at high temperature . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 325
Fig. 6.12 Energy saving as a function of the adopted solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Fig. 6.13 Consteel furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Fig. 6.14 Preheating schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Fig. 6.15 Scrap heating through waste gas (direct from Tenova) . . . .. . . . .. . 338
Fig. 6.16 Direct and indirect GHG sources for two cases. Top,
convention EAF using Canadian electricity generation
source distribution; bottom, scrap preheating EAF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Fig. 6.17 Bottom stirring effect in EAF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 6.18 Bottom gas stirring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Fig. 6.19 Electromagnetic stirring (direct from Tenova) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Fig. 6.20 EAF performances with EMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Fig. 6.21 Single electrode furnace .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . 352
Fig. 6.22 EAF energy balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Fig. 6.23 Waste heat recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Fig. 6.24 Waste heat recovery strategies in a Consteel furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Fig. 6.25 Contiarc furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Fig. 6.26 iEAF system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Fig. 7.1 Smelting schematic and smelting reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Fig. 7.2 Classification of smelting reduction processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Fig. 7.3 Fluidized bed schematic . . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. 381
Fig. 7.4 RHF-Smelter schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Fig. 7.5 Corex process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Fig. 7.6 Melter-gasifier schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Fig. 7.7 Bauer-Glaessner diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Fig. 7.8 Calculations of Bauer-Glaessner and Bogdandye-Engel
diagrams . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 385
Fig. 7.9 Melter-gasifier reaction zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Fig. 7.10 Thermodynamic model of the melter-gasifier in Corex . . . . . . . . . . 389
Fig. 7.11 Thermodynamic model of the reduction shaft in Corex . . . . . . . . . . 390
Fig. 7.12 Reducing gas requirement in reduction shaft and gas
generation in smelter gasifier with different degrees
of metallization for different types of coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Fig. 7.13 Upstream and downstream CO2 emission at different carbon
rates . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 392
Fig. 7.14 Metallization degree as a function of gas composition
and temperature . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Fig. 7.15 Desulfurizer preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Fig. 7.16 Large-scale plant . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . 396
List of Figures xxxi

Fig. 7.17 CO2 emission of BF ironmaking system and COREX as function

of power generation efficiency and electricity CO2 emission
factor . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . 401
Fig. 7.18 FINEX process .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. 402
Fig. 7.19 BF and FINEX integration . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 404
Fig. 7.20 CO2 saving due to the use of LRI and PSA gas in the BF . . . . . . . 406
Fig. 7.21 HIsmelt plant . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . .. . 407
Fig. 7.22 Coal consumption as a function of production rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Fig. 7.23 Tecnored plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Fig. 7.24 Tecnored furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Fig. 7.25 Charification of solid fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Fig. 8.1 Main reduction volume capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Fig. 8.2 Different types of DRI (direct from Midrex) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Fig. 8.3 Relationship between iron resources and reductants
in various ironmaking processes (the production scale
is million ton/year) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Fig. 8.4 Classification of direct reduction processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Fig. 8.5 Midrex process .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. 425
Fig. 8.6 Midrex plant with gasification and CO2 removal equipment . . . . 425
Fig. 8.7 Used and wasted energies in the cola-based and the gas-based
DRI plants . .. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . 427
Fig. 8.8 Hyl-ENERGIRON process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Fig. 8.9 DRI use in BF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Fig. 8.10 Furnace model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Fig. 8.11 Energy balance .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. 438
Fig. 8.12 FASTMELT process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Fig. 8.13 ITmk3 process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Fig. 8.14 CO2 emissions for Fastmelt and ITmk3 vs. BF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Fig. 8.15 MXCOAL™ process . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Fig. 8.16 Reduction rate of oxidized pellets . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . 444
Fig. 8.17 Global natural gas producers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Fig. 8.18 DRI production in 2015 by region (direct from Midrex) . . . . .. . . . 447
Fig. 8.19 SL/RN process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Fig. 8.20 Rotary kiln DRI process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Fig. 8.21 FINMET process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Fig. 8.22 Iron carbide reduction process .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . 451
Fig. 8.23 CIRCORED process . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . 453
Fig. 8.24 Redsmelt process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Fig. 8.25 DRI reduction through H2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Fig. 8.26 Midrex process with H2 addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Fig. 8.27 Midrex H2 process . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . 460
Fig. 8.28 Production costs due to H2 transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
series of bastions and rounded ridges come down towards the plain,
separated from one another by the deep ravines which the streams
have cut.
As you ascend the hill on the road you pass, on your immediate
right, four more mounds or hillocks. The last, or sixth mound, is at
the top of the hill, and is a prominent object when viewed from the
hot springs. Shortly after passing it the road begins to descend
again; and about half a mile farther on you arrive at what was the
east gate of the pass. Here the passage was narrow and short. It
was formed by a somewhat lofty projecting ridge of the mountain
slope, round the end of which the road passed. The five-yard contour
makes a sudden bend inwards at this point. Herodotus tells us that,
like the western gate, it afforded passage to but one waggon, and
that it was near Alpenos (vii. 176). At the end of the same chapter he
speaks of Alpenos as being “very near the road,” and as being the
place from which the Greeks reckoned to supply their commissariat.
I think that the site of Alpenos is to be
THE EAST GATE
AND WALL.
identified with the remains of a walled
acropolis on a hill which stands out into the
Site of plain from the ὑπωρέη or lower slope of the mountain,
Alpenos. about half a mile beyond the east gate. Between it and
the east gate there must have been a bay of the sea,
or harbour, to which, no doubt, the Greek provision ships went.
Leake places Alpenos quite close to the middle gate (vide his map),
but that is quite inconsistent with H. vii. 176. The incomprehensibility
of the eastern part of his map of Thermopylæ makes one suspect
that either he had never visited the east end of the pass, or, if he
had, had done so very hurriedly.
From Sketch by E. Lear.]
THERMOPYLÆ BETWEEN MIDDLE AND EAST GATE.
1. Kallidromos (1 mile).
2. High Mass of Œta (about 14 miles).
3. West Gate (about 3 3⁄4 miles).
[To face page 290.
 THE EAST GATE OF THERMOPYLÆ.
1. Site of Alpenoi.
2. Hills of North-west Eubœa.
3. Foot of Wall at East Gate.
[To face page 291.

From the east gate there runs up the ridge towards the high
mountain the remains of a remarkable wall (vide map). I cannot find
in history any trace or hint of its origin. It was evidently a defence
against an enemy advancing from the westward; for the whole way
along its west front there is a steep fall in the ground. It goes up the
hill for half a mile in a south-west direction, and then, in order to keep
along the ridge, it bends through an angle, and may be traced going
S.S.E. to a point near the foot of the line of cliffs near the summit of
the mountain. It would afford a very strong defensive position to a
large force. I am inclined to think that it cannot be a mediæval work,
because by mediæval times the sea must have retired from the east
gate at its foot. The stones of it are of medium size. I fancy the
outside courses were of squared material, while the interior was of
unsquared stones set in mortar. Its width seemed to vary from eight
to ten feet. The defence of the line of the wall would be a necessary
adjunct to the defence of the east gate. It will be seen, therefore, that
the latter did not afford a position where small numbers could have
faced an enemy in great numerical superiority.

In entering upon the details of Herodotus’ account of the battle of

Thermopylæ, it is necessary to bear in mind that it is a story written
by a man who was indeed excellent as a topographer, but who
seems to have absolutely lacked, in so far as can be seen, that
practical or theoretical knowledge of war which alone could have
enabled him to judge of the probable truth or falsehood of the
various motives of events given in the sources, whether verbal or
written, from which he drew his story. Special circumstances in
connection with the battle made it more than likely that the real
history of it would be officially concealed. The only people who knew
the whole story of the events leading up to the great catastrophe
were the authorities at Sparta. They can hardly have anticipated a
disaster such as actually happened; but, after it had taken place,
they had every interest in putting a complexion upon it such as would
absolve them, in so far as possible, from blame. The result in
Herodotus’ narrative is similar to what we find in other like passages
in his history: on the pure question of facts he is reliable; but when
he attempts to give the motives lying behind facts, he is only too apt
to produce unreliable statements from his sources of information. He
must not be judged too hardly in this matter. It is probable that
neither he nor any other historian writing after 450 could have arrived
at the truth concerning the motives underlying the events of 480. It is
not merely a question of the absence of reliable records. He must
have been influenced by the view of the past taken by the men of his
own day; and there is only too much evidence in history of the extent
to which the Greek permitted his imagination to take liberties with
facts. The very caution, too, which he displays as an historian is
evidently a prominent characteristic of the man,—a characteristic
which would almost inevitably lead him to shun a collision with the
views of those of his fellow-men with whom he was most intimately
connected in life and sentiment. But his silence is sometimes
eloquent. In the Thermopylæ narrative he mentions Leonidas’
demand for reinforcements: he states that the intention of sending
them existed; but he never hints that even a show of carrying out the
intention was ever made. The inadequacy of the reasons which he
gives for the omission to send help,—the occurrence of the Carnean
and Olympian festivals, and the alleged miscalculation made by the
Spartans as to the time at which the Persians would arrive before the
pass,—is patent on impartial examination. He himself clearly shows
that the Greeks had information as to the movements of the Persian
army; for he says that Leonidas was despatched to Thermopylæ
“when they heard the Persian was in Pieria.”
FACT AND MOTIVE.
Leonidas and his band were then in good time.
Nor was any such mistake made in despatching the fleet to
Artemisium.
And when it is all over, what is the alleged cause of Leonidas’
death? It is represented as an act of self-sacrifice. An oracle had
declared that one king must die, that Spartan liberty perish not. And
so Leonidas immolated himself on the altar of Patriotism.
This is a motive which would directly appeal to the piety of the
historian. But some contemporary sceptic might well have asked
why, under the circumstances, the hero of a deed of such splendid
self-sacrifice should have thought it right to involve therein the
Thespian and Theban contingents. That Leonidas’ act was one of
the most glorious recorded in history there is no reason to doubt: the
question is as to the motive.
How can the motive be judged of at the present day? Herodotus
himself supplies the apparatus of criticism by his narrative of the
incidents which occurred at Thermopylæ, which, when statements of
motive are excluded, is in nearly every single detail capable of
verification on the spot at the present day. The modern world
possesses in it a sound basis for an induction of the causes which
produced the events. The motives alleged here and in other parts of
his history of the Persian War are little more than hypotheses for the
verification or disproof of which the genuine honesty of the historian
often supplies the means.

H. vii. 201.
Xerxes, on arriving at the Malian plain, pitched his
camp in Trachinia, commanding the country as far as
Trachis. The Persian encampment would seem to have stretched
from the river Melas, or thereabouts, to the entrance of the west gate
of the pass. The Greek encampment was in the middle gate,
probably behind the first mound, either on the ridge beyond the
valley, or on the stream débris over which the modern road passes.
The numbers of the Greek army must have been about eight
thousand, including the unstated numbers of the Opuntian Locrians.
Of these, however, one thousand Phocians were set to guard the
path of the Anopæa, more than three thousand feet above the gate.
H. vii. 204.
Leonidas was in command. Even before the battle
brought him undying fame he seems to have been a
man whose character excited great admiration. The three hundred
men whom he took with him from Sparta were the royal bodyguard,
picked men all, and fathers of families, so Herodotus says. The
historian evidently implies that in so desperate a venture Leonidas
considered it unadvisable to take with him men whose death would
blot out their name from the land of the living. Is this detail quite
consistent with the presumed intention to send reinforcements? It is
possibly a graphic touch added by Spartan tradition after the event.
The Theban contingent was four hundred in number. Herodotus’
account of all relating to it is so full of disputable motives that it has
been suggested that he followed a tradition which developed either
under the influence of the bitterness of feeling called forth by the
attitude of Thebes later on in the war, or of the violent enmity which
sprang up between Athens and Thebes in after-time, and which was
at its height at the time when Herodotus wrote. He represents
Leonidas as taking the Thebans with him under a sort of compulsion,
because he suspected them of a tendency to medize. There are
several reasons urged for doubting this version of the story of the
Theban participation in the campaign.
1. It is doubtful whether Leonidas with so small a force as he
had with him could have coerced so powerful a State as
 Thebes.

Diod. xi. 4.
2. Ephoros says these Thebans were of the party
opposed to medism.
3. If they were not, Xerxes committed a gross error of policy in
branding their prisoners after Thermopylæ.

Plut. Herod. 4. Plutarch, a Bœotian himself, emphatically

Mal. 31–33. denies the truth of Herodotus’ story.
Plutarch’s statements, in brief, are as follows:⁠—
(a.) The fact that Thebes sent five hundred men to Tempe is
proof that up to the time of Thermopylæ Thebes supported the
Greek cause.
(b.) Leonidas had no suspicions against Thebes. He was treated
with special honour there.
(c.) If these Thebans were traitors to the
THE THEBAN
CONTINGENT.
Greek cause, why did Leonidas retain so
dangerous an element with him in the last
fight at Thermopylæ?
(d.) The chief of the Theban contingent was not Leontiades, but
Anaxandros.
The objections to the Herodotean version are by no means
decisive in character.
1. As far as coercion is concerned, Thebes had to reckon not
merely on Leonidas and his band, but on the whole Greek force
at the Isthmus.
2. Ephoros’ story is of later date, but really contributes the
strongest piece of evidence adduced against Herodotus.
3. The Theban prisoners had just been fighting against Xerxes
in the pass. He was not likely under the circumstances to
discriminate them as friends among foes.
4. Plutarch’s evidence, being that of a Bœotian, is liable to
suspicion. His evidence, too, taken in detail, is open to criticism.
 (a.) Plutarch’s argument is weak, because, as has been seen,
the contagion of medism spread in the North for the most part
after Tempe, and probably in consequence of the fiasco there.
(b.) There exists no means of judging of the truth or falsehood of
his assertions with regard to Leonidas.
(c.) Leonidas’ action is comprehensible on the supposition that
he wished to definitely embroil Thebes in the defence against
the Persian.
(d.) It is quite possible that the Bœotian Plutarch has discovered
a genuine mistake of Herodotus with regard to the name of the
Theban commander.
Two theories are possible: either that these Thebans were taken
as hostages for their fellow-countrymen’s behaviour; or that they
joined the expedition with a patriotism which stood the test of the
extremest danger. Perhaps the most telling piece of evidence
against them may seem to be the smallness of their contingent when
compared with that of the minor town of Thespiæ. But here again the
explanation may be that they shared the evident distrust with which
the Northern States regarded the Peloponnesian effort at
Thermopylæ, and were ready to fulfil their share of the obligation
whenever they saw Sparta willing to undertake hers.
The evidence is not of a kind which renders it possible at the
present day to decide between the truth of the respective versions.
The motives which Herodotus attributes to Leonidas and to the
Thebans at this time may not bear the stamp of conclusive truth; but
they convey, when examined by the side of the contrary evidence, a
stronger impression of truth than of falsehood.
Xerxes’ first measure on taking up his encampment was to send a
118
scout to examine the Greek position. He could not see the whole
119
Greek force, because those within the wall were hidden by it.
Part, however, of the Spartan force was outside the wall, the men
being engaged in exercise and in combing their hair. Having
ascertained their numbers, the scout returned to Xerxes with his
report. His description of what was going on surprised the king, who
appealed to the Spartan Demaratos for an explanation. The latter
told him that it was the national custom of the Spartans to adorn
themselves before facing the danger of death in battle, and warned
H. vii. 210.
him that he must expect a stubborn resistance. The
king, it is said, did not credit this, and allowed four
days to pass “expecting ever that they would run away.” Xerxes’
motive for the delay was probably somewhat different from that given
by Herodotus. The king thought, no doubt, that
THE FIRST ATTACK.
his fleet would within a few days force the
passage of the Euripus, and that, the position of the Greeks being
thus turned, they would have to retreat, and would thus save him the
inevitable losses which must result from an attempt to force a pass
so strong.
On the fifth day his impatience got the better of him, and he
began a fierce assault with his Median and Kissian troops. After the
Persians, the Medes enjoyed the greatest reputation in the army. In
spite of the disparity of numbers, it was an unequal contest.
Numbers were indeed of little avail, the passage being very narrow,
—only fifty feet in width—and the Greeks having either flank
protected by the mountain and the sea. But it was in respect to
actual arms that the disparity was greatest. The Greek hoplite, with
his heavy defensive armour and longer spear, was far more than a
match for the Mede, who practically lacked defensive armour, and
whose weapons of offence were of an inferior character.

H. vii. 211.
The battle lasted all day; for when it became clear
that the Medes could effect nothing, Xerxes sent his
picked Persian troops, the Immortals, to the assault. Even these
signally failed to make an impression on the Greek defence.
The excellence of the Lacedæmonian drill and discipline seems to
have been remarkable. They employed tactics which very few troops
in the world could employ in a narrow space in face of immensely
superior numbers:⁠—an advance; then a pretended retreat, to draw
the enemy on; and then once more a right-about-face to the attack.
The object of this was, no doubt, to keep the enemy at close
quarters. The one thing they had to fear was that the lighter armed
Xen. Anab.
foe should confine himself to an attack with missiles,
iii. 3, 9. in which form of fighting they must have suffered
severely, without being able to retaliate in adequate
fashion.
The attack was repeated next day. The Persians hoped to win the
pass by sheer weight of numbers, knowing that they could afford to
lose ten men for every one of the enemy whom they placed hors de
combat. But again the attack failed.
The king’s position at this time must have been very critical.
Neither army nor fleet had forced a passage, nor had they been able
to resume touch with one another. They maintained a
communication, no doubt, by the coast road running along the north
shore of the Malian gulf; but the transport of supplies to the army,
whether by that route from the fleet, or from the Thessalian plain by
the way of Thaumaki, must have been a work of such difficulty and
magnitude that it is hardly possible to believe that it could have been
adequately maintained.
The failure to reinforce the garrison at Thermopylæ was the most
disastrous mistake which the Greeks made in the course of the war.
Even with the ridiculously small force which was sent, the defence
came very near being a success. Had an army only half the size of
that which fought at Platæa been there, neither pass nor path could
ever have been forced, and the fleet at Artemisium, or at least the
Peloponnesian section of it, would have fought with a very different
spirit to that which it actually displayed. Their stake at Thermopylæ
was too small, and their stake at the Isthmus too great to render
them aught but vacillating defenders of the channel. Had the stakes
been reversed, had the safety of their compatriots at the pass been
largely involved, the fleet would have been inspired with unanimous
courage. And had it been so, the advance of the Persians, in spite of
their superior numbers, might have been definitely checked. It is not
probable, judging from the results of the fighting which did actually
take place, that either side could have gained a decisive advantage
over the other. Though the Greek fleet suffered severely in the final
combat, the Persians were not successful in forcing the strait; and to
them failure in both strait and pass would have meant failure of the
expedition.

Thuc. i. 69.
Men said in Greece in after time that the Persian
was the rock on which he himself made shipwreck.
That expressed but half the truth. It was true in the sense that the
success in the war was not owing to good management on the part
of the Greeks. It was not true in the sense that
THE PATH OF THE
ANOPÆA.
the Persian’s mistakes were the main factor in
his failure. The main factor was conspicuously
the superiority of the Greek weapons in close fighting, a form of
combat which the Persian as the assailant could not avoid. It was a
lesson which the European Greek took long in learning. Aristagoras
the Ionian had pointed it out to Kleomenes when he visited him at
Sparta in the first year of the fifth century. And yet it was not until the
early years of the next century that the Greeks of Europe came to
appreciate to the full the effectiveness of their national panoply as
compared with that of the Persian. The incidents of the strange
adventure of the 10,000 which Xenophon recorded at last convinced
them of the real nature and magnitude of their strength when
matched with the great Empire of the East.
By Malian treachery and Phocian cowardice Xerxes was saved
from the desperate position in which he found himself after the
failure of the two days’ assault on the pass.
The tale runs thus in Herodotus:⁠—
H. vii. 213. “When the king was now at a loss to know
what to do in the circumstances in which he
found himself, Epialtes, a Malian, came to speak with him,
thinking he would get some great reward from the king,
and told him of the path leading through the mountain to
H. vii. 215. Thermopylæ.... Xerxes approved of Epialtes’
proposal, and being much pleased thereat,
immediately despatched Hydarnes and those he
commanded.”

H. vii. 211.
Herodotus says in an earlier chapter that these
were the Immortals.
 “He started from the camp about the time of the lighting
of the lamps. Native Malians discovered this path, and,
after doing so, led the Thessalians by it against the
Phocians, at the time when the latter, after blocking the
pass with a wall, were under cover from attack. Ever since
that time the path has been put to an ill use by the
Malians. The path is as follows: it begins from that part of
120
the Asopos river which flows through the defile.”
“The mountains here and the path are both called by
the same name, Anopæa. This Anopæa extends along the
ridge of the mountain, and debouches at the city of
Alpenos, which is the first Locrian town as you come from
Malis, and by the stone called Melampygos, and at the
seats of the Kerkopes, where it is narrowest. Such is the
nature of the path along which the Persians, after crossing
the Asopos, marched the whole night long, having the
mountains of Œta on their right, and those of Trachis on
their left. Day was dawning when they arrived at the
summit of the mountain. At this part of the mountain, as I
have already shown, a thousand Phocian hoplites were on
guard, protecting their own country, and watching the path.
For the pass below was guarded by the troops I have
mentioned; but the path through the mountains Phocian
H. vii. 218. volunteers undertook to guard for Leonidas. It
was not until the Persians reached the summit
that the Phocians discovered their presence in the
following way. Owing to the mountain being covered with
oak forest, the Persian ascent had been unobserved.
There was no wind, but inasmuch as considerable noise
was inevitably made by the trampling of the feet upon the
leaves, the Phocians proceeded to run up and put on their
armour. The Persians came up immediately. When they
saw men putting on their armour they were amazed, for,
never expecting that any one would appear and oppose
them, they had come upon an army. Hydarnes, then,
fearing that the Phocians were Lacedæmonians,
questioned Epialtes as to the nature of the force; and on
hearing the truth, he drew up the Persians in fighting
order. The Phocians, however, assailed by a thick shower
of arrows, betook themselves in flight to the peak of the
mountain, thinking at first that they were the main object of
attack, and prepared to defend themselves to the death.
Such was their intention; but the Persians with Epialtes
and Hydarnes paid no regard to the Phocians, but
proceeded to descend the mountain with all speed.”

SUMMIT OF ANOPÆA, LOOKING EAST.

1. Mount Saromata.
[To face page 301.

The Path of the Anopæa.

 Leake gives what is, in so far as it goes, a fairly accurate
description of this path (“Northern Greece,” vol. ii.); but he does not
say that he actually traversed it. I am inclined to think that his
information was derived from the natives of old Drakospilia, which
seems to have been in existence in his time. When at Thermopylæ
in July–August, 1899, I was able to traverse the path from beginning
to end. On the first day I had no difficulty in tracing that part of it
which lies above the actual pass of Thermopylæ. I intended to follow
it to its end that day; but, at a monastery on the hills above the plain
west of the pass, we got upon a wrong track, leading straight down
into the plain about two miles east of the Asopos ravine. On the next
day I went up that ravine to try and discover a path, if any, leading
eastwards from it. It took an hour and a quarter to pass through the
ravine at a fairly fast walk. It is, as I have already mentioned, a
magnificent chasm, with perpendicular sides ranging from seven
hundred to nine hundred feet in height. Its width, never great, is in
one place contracted to twelve feet. Just as we were about to issue
upon the great upland valley of which I have before spoken, a small
valley opened out on the left of the ravine, i.e. eastward, and up this
a path led. I went up the path, which was a rough one and steep, for
several miles, until I reached the new main road, high up on the
mountain. On the next day I traced the path from that point to near
the monastery of the Panagia, whence on the first day we had
inadvertently diverged from it. For nine-tenths of the whole distance
from the east end of Thermopylæ to the Asopos ravine, it is
absolutely certain that this is the original path of the Anopæa, for the
very good reason that it traverses the only line which can be
traversed in that very difficult country. In the neighbourhood of the
monastery the monks have caused new paths to be constructed, and
it is therefore not possible to say with certainty which was the original
line of the track. In mentioning distances, I can only speak
approximately for the latter two-thirds of the road, as I could get but
few compass bearings to points in my map, and these were all in the
eastern third of the way. I do not think that I have exaggerated the
distances given, as I have made allowances for the fact that in
traversing an extremely rough track, a large part of which runs
through thick forest, distances seem greater than they really are. The
scenery throughout is most beautiful, finer, I think, than anything I
have seen in Greece. As the track leads through a country inhabited,
in so far as it is inhabited at all, by semi-civilized Vlach shepherds, it
would be unadvisable to attempt to traverse it, at present, at any
rate, save with a fairly large party.
I append a detailed description of the path.
Beginning at the mouth of the Asopos ravine, it goes through that
chasm almost to its far extremity, a distance, I should say, of two and
three-quarter or three miles. For a man or loaded mule the track is
not difficult, and is still greatly used in spite of the making of the new
road. The new road involves a terrific climb. The bottom of the ravine
ascends but slowly; and it is possible to reach the Dorian plain from
its southern extremity without attaining any high elevation.
After passing through this ravine, you begin to ascend a valley
whose sides are dotted, if I remember rightly, by a scanty covering of
small fir-trees. You ascend this valley in a general direction
eastwards, until you emerge, after going from two to two and a half
miles, on the new road, at a height of perhaps two thousand feet.
Crossing that, you proceed through a more or less wooded country
for some two miles, to the monastery of the Panagia, along a very
rough track. The monastery is about two thousand to two thousand
five hundred feet above the plain. From it a steep ascent begins
through low, thick forest on the north side of the ridge of Œta, which
at this point rises about one thousand feet above you on the right,
i.e. on the south. The forest is largely composed of oak, but there are
many fir-trees and some planes. The track is so narrow that you are
obliged to walk in single file. About three miles from the monastery,
when the height attained cannot be less than three thousand two
hundred feet, the forest alters in character, and large fir-trees now
predominate, which appear to the non-botanical eye to be what are
called Scotch firs.
At one point at this part of the track you emerge on a rocky
platform at the top of the rocks marked in my map as the Great
Gable. The traveller through the pass can see them from the road, if
he looks up the great ravine. They rise a little to the right of the line
of the ravine, and are a prominent object against the sky horizon of
the high range. From this point the track leads
THE STATION OF
THE PHOCIANS.
southwards to turn the upper part of the chasm
of the Great Ravine, at a point several miles
from its exit near the hot springs. The view down that ravine, with a
foreground of giant firs and plane-trees, the great flat plain of Malis in
the middle distance, and the range of Othrys in the background, is of
extraordinary magnificence. After descending into the ravine and
ascending the far side of it, you arrive at the site of Palaia-
Drakospilia, a deserted village. From here you ascend for a short
distance through a primæval fir forest, to arrive at an open space on
the ridge which runs back from the great hill above the hot springs at
Thermopylæ. Half a mile away to the north, i.e. towards the summit
above the pass, is an old φρούριον, which evidently guarded the
path in former days. There can be little doubt that this is where the
Phocians were stationed. It is at the true summit of the path, a height
of certainly three thousand two hundred and probably of three
thousand five hundred feet. It accords with the little Herodotus tells
us of the scene of the surprise, save that the trees hereabouts are
not oak, but firs. His mention of the oak-trees may, however, be
taken to apply to the oak forest through which you pass before
arriving at the Great Gable. From this point the path begins to
descend. It is very narrow; often steep and rocky. It goes down an
upland valley filled with dense primæval fir forest, between the ridge
which rises above the pass, and the main ridge of Œta, which rises
to a considerable height on the south, and is known by the name of
Saromata. This continues for several miles,—I cannot say how
many, but I should think not less than five; probably more, as it took
us several hours to traverse the distance. This section of the track
ends at Upper Drakospilia, a village visible from the road at
Thermopylæ, and some one thousand five hundred feet above the
plain. From this place there is at the present day a choice of roads
down to the plain. The easier leads down to a point near the east
gate of the pass, near the site which I believe to be that of Alpenoi.
The other is a steep path descending to the plain at a point about
half-way between the middle and east gates.
 I reckon that the total distance from the Asopos ravine to the little
town of Alpenoi cannot be much less than seventeen miles.

The account given of the seizure of the path is a perfectly

comprehensible one. There is no question that, had the Phocians not
been caught unprepared, the Persians could never have got through.
Numbers would have been of little avail on a track that for the most
part allows only the passage of one, or, at most, two men at a time.
The fact that the defenders were, from the indications given in
Herodotus’ account, caught on what is at the present day practically
the only open ground after the monastery of the Panagia is passed,
affords but little excuse for them. They had committed an enormous
blunder in being taken unprepared; and this blunder was probably
made greater by their having deposited their arms in the fort, which
is not on the road, but half a mile away from it. Had they had their
weapons at hand they could have fallen back on the thick forest to
the east of the open space; and, had they done so, it is difficult to
conceive how the Persians could possibly have forced a passage.
The allegation in Herodotus that they allowed the enemy to pass
under the misapprehension that they were themselves the object of
attack is probably a mere cloke to a mistake in which cowardice
played no small part—an excuse invented by their friends in after-
H. vii. 217.
time. The Persians seem to have arrived at this point
while it was still dark, or at any rate, in the dimness of
the dawn. They started about 7.30 in the evening, and must have
reached this point before 4.30 next morning. That would give them
nine hours in which to accomplish the twelve or thirteen miles from
the mouth of the Asopos ravine. This is about the time which they
might have been expected to take over a path of the character of
that which they had traversed. At this rate of progression they would
probably take three hours more at least to arrive at the point from
which they would for the first time overlook the pass, the site of what
is now Upper Drakospilia. But when they had arrived there, it would
take much time for the long straggling column to come up; and it
may well have been many hours before they were in a position to
venture down the hill into the pass itself. Of the two paths which at
the present day descend from Drakospilia to the road, it is most
probable that only the easier one, which would lead them down to a
point just outside the east gate, existed at that time. The other
seems to have been created by the needs of
A FORLORN HOPE.
the modern Drakospilia for direct
communication with Lamia and its district. It is very precipitous, very
narrow, and easily capable of defence, whereas the other is not.
So far the tale of Thermopylæ is borne out in the most
conspicuous way by the evidence. The remainder of the story,
however, presents features which, though in accord with the purely
topographical circumstances of the present day, raise problems of
peculiar difficulty.

H. vii. 219.
The news that the Persians had discovered the
existence of the path, and had despatched a body of
men to seize it, was brought to the Greek camp by deserters during
the night; its actual seizure seems to have been reported after dawn
by scouts, who probably made their way down from the Phocian
position by the precipitous mountain slopes east of the middle gate.
The tale of what ensued is thus told by Herodotus:⁠—
“On hearing this news, the Greeks consulted together;
and their opinions were divided. Some were against
deserting the position, others of the opposite view. After
this they separated, and some went off, and, dispersing,
went each to their several cities, while others prepared to
remain where they were with Leonidas. There is another
tale to the effect that Leonidas sent them away, in his
anxiety to save their lives, telling them, however, that it did
not stand with his honour and that of the Spartans present
to leave the post they had originally come to guard. I
myself am most inclined to think that Leonidas, when he
saw that the allies were dispirited and unwilling to share
the danger, ordered them to depart, but thought it ignoble
to do so himself. For if he remained at his post, a great
and glorious name awaited him, and the prosperity of
Sparta would not be blotted out.”
 H. vii. 220.
The explanation of the last words is given in the tale
which Herodotus then proceeds to tell, to the effect
that the Pythian oracle had announced to Sparta, quite at the
beginning of the war, that either Sparta would be destroyed by the
barbarians, or that its king would perish. Herodotus thinks that it was
because Leonidas remembered this oracle, and wished to gain glory
for the Spartans alone, that he sent the allies away. He is more
inclined to believe this than that the allies, owing to a quarrel with
him, went after so undisciplined a fashion.
He regards as evidence in favour of this view the fact that
Leonidas ordered the seer Megistios, an Acarnanian, who had the
previous night warned them of the coming disaster, to depart; which
he refused to do.

H. vii. 222.
“The allies, then, who were dismissed, went
away and obeyed Leonidas, save the
Thespians and Thebans, who alone remained with the
Lacedæmonians. Of these the Thebans stayed against
their will, and not wishing to do so, for Leonidas kept them
in the guise of hostages. The Thespians showed every will
to remain, refusing to leave Leonidas and those with him
and depart. So they stayed with them and shared their
death. Their leader was Demophilos, the son of
Diadromos.”
This is a very remarkable incident in the narrative of an episode
which is itself undeniably one of the most remarkable in history. It
contains but little of that reliable element in Herodotus,—fact; it
contains much of the unreliable element,—motive. The facts are
plain, and there is no reason to doubt them. The Spartans, Thebans,
and Thespians remained and took part in the final struggle; the rest
of the allies departed. Who were the latter? By reference to the list of
those present in the pass it will be found that they were Tegeans,
Mantineans, other Arcadians, Corinthians, Phliasians, Mykenæans
Paus. ii. 16,
(though Pausanias mentions a tradition to the effect
5; x. 20, 2. that they remained), and the Opuntian Locrians. The
calculation can only be an approximate one, but,
excluding the Phocians, who were up on the path, and the Opuntian
Locrians, whose number we do not know, 3500 remained, and 2800
121
departed. This division is a somewhat significant one.
The central motive in Herodotus’ story is undoubtedly the reported
oracle delivered to Sparta “quite early in the war.” It is unfortunate,
from the historical point of view, that the tradition assailed the
historian on his weakest side. He was incurable in this respect. Even
the most glaring cases of oracular dishonesty,
DIFFICULTIES IN
THE NARRATIVE.
to which he could not shut his eyes, such as
the tampering of the Alkmæonidæ with the
oracle at Delphi in order to bring about the expulsion of the
Peisistratidæ, never killed his faith in oracular responses in general.
But in cases where, as in the present instance, an oracle came to
point a moral and adorn a tale, he completely surrendered his critical
faculty. The whole of Herodotus’ narrative hangs by this oracle. He
rejects the story that half the army deserted the defence of its own
free will, in order, in accordance with his prime motive, to produce a
story to the effect that Leonidas dismissed them, knowing that he
himself had to make the great act of self-abnegation, and not wishing
to involve them therein. And yet Leonidas keeps the Thebans with
him, and the Thespians remain of their own free will; and, apparently,
he allows them to do so.
If this account be true, what was the position of those three
thousand five hundred Greeks who remained to face the Persian
attack on front and rear? It is not said that they sacrificed themselves
to give their friends time to escape, nor is there the slightest cause to
suppose that there was any reason whatever for their doing so. The
scouts from the top of the mountain must have been down in the
camp at least two hours before the Persians could arrive at the site
of Upper Drakospilia; and, even arrived there, the latter could not
possibly have descended into the pass before their numbers had
gathered. It must have been late in the morning before they came
down, and probably past midday before they began to assail the rear
of the Greek position. Those who escaped had only a mile and a half
to go before they were out of the pass at the east gate; and, once
outside, they were in an easy country, over which they could travel
rapidly.
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