YEAR 8

Unit 1 5
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 7
1. The beginning of the Early Middle Ages 8
2. The East: The two big empires during the Early Middle Ages 9
3. The West 25
SUMMARY 31

Unit 2 37
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 39
1. Feudalism 41
2. Society during Feudalism 47
3. The Crusades 57
4. Pilgrimages 59
5. Romanesque art 61
SUMMARY 67

Unit 3 73
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 75
1. Prosperity in Europe 77 BLOCK
2. The growth of medieval cities 79
3. Crises of the 14th Century
4. Culture and Art
SUMMARY
85
89
97
1

INDEX
3
BLOCK
1

Unit 1
Europe after the
fall of the Western
Roman Empire. The
East and the West
5
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS !
The most important concepts we are going to learn in this unit are:

1 2

The Byzantine The creation of The Germanic The Carolingian

Empire Islam Tribes Empire

The East The West

ACTIVITY

Brainstorming
about all these
concepts.
Each student will
write concepts on
the board.

7
 1. The beginning of the Early Middle Ages

As we studied in the last course, the that by the end of the fourth century the
European continent in the first centuries Roman Empire was divided into two
AD was dominated by the Roman halves by the Emperor Theodosius.
Empire. It was so big and difficult to rule

WESTERN ROMAN
EMPIRE

EASTERN ROMAN
EMPIRE

a. The Western Roman Empire: Its b. The Eastern Roman Empire: Its
capital was Rome. This part of the capital was Constantinople. This part
Empire was much weaker than the East was much stronger than the West and
and only lasted for one more century. lasted for another 11 centuries. The
Eastern Roman Empire was known as
the Byzantine Empire.

Let’s learn what happened in these empires.

8
2. The East: The two big empires
during the Early Middle Ages
After the fall of the Western Roman The Islamic Empire: In the VII century, a
Empire, two empires were created in the man called Mohammad preached a new
East. religion, Islam. The followers of this religion
The Byzantine Empire: This lasted for were called Muslims. They expanded their
ten centuries, from the V century to the XV religion and way of life from the East to the
century. They continued practicing most Mediterranean, creating a large empire.
of the Roman traditions, but they were
influenced by the Greeks, adopting the
Greek language, for example.

2.1. The Byzantine Empire

The Eastern Roman Empire, unlike the Western Roman Empire, lasted for another
ten centuries, until the 15th century.
It was called the Byzantine Empire and the capital was Constantinople.
This empire was influenced by its Roman background but also by the Greek culture.
Actually, they spoke Greek, not Latin.

2.1.1 Why did the Byzantine Empire survive until the XV

century?
a. The Eastern Roman Empire was far away from the Germanic tribes. Its location
made invasions difficult, and the Germanic tribes couldn’t reach this empire.
b. It was ruled by strong emperors called basileus. The most important of them was
Justinian.

9
 INTERESTING FACT!
Under Justinian, the Empire reached its
maximum size and richness. He and his wife
Theodora ruled very efficiently. He created the
Justinian Code, which was a compilation of
laws to be applied in all his empire.
Justinian also gave women the right to own
and buy land, which greatly helped widows
after their husbands had died.

c. The Empire was rich and prosperous. Actually, it was the largest and wealthiest
empire during that time.
• The main economic activity was agriculture. The Empire had fertile lands that
grew wheat, olives and wine.
• Trade was also important due to its strategic location. Lying between Asia and
Europe, the Byzantine Empire was the connection for India, China and Europe.
• The Byzantines introduced the golden coin all over the Empire. It was the
common coin most used in that period, which made trade much easier.
d. The Byzantine Empire had many important cities. The capital, Constantinople,
became one of the richest and biggest cities in the world.

INTERESTING FACT!
Constantinople had around 500,000
people, while cities such as London
had around 50,000.
People were from all over Europe.
Even the Basileus Guard were from 10
Scandinavia.
Justinian was one of the great rulers of the
Middle Ages, but his story is a bit different What he is most famous for is creating the
than the others. For one, he was not born into Justinian Code, a major reform of Byzantine
a wealthy or important family. He was born law. He had all the old Roman laws written
to a peasant woman named Vigilantia in a down, and added new ones. This became the
village in Macedonia. But his uncle Justin, an basis for law in Western Europe, influencing
ambitious member of the Emperor’s Imperial legal systems to this day.
Guard, adopted him. Justinian moved to
Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Justinian had a deep love for the arts, and
Empire, and received a good education, poetry and literature as well as art like icon
learning not only how to read and write, but painting and mosaics prospered. There were
history and law as well. many architectural renovations in public
works such as aqueducts, bridges, dams,
His uncle Justin became important in the fortifications, and especially churches.
imperial court, and when the Emperor
died without an heir in 518, Justin became Many of Justinian’s reforms were unpopular
emperor. His nephew Justinian helped him – the aristocracy was unhappy with their loss
reign, and became emperor himself when of power and the poor were unhappy with the
Justin died in 527. taxes. In 592 tensions came to a head at a
Another difference between Justinian and chariot race where the crowd, divided into
other rulers was that he married for love, the Blues and the Greens, mixing sports with
a woman named Theodora. She was an politics, united and began chanting “Nika!”
actress, and Justinian had to change two (meaning “Win!” “Victory!” or “Conquer!”)
laws to be able to marry her. She was a This began a riot that lasted five days.
very intelligent woman, and a champion of The Nika Riot destroyed much of the city,
women’s rights. As empress, she helped including the church Hagia Sophia. Justinian
make many laws protecting women and then rebuilt it, transforming it into one of the
expanding their rights. most beautiful buildings in the world.
Justinian died in 565, after ruling for almost
It was Justinian’s dream to reestablish 40 years. As he had no children, his nephew
the glory of the Roman Empire, and he Justin II became emperor. Justinian was the
reconquered much of the land that had been last Roman emperor to speak Latin, and the
lost after Rome’s fall. last to be called “the Great”. He was such a
He was also a strong supporter of the hard worker he was known as “the emperor
Orthodox teaching of the Christian Church, who never sleeps”.
spreading Christianity and suppressing
paganism. I TY
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AC

t
t ex or
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11
2.1.2 Decline of the Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire reached its emerged: The Ottoman Empire. The
maximum size with Justinian, but after Ottomans are known as Turks.
his death, the empire started losing They tried to invade the Byzantine
territories. Empire many times. In 1453, the
In the 11th century the Bulgarians Ottomans conquered Constantinople
conquered part of the Empire. and that was the end of the Byzantine
In the 13th century, a new empire Empire.

INTERESTING FACT! IV ITY

ACT
Historians consider the end of Ancient
History and the beginning of the Middle
Ages when the Western Roman Empire fell
in 476 AD. Historians also consider the end
y our
of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the h
wit vents
Early Modern Age in 1493, when the Eastern cu s s
he of
Roman Empire fell. Dis s whic e end in
h
cla rked t Ages y.
s
ma Middle entur e
the 15th
c n th
o
the e them .
rd
boa
c
Pla

2.1.3 Religion and Culture

a. Religion
• The Byzantine Empire followed the same religion as the Western one: Christianity.
• Religion was very important in the Byzantine Empire, with a great influence
over their society.
• But the Byzantine Church developed in a different way than the Roman Catholic
Church. There was a division between the Patriarch of Constantinople and the
Pope in Rome. In 1054 the Byzantine Church split from the Roman Church.
This is known as the East-West
Schism.
From that moment the Christian
Church was divided into:
• The Byzantine Church, known
as the Orthodox Church,
whose main authority was the
Patriarch of Constantinople,
and
• The Roman Catholic Church,
whose main authority was the
Pope in Rome.

12
b. Culture
The Byzantine Empire was a great center of learning and they developed an
extraordinary culture.

IT Y
TIV
AC

INTERESTING FACT!
The Cyrillic alphabet. It was developed by
some Byzantine monks called “the Apostles m e in
n a
of Slavs”. This alphabet with its modifications y our ic.
spread in many European countries and te
Wri Cyr
ill n t ries
u
nowadays is used in around 50 different f o r co e the
languages, such as Russian. e a rch till us abet
S ts ph
tha llic al ys.
a
Cyr owad
i
n

13
The most outstanding art works were:
1. Mosaics: These were placed on the walls. Most of the mosaics had religious
topics, although there is a famous one of Justinian and his wife Theodora in Ravenna.
2. Architecture: The most important building was the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
The main elements were:
The Greek cross plan, which replaced the Latin cross plan.
The use of semicircular arches and a big central dome.
The use of poor materials such as bricks or tiles.
Mosaics on the inside of the building.
3. Icons: These were very important, and were normally images of Christ, saints
and the Virgin. They were painted on panels, covered by gold.

INTERESTING FACT!
Hagia Sophia was an architectural wonder,
built with a huge dome. It was the largest
cathedral in the world for almost 1000 years,
until the Seville Cathedral was completed in
1520.

14
 The Byzantine Empire

Justinian and Theodora´s contributions Division of the Christian Church

1. 1.

2. 2.

Decline of the Byzantine Empire The most outstanding works of art

1. 1.

2. 2.

IT Y
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AC

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Coo this c Write
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Fill group deas f
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15 you st two h.
lea eac
2.2. Islam
2.2.1 Creation of Islam
Islam is a religion that was founded by called Arabs, people from the Arabian
a man called Mohammad. Mohammad Peninsula.
was a trader from Mecca, a city in the
Arabian Peninsula. Mohammad preached a new religion.
He said that there was only one God:
In the VII century, inhabitants from Allah. People from Mecca didn’t like
the Arabian Peninsula were mainly this, as they were polytheistic, so they
nomads who lived in different tribes and expelled Mohammad and he moved to
traded around the peninsula. Before another city called Medina in the year
Islam, these people were polytheistic; 622.
they worshiped many gods. They were

INTERESTING FACT!
The year 622 is known as the Hegira.
This marks the beginning of the Islamic
calendar.

ACT
IVIT
Y

Che
c
inte k on th
rnet e
othe w
r cu hich
hav
e di ltures
cale ff
nda erent
rs
ours than
.

Mohammad continued preaching When Mohammad conquered Mecca, it

his religion in Medina, getting many became the Holy City for the Muslims.
followers. Some years later he had a
great army that conquered Mecca
and the rest of the Arabian Peninsula.

16
2.2.2 Islamic Religion
The religion founded by Mohammad is based on the Five Pillars of Faith.

You must believe there is only one God, called

Allah, and Mohammad is his prophet.

You must pray five times a day, facing Mecca.

You must fast during the Ramadan month.

You should go on a pilgrimage to Mecca at

least once in your life.

You must give charity to the poor.

INTERESTING FACT!
This is the annual pilgrimage to the Kaaba
in Mecca. Every Muslim should do this
pilgrimage at least once in their life, and every
year about 3 million Muslims from all over the
world come here.

These pillars are written in the Quran. This is the sacred book for Islam.
In the Quran other laws are written, not just the five pillars, but laws the Muslims
must follow. Examples of these laws are:
Eating pork is forbidden.
Muslims cannot drink alcohol.
Gambling is also forbidden.
Images of human figures are forbidden. This law includes the
prohibition of images of Allah or Mohammad.

17
INTERESTING FACT!
Mohammad never wrote the Quran. Muslims
believe that when Mohammad was 40, he went to
a cave. The Angel Gabriel appeared to him inside
this cave and started giving him different messages
from God. He went to the cave often for 23 years
and his followers memorized his preaching. The
Quran was written after Mohammad´s death, in the
middle of the 7th century.

ACTIVITY

In pairs, compare the

three monotheistic
religions: their holy
book, holy cities,
foundation, most
important persons…

18
2.2.3 Islamic Expansion
When Mohammad died, almost all the Arabian Peninsula was Muslim, thanks to the
army he could recruit.
After Mohammad´s death, his followers, encouraged by their faith and powerful
army, started creating a big empire. This empire expanded in three different stages.

Expansion under Muhammad 622-632

Expansion under the first four caliphs 632-661

Expansion under the Ummayad Caliphate 661-750

1. The Orthodox Caliphate

This Caliphate was ruled by the descendants of Mohammad. These leaders were
called caliphs.
The capital was Medina.
The territories were the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt and Persia.
The Umayyad family took full control when the last caliph was assassinated.
2. The Umayyad Caliphate
The capital was moved to Damascus.
The title of caliph became hereditary, by members of the Umayyad family.
Under the Umayyad, the empire reached its maximum size. It expanded from the
Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley and North Africa.

3. The Abbasid Caliphate

The Umayyad family was deposed by the Abbasid family. Most of the members of
the Umayyad family were assassinated by them.
The Abbasid family moved the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. This family ruled
for over 500 years, but the empire became weaker and weaker, as well as smaller.
First the Turks conquered the caliphate, but the Abbasid family continued ruling.
Finally the Mongols conquered Baghdad, and the empire was over.

19
2.2.4 Life during the Caliphate
a. Economy
The main economic activity was agriculture.
In Arabia they continued practicing nomadism with sheep and camels, but in some
territories they started developing significant agricultural techniques.

As Arabs were natives of the desert, a very dry area where it was difficult to find
water, they had to consider different ways to get water.
These new techniques were:
• The use of ditches and wells, digging in the earth to access and carry water.
• Waterwheels to extract water.
They started cultivating crops such as cotton, sugar cane, rice, citruses and
aubergine.

ITY
ACTIV

e on the
c u
hen yo
P l a
a r d w
bo sed an n
y
h a v e u
s e c rops i
ly life.
of th e
r d a i
you

b. Trade
The strategic location of the Islamic empire was crucial for their trade
development.
As they were between the East and Asia, they could trade goods between
the two, like metals, silks, fabrics or slaves.
• By land they covered rough and difficult distances thanks to their
efficient camels. They formed large caravans to cover long distances
through the deserts in Africa and in the Arabian Peninsula.
• By sea they used sailboats to reach long distances around the
Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean.

20
c. Society
During the Caliphate, cities became important centers as many people lived there.
Cities were the center of economic, political and religious life. The Medina was
the walled part and it held the most important buildings inside.
It was walled so the population could be protected from attacks, and at that time
there were many, many attacks!
Cities had narrow streets, sometimes covered by fabrics for protection from the sun.
The walls had entrances that were closed during the night.

The most important buildings were:

• The souk: It was the market place, the center of commercial activity.
It was located around the main mosque.
• The main mosque: This was the religious center. Every Friday the
communal prayer was held.
• The public baths: They were similar to the Roman ones. They had
warm, cold and hot water halls. Everyone inside the city could use
them, but women and children in the afternoon and men during the
morning.
• The storage room: They kept the grain inside the walls as protection
from thieves.
• Outside walls: There were small houses where poor people lived,
those who worked in the agricultural lands.

ITY
ACTIV

ke
g r o u ps, ma ut
In ap abo t
a l l m
a sm i m portan n
the m in your tow
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buildi pare them t it
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and co city. Pres
en
li m
a Mus your class.
to

21
In the cities of the caliphate, most of the population were Muslims.
• The most important of all of them were the Arabs. They claimed
to be the descendants of Mohammed. They held the important
positions.
• The majority were a large group of people that converted to
Islam. They were peasants, traders or craftsmen. They had
some privileges.
• Some groups of Christians and Jews also lived in the cities,
but they were unprivileged classes and had to pay more
taxes.
• The slaves were normally war prisoners.

Women were under men’s authority, and they had few

rights.
They depended on their father and then on their
husbands.
According to the Quran law, a man could marry four women
if he was able to maintain them.
Women normally lived hidden inside the house in a particular area called
the harem.
They barely left the house.
Women´s main activity was to take care of the children and look after
the house.

2.2.5. Islamic Legacy

• Muslims learnt Arabic in order to read the Quran, so Arabic became the official
language in the Caliphate, shared by all people from the empire.
• The Arabs expanded the use of paper that they learnt from China.
• From the East they also brought the decimal system, which we still use.
• Muslim art.

They used poor materials such as tiles, brick, and plaster.

Decoration was very important. The main elements were:
• Calligraphic motifs
• Geometric patterns
• Arabesque (floral motifs)

INTERESTING FACT!
In the Muslim religion the human figure
is forbidden in art, so they used their
decorative calligraphy instead.

22
The use of the horseshoe arch was
prevalent.
Buildings were covered by flat wooden
roofs and domes.
They used columns and pillars.
The main buildings were the mosques
and palaces.

Water was essential in the Islamic world. They created fountains and ponds to
decorate the palaces, which made for relaxing atmospheres.

AC
TIV
INTERESTING FACT!
ITY
As Arabs came from the desert, they really
appreciated having water. In most of their
palaces and mosques, fountains could be
Ven found as a symbol of wealth and prosperity.
n
Com diagr
Byz am
ant are th :
p
in
mic e and
Isla e
th
pire e
Em
s.

23
24
3. The West

3.1 The Germanic Kingdoms

The Western Roman Empire was attacked by different tribes
from the North (Germanic tribes) for many years. Finally, in
476 A.D. the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus, was
deposed.

INTERESTING FACT!
War was an important part of Germanic culture. Young boys
started battle training very early and were given a spear and
shield when they became a man; losing them was a loss of
honour. (“Germanic” literally means “spear man”.) They were
intensely devoted to their tribal leaders, or chieftains. Their
fighting abilities and passion made them win many battles,
even against the great Roman soldiers.

These tribes settled in different areas and created their own kingdoms. These
kingdoms lasted for around two centuries.

• The Ostrogoths settled in what is now Italy.

• The Angles and Saxons settled in the British Islands.
• The Franks settled in Gaul, nowadays France.
• The Visigoths (as we studied last course) settled in the Iberian Peninsula.
• The Vandals settled in North Africa.

ITY
ACTIV

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Locat as. In grou
t l e
your a ou will hav
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a sma gs you kno
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Write e s e a reas. T
about
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25
3.1.1 How were these tribes organized?
These Germanic kingdoms had similar characteristics.

Politics: There was not a concept of empire anymore. The Empire was divided into
independent kingdoms, ruled by a king. At the beginning, the king was chosen by a
group of nobles, but later it became hereditary.

Economy: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, travelling became extremely
dangerous and difficult, so trade decreased dramatically. Most of the merchants and
craftsmen disappeared, as they didn´t have anyone to trade with.
The economy was based on agriculture and livestock farming. It was a subsistence
economy, meaning they only had enough to survive.

Society: Cities were very dangerous, as the Germanic tribes invaded them. Most
of the population left the cities and went to the countryside to work on the lands. As
agriculture was the main economic activity, people became peasants. They started
working for the nobles as serfs.

Culture: Culture lost importance with the Germanic tribes. Big constructions
disappeared, and education was only found in the monasteries.

Religion: The Germanic tribes adopted the official Roman religion: Christianity.

INTERESTING FACT!
Arianism. Most of the Germanic tribes
had converted to Arianism, a Christian
heresy. But around the 6th century most
of them adopted Catholicism.

ROMAN EMPIRE GERMANIC TRIBES

Politics: Who ruled the

country?
IV ITY
Economy: What were the ACT
main activities?

Society: Where and how

did they live?
to
p airs e.
abl
Culture: How did it
rk in
develop? Wo this t
n
fill i

26
3.2 The Carolingian Empire
3.2.1 Clovis I
Clovis I was the first king of the Franks, a Germanic tribe settled in Gaul. He
unified these tribes and changed their leadership from chieftains to one king, whose
title was hereditary, not elected.
Clovis’ kingdom blended Roman and
Germanic cultural traditions. His military
victories expanded his dynasty, as well as
his religious unification. Many Germanic
tribes were either pagans or Arian
Christians. But Clovis’ wife, Saint Clotilde,
converted him to Catholicism, and he was
baptized on Christmas Day, 508 AD.
3.2.2. Charles Martell
Known as “Charles the Hammer”, Charles Martell was a descendent of Clovis.
His military campaigns established control over most of modern-day Western
Europe (north of the Pyrenees), and he and his son Pepin the Short founded the
Carolingian dynasty.
One of Charles’ most famous accomplishments was his victory at the Battle of
Tours in the year 732. The Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate in the Iberian
Peninsula had invaded Gaul, and their defeat at the hands of Charles Martell
stopped their northward advance, and kept control of what was to become Europe
in the hands of the Christian Frankish kings.

Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours, depicted in the Grandes Chroniques de France

INTERESTING FACT!
Stirrups. The Arabic forces had a superior cavalry, which
used stirrups, until then unknown in the West. Bracing
against the horse to use a weapon forcefully and the
better maneuverability changed the concept of cavalry
in warfare and gave rise to the importance of knights
in Medieval Europe.

27
3.2.3. Charlemagne
It was Charles the Hammer’s grandson Western Roman Empire, trade had
who would become the most famous decreased and the economy became
of Medieval Europe’s kings. subsistence. Charlemagne
Charlemagne, or Charles promoted a balanced
the Great, became king of economy of free trade,
the Franks at age 26, when industry, agriculture
his father, Pepin the Short, (with new techniques) and
died in the year 768. He has importantly, a standard
been called “the Father currency based on silver.
of Europe”, as his empire Culture and education
united most of Western had also declined during
Europe and began the the Germanic invasions.
Carolingian Renaissance, Charlemagne himself could
with economic, political, not read well or write, but
intellectual and cultural he considered education
revivals. essential, and created
Charlemagne was a strong schools of learning. These
military leader – he spent were based in monasteries,
over 30 years fighting to expand but Charlemagne made sure there was
his empire. But he was also a good standardized learning for lay people as
administrator and set up a strong, well.
efficient government.
As we have studied, with the fall of the

INTERESTING FACT!
Illuminated manuscripts. Books were
rare and expensive in the Middle Ages.
Charlemagne recognized the importance
of the written word, and had scholars copy
all the old manuscripts. This had to be done
by hand, and each page was decorated
with drawings and designs covered in gold.

He created the Carolingian minuscule, a

new writing system that made copying and
reading much easier throughout the entire
empire.

28
Charlemagne also began to reform the Church by strengthening, improving and
standardizing religious practices. He continued what the Frankish kings had done:
give money and land to the Catholic Church, and protect the Pope from invasions.
To acknowledge Charlemagne’s power and reinforce his relationship with the Church,
in Rome, on Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of
the Romans – the first person to hold this title in 300 years.

Charlemagne’s empire included much of what we now call Europe.

29
3.2.4. The decline of the Carolingian Empire
Charlemagne was 70 years old when protecting their own lands. They
he died in 814, and his empire passed became semi-independent (which gave
to his third son Louis, as his two older rise to the system of feudalism) and
sons had died. Louis was a religious the concept of empire was lost.
man – he was called Louis the Pious – In 888 the last king, Charles the Fat,
but not such a strong ruler as his father, died, marking the end of the Carolingian
and with such a large empire, there Empire.
were internal power struggles.
When Louis the Pious died in 840, all
three of his sons wanted the throne.
There was a civil war for three years,
and with the Treaty of Verdun in 843
the kingdom was divided into three

ACTIVITY
parts. (These eventually became the
modern-day countries of Italy, France
and Germany.)
Adding to this were the almost constant
attacks by the Vikings from the north,
the Saracens (Arab Muslims) from the
south, and the Magyars (a Hungarian
tribe) from the east.
With such a weak central government,
the local nobles concentrated on

When the Western Roman Empire

fell, many things fell with it: art,
literature, education, architecture,
roads, trade, technology…. The
Carolingian kings made many reforms
to rebuild an empire. In groups of
four, list what you think were the
most important things that were lost,
and what was done to restore them.
Present this to the class.

30
 SUMMARY

KEY WORDS!
Justinian Mohammad Germanic tribes
Orthodox Church Mecca Treaty of Verdun
Hagia Sophia Quran Charlemagne

1. The East: The two big Empires during the Early Middle
Ages

1.1. The Byzantine Empire

The Eastern Roman Empire, unlike the

Western Roman Empire, lasted for another
ten centuries, until the 15th century.
It was called the Byzantine Empire and the
capital was Constantinople.
This empire was influenced by its Roman
background but also by the Greek culture.
Actually, they spoke Greek, not Latin.

1.1.1 Why did the Byzantine Empire survive until the XV century?
a. The Eastern Roman Empire was far away from the Germanic tribes. Its location made
invasions difficult, and the Germanic tribes couldn’t reach this empire.
b. It was ruled by strong emperors called basileus. The most important of them was Justinian.
c. The Empire was rich and prosperous. Actually, it was the largest and wealthiest empire
during that time.
d. The Byzantine Empire had many important cities. The capital, Constantinople, became
one of the richest and biggest cities in the world.

31
1.2 The Islamic Empire

1.2.1 Creation of Islam

Islam is a religion that was founded by a man peninsula. Before Islam, these people were
called Mohammad. Mohammad was a trader polytheistic; they worshiped many gods. They
from Mecca, a city in the Arabian Peninsula. were called Arabs, people from the Arabian
Peninsula.
In the VII century, inhabitants from the Mohammad preached a new religion. He said
Arabian Peninsula were mainly nomads who that there was only one God: Allah.
lived in different tribes and traded around the

1.2.2 Islamic Religion

The religion founded by Mohammad is based on the Five Pillars of Faith.

You must believe there is only one God, called

Allah, and Mohammad is his prophet.

You must pray five times a day, facing Mecca.

You must fast during the Ramadan month.

You should go on a pilgrimage to Mecca at

least once in your life.

You must give charity to the poor.

These pillars are written in the Quran.

2. The West
2.1 The Germanic Kingdoms
The Western Roman Empire was attacked by different tribes
from the North (Germanic tribes) for many years. Finally, in
476 A.D. the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus, was
deposed.
These tribes settled in different areas and created their own
kingdoms. These kingdoms lasted for around two centuries.

32
2.1.1 How were these tribes organized?
These Germanic kingdoms had similar Society: Cities were very dangerous, as
characteristics. the Germanic tribes invaded them. Most
Politics: There was not a concept of empire of the population left the cities and went to
anymore. The Empire was divided into the countryside to work on the lands. As
independent kingdoms, ruled by a king. At the agriculture was the main economic activity,
beginning, the king was chosen by a group of people became peasants. They started
nobles, but later it became hereditary. working for the nobles as serfs.
Economy: After the fall of the Western
Roman Empire, travelling became extremely Culture: Culture lost importance with
dangerous and difficult, so trade decreased the Germanic tribes. Big constructions
dramatically. Most of the merchants and disappeared, and education was only found in
craftsmen disappeared, as they didn´t have the monasteries.
anyone to trade with.
The economy was based on agriculture Religion: The Germanic tribes adopted the
and livestock farming. It was a subsistence official Roman religion: Christianity.
economy, meaning they only had enough to
survive.

2.2 The Carolingian Empire

2.2.1 Charlemagne
Charlemagne, or Charles Charlemagne was a strong
the Great, became king of military leader – he spent over
the Franks at age 26, when 30 years fighting to expand his
his father, Pepin the Short, empire. But he was also a good
died in the year 768. He has administrator and set up a strong,
been called “the Father of efficient government.
Europe”, as his empire united On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo
most of Western Europe III crowned Charlemagne Emperor
and began the Carolingian of the Romans – the first person
Renaissance, with economic, to hold this title in 300 years.
political, intellectual and
cultural revivals.

2.2.2 The decline of the Carolingian Empire

Charlemagne was 70 years old when he died of his sons wanted the throne. There was a
in 814, and his empire passed to his third civil war for three years, and with the Treaty of
son, Louis. Louis was a religious man – he Verdun in 843 the kingdom was divided into
was called Louis the Pious – but not such a three parts.
strong ruler as his father, and with such a large
empire, there were internal power struggles. The Early Middle Ages were drawing to a
When Louis the Pious died in 840, all three close.

33
BLOCK
1

Unit 2
Feudalism

37
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS !
The most important concepts we are going to learn in this unit are:

1 2 3 4

How people lived A new way of The Pilgrimages The type of art
during the first government and Crusades at that time:
centuries of the called Romanesque
Middle Ages Feudalism

ACTIVITY

Brainstorming
about Feudalism.
Students will write
concepts on the
board.

39
1. Feudalism

1.1 What is Feudalism?

It is the political, economic and social system prevalent in Europe for almost four
centuries, from the 9th century to the 13th century.
Feudalism is characterized by:
• The weakness of the kings.
• The strength of the lords.
• A society based on the relationships of interdependence among people.
• A self-sufficient economy based on agriculture.

1.2 Why did Feudalism start?

When the Carolingian Empire disappeared, Europe was a dangerous place. Many
tribes from all directions tried to invade many areas in Europe.

• Magyars, Bulgarians and Slavs attacked Central Europe.

• Vikings from Scandinavia attacked the Atlantic coasts.
• Muslims from North Africa attacked the Mediterranean coasts.

41
 Advantages Disadvantages

You all run away. It's the only

chance you have.

Ask the nearest villages for

help, or even the lord or the
king.

You are brave and you decide

to fight for your village and
face the Vikings.

You don't find any other

option but to join the enemy,
and become part of the
Vikings.

IT Y
TIV
INTERESTING FACT! AC
Vikings were farmers from Scandinavia
(nowadays Denmark, Norway and Sweden).
They were very good sailors and had very
e
fast ships called longships. These had a u st b e
m th
narrow, long shape to sail in rivers as well as
c t i vity atch n
the sea. When there was no wind, they used
T h is a irst, w . The .
oars. These ships had shields for protection i n g s.
u p s. F ikings 00 AD
and normally a dragon´s head to scare the Vik in gro the V ar 10 with
e ut ye ge
villages they attacked. Vikings attacked don o abo is the ll villa to the
villages, and thanks to these boats they could vide ine it a sma , next oming
g e
quickly escape and return home. ima live in peopl s are c ld you
You r own Viking t shou ith the
you t. The . Wha wer w tion
s ou ns op
coa tack y our a hich ?
to a ustify lass. hoose
t y W
c
do? of the finally
J c
42
res ill you
t
w
Most of the population was formed by some concessions.
peasants, also known as villeins. As the peasants found protection in the
Peasants couldn’t fight against these powerful nobles rather than the king,
invaders, so they needed protection. they started working in the nobles’ lands,
In the 9th century the kings were weak paying taxes and rents in exchange for
and too poor to have a large permanent protection. This position made nobles
army to protect their people, so they had very powerful, and sometimes even
to ask the powerful local nobles with more powerful than the king.
their private armies for help. The nobles
swore loyalty to the king in exchange for

1.3 How did Feudalism work?

With such a weak central government,
feudalism established a strong social This is called the vassal system, where
order, with each level of society one person became a vassal to another,
dependent on the other with their rights receiving land or protection in return for
and responsibilities. services. The relationship of lord and
vassal was very important in the Middle
Feudalism was an exchange of land Ages.
and services. It was like a contract:
• The lord gave land (fief) to his There were four levels.
vassal.
• The vassal gave the lord loyalty,
such as military service, taxes, and
work obligations.

43
The king
The king gave land (fief), as well as money and protection to the nobles.

Nobles (lords)
The nobles gave the king protection (with their knights) as well as
food or money as needed.
The lords protected their land and the people who worked it.
They gave land to their knights.

Knights
The knights gave military service and protection.

Peasants / Serfs
• They formed the majority of the feudal system. They worked
the land and also paid taxes to the lord. In return, they
received protection and were allowed to live on the land.
• Free peasants worked the manor lands, but were also given a
small piece of land to work for themselves.
• Unfree peasants (serfs) were tied to the lord’s lands. They
could not leave nor even marry without the lord’s permission.

INTERESTING FACT!
A commendation ceremony was a formal, public IVITY
ceremony to show the mutual obligation between A CT
the lord and his vassal. There were two parts: the
act of homage and the oath of fealty.
The vassal knelt before the lord with no hat and no
weapon, his hands together, to show his submission.
e will
The lord took the vassal’s hands. ,o n e
The vassal then placed his hands on the Bible or p airs lord, th l.
In the ass
a
a saint’s relic and made an oath (promise) to be be the v r own
er u
faithful to the lord. oth rm yo ation
fo d
Per mmen ny.
co remo
ce
44
1.4 How was a fief organized?
During feudalism, people lived in and were normally granted to the nobles
fiefdoms. They were large territories in or to the clergy.
the countryside that belonged to the king

Castle

Land cultivated for the Lord

Planted field Bridge Mill

Church

Common pasture
Orchard

The fiefdom was divided into: granted to the free peasants by the lord.
The demesne, the lord’s land. It included The peasants had to pay a rent for them
the castle or manor house, the best and also worked for the lord.
agrarian lands (cultivated by the lord’s These lands normally contained the
serfs and sometimes by free peasants), villages where the peasants lived and
and pastures for the livestock. the church.
The forest, which only the king or the The fiefdom also contained a mill, an oven
nobles could use. It was used for hunting and a press. All belonged to the lord, and
or to gather firewood. peasants had to pay to use them.
The rivers were used for water resources When people from outside the fiefdom
or for fishing. wanted to use the bridges, they had to
The peasants’ lands were plots of lands pay a toll in order to pass the lord’s land.

INTERESTING FACT!
One of the lords’ favorite activities was
hunting; as the forest provided the best
game, these lands could only be used by
the nobles.

45
 ACTIVITY

Multidisciplinary activity
In art class or in history class,
create your own fiefdom. This
activity can be done in groups.
Each group must create one
part of the fiefdom. Then all
the parts can be placed on the
walls of the class following the
structure of the fiefdom.

These fiefdoms were self-sufficient. As a consequence trade almost

Everything needed for daily life was disappeared. Few merchants travelled
produced there: the agricultural tools, the from one fief to another.
craft works, and the agricultural products.

IT Y
TIV
AC

n t vs. e
ffi cie irs, on
f-su pa ient
Sel mer. In -suffic will
n su a self other are
c o be the mp
will n and er. Co life,
so m r l
per consu in you ou wil
a y y .
be ne da how u need
o ining yo e
46 x p l a
h i n g s
i t t o th
e t t
e t the resen .
g n p class
The
2. Society during Feudalism

2.1 Estates
Society was divided into different groups called estates. The group a person
belonged to depended on their birth. You could not change from one estate to
another – people stayed in the same estate all their lives. The only exception was
the clergy.
There were three estates, and each had a specific role to play in medieval society.

• The First Estate: the clergy. They were those who belonged to the Church.
They prayed for the salvation of the people.

• The Second Estate: the nobility. Their role was to protect the rest of the people.
They had the military function.

• The Third Estate: the peasants. This was the majority of the population, the
common people. Most of them were peasants, but there were also craftsmen and
merchants.

• The King was above all the Estates.

The privileged estates (the clergy and the nobility) didn’t have to pay taxes, while
the non-privileged (the Third Estate) did pay taxes.

47
2.2 The clergy
The clergy’s main activities were to pray for the salvation of people, administer the
sacraments and preach.

2.2.1 The function of the Church

The Church was crucial in everyone’s lives. It had many functions.

a. Social: The Church administered sacraments that were important during people’s
lives: births, marriages, and deaths. The Church also took care of the poor, the
sick, and orphans.
b. Political: The Church usually intervened in the disputes between kingdoms;
kings normally took advice from the Church.
c. Economic: As the Church was a privileged estate, it didn’t pay taxes. The Church
owned many fields, and the peasants who worked in these lands paid a tithe. This
was a kind of tax, where people had to pay a tenth of their income to the Church.
d. Cultural: During the Middle Ages, most people didn’t know how to read and
write. As the Church members were the only ones who could, most culture was
kept at the monasteries.
INTERESTING FACT!
The bells of the towers from monasteries
marked the peasants’ working hours, as
well as their resting ones.

2.2.2 Organization of the Church

The head of the Church was the Pope. He had his own army in
the territories he controlled, called the Papal States.

Below the Pope there were two groups:

a. The secular clergy

The leaders were the bishops and archbishops. They were part
of the high clergy and came from the nobility.

Under them were the priests, who were in charge of the parishes.
They belonged to the low clergy and came from the Third Estate.

48
b. The regular clergy
These were the members of religious orders.

The leaders were the abbots and abbesses. They were part of the
high clergy and came from the nobility. They ran the monasteries.

The monks and nuns came from the Third Estate. They lived in
monasteries or in convents.

INTERESTING FACT!
During the Middle Ages, new religious orders were
created. Each was formed by a group of people who
shared the same religious principles and devotions.
Each religious order had specific vows (obligations)
they had to follow.
The most important religious order during the Middle
Ages was the Benedictine.

ACTIVITY

Computer activity. This

activity must be done in
groups. Each group will
search for information about
one religious order. Look
for the year of foundation,
INTERESTING FACT! the habit they wore,
religious vows, activities
Military orders. During the Middle
they were dedicated to…
Ages, military orders appeared. They
were created to defend the Christian On the board you will
faith and to protect Jerusalem. It was compare all of them.
a combination of the military and the
religious life. They had lots of donations
and became very powerful. The Knights
Templar, or the Templars, became very
famous.

49
The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon,
Solomon, commonly
known as the Knights Templar or the Order of the Temple, Temple, were among the
most famous of the Western Christian military orders. The organization lasted for
two centuries in the Middle Ages. It was founded after the First Crusade of 1096,
with its original purpose to ensure the safety of the many Christians who made the
pilgrimage to Jerusalem after it was taken over from the Muslim Turks.
It was officially endorsed by the Roman Catholic Church around 1129, and became
a favored charity by many Christians and grew fast in membership and power.
Templar knights wore white mantles quartered by a red cross and were among the
most skilled fighting units of the Crusades.
Those members of the Order that did not fight managed a large economic
infrastructure throughout Christendom, innovating financial techniques that
were an early form of banking, and building many fortifications throughout the
Mediterranean and the Holy Land.
The Templars' success was tied closely to the Crusades; when the Holy Land was
lost, support for the Order faded.
No precise numbers exist, but it is estimated that at the order's peak there were
between 15,000 and 20,000 Templars, of whom about a tenth were actual knights.

Knights Templar facts for kids

ACTIVITY

Reading Activity
Read the text and answer
the questions.
1. Why were the Templars
founded?
2. What were two other
activities?
3. Draw a picture of their
uniform.

50
2.2.3 The importance of monasteries
Monasteries were essential in the Middle Age; many people joined them.
They were built in the countryside. There were many parts with different functions.

3 8
4
2 9 6

1. The church was the most important part. This was where monks prayed.
They normally had to pray eight times a day.
2. Cells for the monks: They were the bedrooms and also where monks
prayed and studied.
3. Cloister: This was where monks could walk, pray and have some fresh
air.
4. Atrium: The entrance.
5. Workshops: Here monks could do carpentry work, forge, make wine…
6. Infirmary: The place where they took care of sick people.
7. Hospice: Here they sheltered the pilgrims.
8. Scriptorium: This was one of the most important parts of the monasteries.
It contained the monks’ manuscripts. Monks also copied books with
miniatures by hand.
9. Kitchen and refectory: Where they cooked and ate.
Monks spent their time mainly praying, but they also had to do other
things like cleaning, looking after the poor and sick, working on the land
and preparing meals. Teaching and learning were also important activities
in the monasteries.
The food they ate was very basic, mainly consisting of vegetables, soup,
fruit, eggs and bread. They rarely ate fish and meat - only on special
occasions.
51
2.3 The nobility
This group was composed of a small group of people, with divisions among them.
The upper nobility: They were the owners of large fiefdoms. They were the
marquises, counts or dukes. Their title was hereditary and they were the direct
vassals of the king.
The lower nobility: They usually had a horse and their weapons. Their fortune was
very limited.
Nobles dedicated almost all their life to training themselves for war.

INTERESTING FACT!
Nobles started their military training when they
were very young. At the beginning they were
pages. Then they became squires and offered
their services to a knight. At approximately the
age of 20 they became knights.

In times of war the king requested their military help. When the
war was over, the nobles continued training in case of another
one. Popular activities to do this were hunting or participating in
tournaments.
Nobility ate lots of meat and fish.
They wore fine clothes made of expensive fabrics with rich adornments.

INTERESTING FACT!
In times of peace the nobles met in tournaments.
There were pretend battles between groups of
nobles. The knights could show their fighting
abilities and also train for war. But tournaments
could be dangerous! Even though the lances
were blunted, knights were sometimes
injured.

52
Noblewomen were expected to get married and have children. They married their
father’s choice and they had to be obedient to their husbands. Their main activity was
to manage the house and raise the children.
They also spent their time weaving and sewing. They rarely left the castle.

2.3.1 Castles
Nobles lived in castles. The castle was normally
in the high area of the fiefdom for protection from
enemies. In times of war the castle was the place
where the rest of the population took refuge.

It was surrounded by a defensive wall and

towers to see their enemies.

The tower of homage was the principal part. It

contained the rooms of the noble and his family.
Another important part of the castle was the great
hall. There the lord meted out justice, attended
banquets and organized the fiefdom.

2.4 The unprivileged group: The Third Estate

This was the majority, made up of the common people. Most of them were peasants.

There were differences among them.

a. The free people or villeins: They had some freedom; they could live wherever
they wanted and they could leave the fief without the lord´s permission.
b. The serfs: They had almost no freedom as they were under the lord’s authority.
They couldn’t leave the fiefdom or get married without the lord´s permission.
Being a serf was hereditary. They were severely treated but at least the lord
couldn´t sell them as slaves or kill them.

Both men and women, even children, worked from sunrise to sunset in the fields,
using all hours of sunlight.

53
2.4.1 How did peasants live?
Agriculture was the main activity.

The two-year crop rotation:

Half of the land rested one year (this is known as fallow), and the other half was
used for crops. Productivity was very low.
They used very basic tools, normally made by them, which made working in the
fields even harder.
Wheat was the main crop, as well as barley. Some peasants could have animals.

As we know, life was extremely hard. Apart from working

all day, they had to pay taxes to the lord and also pay for
all the additional facilities they could use in the fiefdom:
the mill, the press or the oven.

INTERESTING FACT!
Peasants lived in very rough conditions. Their houses
were very poor and badly constructed, made of
branches, wood and adobe. Houses had no windows
and very little furniture. In wintertime, as it was
really cold, the family slept with the animals to keep
themselves warm. They normally didn’t have access
to firewood, and if they did, it was used for cooking!

54
They produced everything they needed. They built their own houses, made the
furniture and tools, and even their own clothes. This means they were self-sufficient.
Peasants ate very poorly. Most days they only ate poor bread and vegetable soup. On
a few occasions they could eat pork or rabbit.
Life expectancy was low. At around 40 years they were considered old. As they
couldn’t get any medicine, having an illness was often fatal for them.

INTERESTING FACT!
Peasants liked spending the very little free time
they had going to fairs. These were big occasional
markets where they could exchange products, but
they could also entertain themselves listening to
minstrels. Remember, most of the people from the
Middle Ages didn’t know how to read and write, so
minstrels were the ones who told them new tales
and stories!

ACTIVITY

The class will be divided into

three groups. Each group
will be one social group.
Make a comic about how
life would be in your social
group, describing a normal
day. (What you would eat,
where you would live, your
activities….) Some of the
group can be the writers; the
others can be the illustrators.
Place your comics on your
class walls.

55
3. The Crusades

During the 11th century the Turks, who were Muslims, attacked many Christian
areas. They expanded their empire, conquering part of the Byzantine Empire and
taking the city of Jerusalem that was in Egyptian hands at that time.

Turks were not tolerant towards other religions, and they didn’t let Christian pilgrims
visit Jerusalem, an important city for Christians and the site of many pilgrimages.

In 1095, the pope Urban II organized the First Crusade. Many knights
joined the Crusade. Its purpose was to help protect the
Byzantine Empire from the Turks, stop the spread of Islam,
and take Jerusalem. The First Crusade took Jerusalem, but the
war with the Turks continued for several centuries.

There were many other crusades during the next 200 years. The
most well-known of them was the third one, when Saladin and Richard
I of England fought.

INTERESTING FACT!
You might have heard about Richard I. He was known
as Richard the Lionheart because of his bravery in
battle. He led the Third Crusade against the Muslim
leader Saladin. Richard spent little time ruling his
country, England, so his brother John took the king’s
role. Do you know someone from his time?

57
4. Pilgrimages

During the Middle Ages, people started going on

pilgrimages. They traveled to holy places for Christians.
The most important were Rome, Jerusalem and
Santiago de Compostela. There were many reasons
why people went on these dangerous trips. They wanted
to ask for a special favor, or as a payment for their sins.

The trip was dangerous, and uncomfortable. Most

of them went by foot, while the wealthy ones rode
horseback. They had to deal with bandits and diseases.
Fortunately, many monasteries were on the way, where
pilgrims could take refuge and have some rest and food.

These routes were very important for culture. People

travelled from all over Europe, sharing their own ideas
and learning others.
The pilgrimages helped the spread of what is known as
the first international style: the Romanesque style.

ACTIVITY

Final Activity: Camino de

Santiago
In groups you will be
pilgrims, and each group will
have a different route in the
Camino de Santiago. Present
your route to the class. How
many days, kilometers a day,
places you will visit…

59
5. Romanesque art

Romanesque art was a fusion of Roman, Carolingian, Byzantine and local Germanic
traditions. For almost 600 years there had been no unifying style. There was no
central power, little trade or travelling, and almost no culture or learning outside of
the monasteries.
But in the 11th and 12th centuries there were many changes:
• The number of monasteries increased dramatically.
• New religious orders were founded.
• There was economic prosperity, relative political stability, and an increase in
population.
• Pilgrims started travelling on pilgrimages.
• With increased travelling, new ideas and trade skills were exchanged.
• New churches all over Europe were being built, and within them there was new
art.

61
5.1 Romanesque style
It was considered the first international style. The pilgrimages and the Crusades
transmitted ideas all across the Mediterranean and as far north as Scandinavia.
There was a unifying style, but with regional variations.
Most Romanesque art was pictorial and religious. People didn’t know how to
read or write, so the Church taught them Bible stories and Christian values through
pictures.

5.2 Romanesque architecture

5.2.1 Churches
Churches and monasteries were the most important buildings with so many new
priests, monks and pilgrims. They needed to be bigger, with thick walls, round
arches, vaults to hold the weight, few windows, large towers, and decorative
arcades (walkways for visiting pilgrims).
They were mainly built in the countryside, where most people lived, and on the
pilgrimage routes.
Every part of the church was decorated.
• The floors had mosaics or embroidered
carpets.
• The walls were decorated with frescos,
paintings and tapestries.
• Baptismal fonts, chalices and reliquaries
were made of metal and precious stones.
• The doors were monumental, often with
sculpture.

St-Véran Church

INTERESTING FACT!
The tympanum. This is a semi-circular area above
the entrance of a church. In Romanesque art, it was
filled with sculpture showing religious scenes such as
the Last Judgment. This was meant to set the mood
for entering the church, to both intimidate and educate
the viewer.

Paul M.R. Maeyaert - Basilique Sainte-Marie-Madeleine

62 de Vézelay PM. CC BY-SA 3.0
a. Vaults
The Romans used arches in their construction, and the Romanesque style continued
this. (That’s where the name Romanesque comes from.) But they arranged these
arches to form vaults. Vaults are different arches made of stone or brick to form a
ceiling or roof.
To hold up all that weight, the walls had to be very thick, and there couldn’t be many
windows.

Oliver-Bonjoch - Catedral de Durham CC BY-SA 3.0

b. Church design
Churches were cruciform, shaped like a cross.
New designs were needed to accommodate the large number of pilgrims coming to
venerate the church’s relics, without disturbing the Mass being said for the priests
and monks.
Aisles were built along the side for the pilgrims to
reach the ambulatories at the end, behind the altar.
Radiating chapels allowed for more priests and for 1
viewing relics.
This design let pilgrims come in the church, go up one 2
side, worship the relics, and go down the other side to
3
leave – all without disturbing the mass in the center of
the church.

1. Radiating Chapels 4

2. Ambulatory
3. Apse
6
4. Crossing
5. Aisles 5 5

6. Nave

63 Cathedral ground plan. Lusitana CC BY-SA 3.0

INTERESTING FACT!
Relics are religious objects, usually connected to a saint.
Reliquaries are the containers where they are kept.
In the Middle Ages, relics were important, as people
travelled for many miles to venerate them. The more
important the relic, the more visitors a church had. This
helped not only religious fervour, but the business around
pilgrimages as well.
Reliquaries were beautiful and made of expensive
materials: gold, silver, ivory, and precious gems.

5.3 Romanesque painting and sculpture

Because most people couldn’t read or write, art was used to teach them. Pictures
and sculptures helped people to learn the Christian beliefs and values that should
guide their lives.
The main themes were:
• Biblical stories from the Old Testament
• The life of Christ
• The saints
As pilgrims walked around the church, artwork with
a vigorous style and bright, primary colours
attracted their attention to the stories and teachings.

INTERESTING FACT!
Figures in Romanesque art varied in size according to their
importance. The backgrounds were more abstract than
realistic. Sometimes figures were elongated or contorted
to fit the space provided. The reason was that the purpose
of artists was not to produce realism or naturalism, but
to teach illiterate peasants Christian stories, beliefs and
values.
64
5.4 Illuminated manuscripts
Charlemagne had begun the practice of
copying and illuminating manuscripts, and
in the Romanesque period illuminated
Bibles became very popular. Decoration
was added to the text, using initials,
borders, and miniature illustrations.
The “Morgan Leaf” is from the illuminated
Winchester Bible. It shows scenes from
the life of King David.

ACT
IVIT
Y

As p Acti
eopl vity
write e co
taug , biblica uldn’t re
ht ls ad
a sto with pic tories w or
r tu e
draw y from t res. Ch re
a he oo
Rom n illustr Bible a se
a
wou nesque tion in th d
a n
mes ld teac st
h pe yle that
e
sage
of th op
e sto le the
valu r
es. y and its

65
 SUMMARY

KEY WORDS!
Feudalism Estates Crusades
Peasant Religious orders Pilgrimage
Fief Castle Romanesque

1. Feudalism
1.1 What is Feudalism?
It is the political, economic and social system prevalent in Europe for almost four centuries, from
the 9th century to the 13th century.
Feudalism is characterized by:
• The weakness of the kings.
• The strength of the lords.
• A society based on the relationships of interdependence among people.
• A self-sufficient economy based on agriculture.

1.2 How did Feudalism work?

With such a weak central government,
feudalism established a strong social order,
with each level of society dependent on the
other with their rights and responsibilities.

Feudalism was an exchange of land and

services. It was like a contract:
• The lord gave land (fief) to his vassal.
• The vassal gave the lord loyalty, such
as military service, taxes, and work
obligations.

This is called the vassal system, where

one person became a vassal to another,
receiving land or protection in return
for services. The relationship of lord
and vassal was very important in the
Middle Ages.

67
1.3 . Society during Feudalism
Society was divided into different groups called estates. The group a person belonged to depended
on their birth. You could not change from one estate to another – people stayed in the same
estate all their lives. The only exception was the clergy.
There were three estates, and each had a specific role to play in medieval society.
• The First Estate: the clergy. They were those who belonged to the Church. They prayed for
the salvation of the people.
• The Second Estate: the nobility. Their role was to protect the rest of the people. They
had the military function.
• The Third Estate: the peasants. This was the majority of the population, the common people.
Most of them were peasants, but there were also craftsmen and merchants.
• The king was above all the Estates.

1.4 How was a fief organized?

During feudalism, people lived in fiefdoms. They were large territories in the countryside that
belonged to the king and were normally granted to the nobles or to the clergy.
These fiefdoms were self-sufficient. Everything needed for daily life was produced there: the
agricultural tools, the craft works, and the agricultural products.

Castle

Land cultivated for the Lord

Planted field Bridge Mill

Church

Common pasture
Orchard

68
1.5 Castles

Nobles lived in castles. The castle was normally in the high area of the
fiefdom for protection from enemies. In times of war the castle was
the place where the rest of the population took refuge.
It was surrounded by a defensive wall and towers to see their
enemies.
The tower of homage was the principal part. It contained
the rooms of the noble and his family. Another important
part of the castle was the great hall. There the lord
meted out justice, attended banquets and organized the
fiefdom.

2. The Crusades
The Turks were Muslims, and not tolerant towards other religions. They
didn’t let Christian pilgrims visit Jerusalem, an important city for
Christians and the site of many pilgrimages.

In 1095, the pope Urban II organized the First Crusade. Many knights
joined the Crusade. Its purpose was to help protect the Byzantine
Empire from the Turks, stop the spread of Islam, and take Jerusalem.
The First Crusade took Jerusalem, but the war with the Turks continued for
several centuries.

3. Romanesque art
Romanesque art was a fusion of Roman, Carolingian, Byzantine and local Germanic traditions.
For almost 600 years there had been no unifying style. There was no central power, little trade or
travelling, and almost no culture or learning outside of the monasteries.
But in the 11th and 12th centuries there were many changes:
• The number of monasteries increased dramatically.
• New religious orders were created. They were formed by a group of people who shared the
same religious principles and devotions. Each religious order had specific vows (obligations)
they had to follow.
• There was economic prosperity, relative political stability, and an increase in population.
• Pilgrims started travelling on pilgrimages. They traveled to holy places for Christians. The
most important were Rome, Jerusalem and Santiago de Compostela. There were many
reasons why people went on these dangerous trips. They wanted to ask for a special favor, or
as a payment for their sins.
• With increased travelling, new ideas and trade skills were exchanged.
• New churches all over Europe were being built, and within them there was new art.
69
3.1 Romanesque architecture
Churches and monasteries were the most important buildings with so many new priests, monks
and pilgrims. They needed to be bigger, with thick walls, round arches, vaults to hold the
weight, few windows, large towers, and decorative arcades (walkways for visiting pilgrims).
They were mainly built in the countryside, where most people lived, and on the pilgrimage routes.

70
BLOCK
1

Unit 3
The High and
Late Middle
73
Ages
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS !
In this unit we are going to study the High and Late Middle Ages.
Between the 11th and the 13th centuries Europe experienced a huge revival.
The feudal system was maintained. But we are going to see how kings wanted their
power back.
We will study new innovations in agriculture.
We also will learn how some people left the fiefdoms and moved to the cities.
In the cities a new social class emerged: the bourgeoisie.
We will study the artistic style predominant at that time: Gothic art.
We’ll finish with the 14th century: The Big Crises.
ACTIVITY

Brainstorming
about the High and
Late Middle Ages,
students should
write concepts on
the board.

75
1. Prosperity in Europe

From the 11th to the 13th century Europe experienced an important revival. There
were fewer attacks and invasions, and a time of prosperity and recovery. There were
two main factors that helped this.

1.1 Improvements in agriculture

During the 11th and 12th centuries there was more food for everyone, because
peasants developed new techniques to increase their crops. These techniques were:
a. The three-field system. During the 12th century a new crop rotation system
replaced the two-field system. This meant peasants could cultivate more lands
each year.

b. A new plough. The heavy plough was invented, which made working the land
much faster.

77
c. The water mill replaced the windmill. This was much more efficient and could do
the work of many people.
d. More forests were cut down so new land for farming was created. More food was
produced, so the population grew around Europe.

INTERESTING FACT!
Europe grew from 42 million people in the year 1000 to
around 73 million in the year 1300.

1.2 Increase in trade

More food meant more people lived longer and more children survived.
As there were more people, there were more demands and needs for many products.
Trade grew considerably, creating trade routes across Europe. The most important
ones were the Mediterranean route and the Atlantic and Baltic route.
Trade fairs were really important. The fairs were places where merchants met to buy
and sell products such as leather, fur, textiles or spices.

IV ITY
A CT

ram
d iag lture
n u
a Ven agric g the
dur Ages e
In are i n
p
tra ddle iddl
c o m d e
and rly Mi igh M
Ea the H es.
and Ag

78
2. The growth of medieval cities

As we studied before, during Feudalism most of the population lived in the

countryside under their lord’s protection. But around the 12th century some people
left the countryside and moved to the cities. But why? There were several reasons.
a. Thanks to these new agricultural advances not everyone had to be working in
the fields. So many people left the countryside to work in the city as artisans or
merchants.
b. The increase in trade demanded more craftsmen, and their trade fairs were held
in cities, where there were more customers.
c. The cities provided protection for merchants and also the weekly markets to
exchange their products.
d. Many peasants left to escape from serfdom. Peasants in cities had much more
freedom than in the fiefdom, as they didn´t depend on the lord.

2.1 What were medieval cities like?

• Cities had narrow streets without any particular structure.
• Houses were close together.
• Only the important buildings, such as the church or the town hall, were made of
stone.
• The rest of the buildings were made of wood. Fires were common and devastating.
• The market was normally located in an open square; most of the daily activity was
held there.
• The church was the religious center of the city.
• Political power was held in the town hall; there were other important buildings
like the university, the hospital or the guild houses.
• Medieval cities were surrounded by thick walls.
79
Cities were unhealthy,
dirty and smelly. There
weren’t any sewage
systems; people threw their
rubbish out the windows
and no one collected it.
Animals like chickens or
pigs were in the streets and
also rats were common.
This caused illnesses and
diseases to easily spread.

INTERESTING FACT!
Each city had different gates that were closed during the
night. No one could go out or in; this was supposed to
prevent crimes like burglaries or murders.

2.2 Who led the cities?

At the beginning of the Middle Ages, we studied that the majority of the territories
were controlled by feudal lords or by monasteries. In the Early Middle Ages, the
king had little power.
But in the High Middle Ages, kings had the opportunity to become more powerful.
How did monarchs become more powerful?
Kings wanted the support of the towns, so they decided to give special privileges to
citizens.
These privileges were:
• People in town were free from the
nobles. They had to be loyal to the
kings.
• They were independent to appoint
their own taxes and write their own
laws.
• They could also have their independent
government through the town council.

80
2.3 The importance of guilds
As we know, during the Middle Ages there was a revival in the economy, and
population increased.
In towns people demanded more goods, so the number of workshops and
craftsmen grew considerably.
Craftsmen from the same profession normally lived and worked in the same street.
They lived on the upper floor, with the workshops
and shops on the lower one. These artisans were
organized in guilds. Guilds were associations
of craftsmen from the same profession.
Their objectives were to control the prices,
regulate the working hours, the holidays, avoid
competition, and control the quality of the raw
materials.
The guilds also protected their sick members,
and the widows and orphans.

INTERESTING FACT!
The streets where different guilds were located had
the name of that profession. This is why in some
cities you can find Baker Street, Silver Street or
Dyers Street. IV ITY
ACT

There were three categories of workers

in the guilds:
ty
a. The master craftsmen: These were the workshop
a c tivi
r
owners. They were experts in their job, and they
p ute n the s
Com heck ony citi f
worked many years to become a master. e
b. The journeymen: They received a salary for their C et a es o
rn m e
work. They worked for the masters. inte ith na t can b any
w s. I y or e
d t
c. The apprentices: These were kids who started guil own ci. Shar .
to learn a profession. They didn’t have any salary r ty s
you ther ci e clas
but they lived in the master´s home. o ith th
w

INTERESTING FACT!
If someone wanted to pass from journeyman to
craftsman, he had to prove he was sufficiently skilled.
After making a master piece, the members of the
guild decided if he was good enough to become a
master.

81
 ACT
IVITY

Who
The t I am?
print e a c her w
this m ill
game ime
.

82
2.4 What was the social structure of cities?
As during all the Middle Ages, there were big differences among the population.

a. The upper classes were formed by two groups.

• The upper nobility continued having their privileges, and some moved to the
cities and lived in palaces.
• A new social class emerged: the wealthy bourgeoisie. These were the rich
merchants, bankers and leaders of the important guilds. This group
normally formed the city government.

b. The lower classes

were formed by the rest
of the population.
• The commoners
formed the majority.
There were small
craftsmen,
merchants and
servants. They
lived modestly.
• The lower nobility
also belonged to
this group. As they
didn´t work and
didn´t possess any
land, they were
quite poor.
• In towns there were
also beggars and
robbers; people
without any job
whose main activity
was to survive.

In medieval Europe, most

of the population was
Christian but there were
other religious groups like
the Jews, who normally
lived in separated areas.
These areas were called
the Jewish Quarters.
Van Eyck - Arnolfini Portrait

83
Medieval towns were not pleasant places to live. They were small, crowded and
dirty. Streets were narrow and houses were made of wood. This was dangerous for
fires, and sometimes the wooden construction was so poor that the houses would
lean – some even touched across the street!
Rich people and poor people had very different houses. The poor often had several
families living together in one house. There was only one room, and here they all
cooked, ate and slept. They also worked in their house. If they were weavers, for
example, the loom would be in the home.
Wealthy merchants had splendid homes, with three or four levels. The first level
would have the business, offices and storerooms. The family lived on the second
level with a solar, a place where they could eat and talk. Upper levels would be
where the servants and apprentices lived.
But even rich houses were not comfortable like today. The only heat and light came
from fireplaces, as windows were small and covered with oiled parchment (paper)
instead of glass. This made rooms cold, smokey and with little light.
Growing up in a medieval town was not easy. About half of all children died before
they became adults. Preparing for their adult roles started when they were around
seven. Boys and some girls learned to read and write at school, and children from
rich families might learn to paint and play music on a lute (a stringed instrument).
Many soon began to work as apprentices.
Society in the Middle Ages was orderly and rigid – everyone knew their place.
Most boys did the same work as their fathers. Some girls learned a craft, but most
married young, at around 15. Their education was learning how to manage a home:
cooking, cloth making, and raising children.
1. Explain the differences between the rich and the poor.
IVITY
2. When did children become adults? Why? ACT

3. What was life like for girls?

ACTIVITY t
e tex e
e a d t wer th
h
R ans ns.
o
and uesti
q

Working in groups,
compare a medieval
city and a city
nowadays. The
teacher will print it.

84
3. Crises of the 14th Century

As we have studied, from the 11th to the 13th century Europe experienced a big
revival and growth in economy and population.
But in the 14th century some factors provoked huge crises in Europe.

3.1 Agricultural crisis

a. Climate change: For several centuries, the temperatures in Europe had risen (the
Medieval Warm Period). Around 1300 there were severe droughts, with little rain.
Then the temperatures dropped (the Little Ice Age) and there was too much rain.
These changes were devastating for the crops.
b. Famines and starvation: Years of bad harvest caused the rise of prices and the
lack of food. Many people, especially the poor, suffered from starvation.
c. Diseases: Many farm animals died, so people couldn’t eat dairy products like
cheese or milk.

INTERESTING FACT!
The Great Famine
From 1315-1317 between 10-25% of the
European population died. Some of them
died from starvation but the majority of them
died from illness as they were too weak from
hunger.

85
3.2 Political and social crises
a. The Hundred Years´ War
In the 14th century, England controlled many French lands, and they wanted the
control of the French throne. There was a war between England and France for
more than a hundred years.
That cost many human losses and money. Besides the casualties, kings forced the
peasants to join the war as soldiers, so they couldn’t work the land. Few crops were
produced.

INTERESTING FACT!
Joan of Arc
Joan of Arc is a heroine of France for her role in the Hundred Years’ War,
and was canonized as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church. Joan was
born in a peasant family in France. As a young girl, Joan said she had
received visions from the Archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint
Catherine of Alexandria. They told her she must help Charles VII of
France against the English in the war. Her first victory was at the Siege
of Orléans, and more military victories led to Charles being crowned
king.
Joan was captured and put on trial by the English for heresy, witchcraft,
and dressing like a man. On May 30, 1431, Joan of Arc, the Maid of
Orléans, was burned at the stake. She was 19 years old. Twenty years
later there was a new trial which cleared her name, and in 1920 she was
declared a saint of the Catholic Church. In France, the second Sunday
of May is a national holiday in her honour.

86
b. Social revolts
There were many reasons why peasants revolted in the 14th century.
• The famines and droughts caused much discontent among the population.
• Peasants in the fiefdoms asked for the end of serfdom.
• The Third Estate revolted against the social inequalities they still suffered.
• In the cities artisans revolted because of the rising prices of raw material. They
also asked for more representation in the town hall.
• In the countryside peasants revolted against the nobles as they were raising
taxes. The two most famous were the Peasants’ Revolt in England and the
Jacquerie in France.

INTERESTING FACT!
The Jacquerie
To deal with the Hundred Years’ War, the French
feudal lords made peasants work in the fields as well
as defend the fiefdom and repair the war damage.
AC Besides all this, the lords increased taxes. Peasants
TIV
ITY received very little food and protection. The peasants
revolted violently against the lords, but as they were
not organized, the rebellion was suppressed in a few
weeks by the nobles’ army.
The
R Pe
tea evol asan
to t cher t. The ts’
and his will Loyset Liédet. 15th century
pre webs go
act pare ite
ivit th
y. e

87
3.3 The population crisis: the Black Death
All these crises were terrible for Europe, but they were nothing compared to the
huge plague that devastated Europe from 1346 to 1353: the Black Death.
This plague came from Asia.
It was introduced in Europe by rats that came on boats.
People didn’t know that rats spread the disease. Actually, some of them thought
that it was God’s punishment, or they blamed the Jews, which led to violent anti-
Semitism and widespread persecution.
Rapidly all of Europe was infected by the disease. It was called the Black Death
because if someone caught the illness, they got black marks on their skin. Then
they had a fever and normally died in a few days.
The disease was worse in towns than in the countryside, as in towns people lived
closer and there was a huge lack of hygiene. People didn’t know how to stop the
plague, so between 1346 and 1353 around 35 million people died in Europe. This
was more than a third of the total population.

IV ITY
A CT

b oneeffect
Fis ; the s of
h
m .
gra e Cri entury
se
i a
d ill b h c
w 14t
the

ACTIVITY

The Black Death.

Analyze the video
about the Black
Death. Pieter Bruegel the Elder painting The Triumph of Death depicting the
results of a pandemic

88
4. Culture and Art

4.1 The rise of the first universities

As we have seen, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 4th century, there
was a period of anarchy and economic crisis across Europe. With a decline of trade,
economics and administration, there was little need for learning. Many books and
papers were lost or destroyed.
Cathedral schools, run by the Church in monasteries, and palace schools, used to
teach the sons of the ruling class, were the only centers of learning.
However, in the High Middle Ages, education was opened up to many people, not
simply the nobles and the clergy.

4.1.1 Why were more schools needed?

• New contacts brought new knowledge.
In the 11th century, the Crusades opened up contact with the East and the Byzantine
Empire, where knowledge had continuously been preserved and expanded.
There was also contact with Spain and the Islamic scholars there.
• Growth in trade and government administration demanded more people who
were literate and numerate.
• Political and economic stability provided safety.
• There was an increase in population, and more secular students were allowed
to study, so more and bigger schools were required.
• With more travelling, international scholars could go to schools all around Europe.

INTERESTING FACT!
Universitas is a Latin word for a corporation,
or guild. Just as craftsmen formed guilds,
students and teachers at these new schools
organized themselves into associations for
protection and rights.

89
4.1.2 The first universities
• Salerno, Italy had a famous medical school in the 9th century that drew students
from all over Europe..
• The university in Bologna, Italy, in operation since 1088, is considered the oldest
university in the world.
• Universities at Paris and Oxford soon followed, as well as in Salamanca and
Cambridge.
By 1500, there were 62 recognized universities in Europe.

Sepulchre of Giovanni d'Andrea with a relief depicting him, a professor of canon

law, lecturing to students at the University of Bologna, 1348; in the Medieval
Civic Museum, Bologna, Italy.
© © Sailko (CC BY-SA 3.0)

INTERESTING FACT!
The subjects taught at the schools in the High Middle Ages were the
seven liberal arts: grammar, astronomy, rhetoric (speech), logic,
arithmetic, geometry and music.
All classes were in Latin.
Girls were not allowed to attend universities. Some wealthy girls
could have tutors in their homes, and some nuns could learn in a
convent.

90
4.2. Gothic art
4.2.1 Gothic cathedrals
Gothic art developed out of Romanesque art. Prosperous urban populations wanted
bigger and better cathedrals, but with thick walls and few windows, churches were
dark, cold and damp.

Several new architectural innovations made it easier to

build tall, airy cathedrals full of light. The most important
were the pointed arch and the flying buttress.
The problem with building bigger cathedrals was the
weight of the roof. The pointed arch and the flying buttress
redistributed the weight, bringing it down to the ground
without having to rely on thick walls.

Having thinner walls meant they could

open them up with large windows.
Stained glass windows become popular.
Remember, religion and the Catholic Church was very important during the Middle
Ages. In Gothic architecture, the pointed arch, the long narrow columns and windows,
the high pointed roofs… they all made people look up to Heaven. The large stained
glass windows brought in light and colour to show the glory of God.
91
4.2.2 Gothic sculpture
Gothic sculpture was used primarily to decorate the exteriors of cathedrals. Most
were sculptures of saints and the Holy Family.

Notre Dame Cathedral

Later, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the style became more relaxed and naturalistic.

Reims Cathedral
92
Representations of the Virgin Mary and Christ child began showing more natural
poses and the tenderness between mother and child.

Detail of Portail Saint-Laurent, Strasbourg

Pascal Terjan
© CC-BY-SA-2.0

INTERESTING FACT!
Gargoyles
Rain water needed to be drained away
from the roof and walls. Since Gothic
art was always decorative and ornate,
these rain spouts were formed of
gargoyles, fantastical and frightening
creatures. Besides having a practical
use, these monsters would remind the
ignorant, illiterate peasants that they
must seek the safety of the Church.

93
4.2.3 Gothic painting
In the cathedrals, beautiful stained
glass windows began replacing
frescos, and retables, ornamental
panels behind the altar, were used.
Illuminated manuscripts continued to
be made, with prayer books called the
book of hours becoming very popular.
Realism became more important in
paintings in the Late Gothic period.
Artists used brighter colours, light and
shadows, and began using perspective
and proportion to make scenes more
realistic.
Giotto was a painter from Florence,
Italy. His paintings were naturalistic,
drawn from life, filled with emotion
and realism. He was the first to use
perspective to give a sense of depth.
This was a bridge in art history between
the Medieval period, with its Byzantine
and Gothic styles, and the Early Modern
period and the Renaissance.

Retable, Sain Mary of Manresa

Amadalvarez
© CC BY-SA 3.0

The dormition of Virgin Mary by Giotto

© José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro
CC BY-SA 4.0

94
 4.2.4 Characteristics of Gothic art
• Cathedrals were the most important art form.
• Pointed arches and flying buttresses allowed taller structures.
• Height and grandeur of churches were meant to bring eyes and thoughts up to
God in Heaven.
• Large stained glass windows made churches full of colour and light.
• There was an emphasis on the decorative and the ornate.
• Religion was the dominant theme in all art forms.
• Realism became more important in the Late Gothic period, especially in painting.

ACTIVITY
INTERESTING FACT!
The term Gothic
At the time, the new cathedrals were built in “the
French style”, as the first one was built in France, or
“the modern style”. Later, during the Renaissance,
Compare the classical and simple lines were preferred; they
Romanesque and considered the earlier style vulgar. As an insult, they
the Gothic styles
of art in a Venn named it after the Goths, a “barbaric” tribe that had
diagram. Then try helped destroy the Roman Empire. It wasn’t until
to paint the most several hundred years later that a Gothic Revival
important elements took place and the term lost its pejorative meaning.
from both styles on
the board.
95
 SUMMARY

KEY WORDS!
Trade Fairs Bourgeoisie Universities
Cities Hundred Years’ War Gothic Art
Guilds Black Death

Europe during the High and Late Middle Ages

1. Prosperity in Europe
From the 11th to the 13th century Europe experienced an important revival.

1.1 Increase in trade

More food meant more people lived longer
and more children survived.
As there were more people, there were more
demands and needs for many products.
Trade grew considerably, creating trade
routes across Europe. The most important
ones were the Mediterranean route and
the Atlantic and Baltic route.
Trade fairs were really important. The fairs
were places where merchants met to buy
and sell products such as leather, fur, textiles
or spices.

2. What were medieval cities like?

• Cities had narrow streets without any particular structure.
• Houses were close together.
• Only the important buildings, such as the church or the town hall, were made of stone.
• The rest of the buildings were made of wood. Fires were common and devastating.
• The market was normally located in an open square; most of the daily activity was held there.
• The church was the religious center of the city.
• Political power was held in the town hall; there were other important buildings like the
university, the hospital or the guild houses.
• Medieval cities were surrounded by thick walls.

97
Cities were unhealthy, dirty
and smelly. There weren’t any
sewage systems; people threw
their rubbish out the windows
and no one collected it.
Animals like chickens or pigs
were in the streets and also rats
were common. This caused
illnesses and diseases to
easily spread.

2.1 The importance of guilds

As we know, during the Middle Ages there was a revival in the economy, and population
increased.
In towns people demanded more goods, so the number of workshops and craftsmen grew
considerably.
Craftsmen from the same profession normally lived and worked in the same street.
They lived on the upper floor, with the workshops and shops on the lower one. These artisans
were organized in guilds. Guilds were associations of craftsmen from the same profession.
Their objectives were to control the prices, regulate the working hours, the holidays, avoid
competition, and control the quality of the raw materials.
The guilds also protected their sick members, and the widows and orphans.

98
2.2 What was the social structure of cities?
As during all the Middle Ages, there were big
differences among the population.
a. The upper classes were formed by two groups.
• The upper nobility continued having their
privileges, and some moved to the cities and
lived in palaces.
• A new social class emerged: the wealthy
bourgeoisie. These were the rich merchants,
bankers and leaders of the important
guilds. This group normally formed the city
government.
b. The lower classes were formed by the rest of
the population.
• The commoners formed the majority. There
were small craftsmen, merchants and
servants. They lived modestly.
• The lower nobility also belonged to this
group. As they didn´t work and didn´t possess
any land, they were quite poor. Van Eyck - Arnolfini Portrait

• In towns there were also beggars and robbers; people without

any job whose main activity was to survive.

99
3. Crises of the 14th Century
In the 14th century some factors provoked huge crises in Europe.

3.1 The Hundred Years´ War

In the 14th century, England controlled many French lands, and they wanted the control of the
French throne. There was a war between England and France for more than a hundred years.
That cost many human losses and money. Besides the casualties, kings forced the peasants to
join the war as soldiers, so they couldn’t work the land. Few crops were produced.

3.2 The population crisis: the Black Death

There were famines and revolts that caused much misery in the population, but they were nothing
compared to the huge plague that devastated Europe from 1346 to 1353: the Black Death. Around
35 million people died in Europe. This was more than a third of the total population.
This plague came from Asia.
It was introduced in Europe by rats that came on boats.
People didn’t know that rats spread the disease.
Rapidly all of Europe was infected by the disease. It was called the Black Death because if
someone caught the illness, they got black marks on their skin. Then they had a fever and
normally died in a few days.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder painting The Triumph of Death depicting the
results of a pandemic

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4. Culture and Art
4.1 The rise of the first universities
In the High Middle Ages, education was opened up to many people, not simply the nobles and
the clergy. Universitas is a Latin word for a corporation. Students and teachers at these new
schools organized themselves into associations for protection and rights.
The subjects taught at the schools in the High Middle Ages were the seven liberal arts: grammar,
astronomy, rhetoric (speech), logic, arithmetic, geometry and music. All classes were in Latin.

4.2. Characteristics of Gothic art

• Cathedrals were the most important art form.
• Pointed arches and flying buttresses allowed
taller structures.
• Height and grandeur of churches were meant
to bring eyes and thoughts up to God in Heaven.
• Large stained glass windows made churches
full of colour and light.
• There was an emphasis on the decorative and
the ornate.
• Religion was the dominant theme in all art forms.
• Realism became more important in the Late
Gothic period, especially in painting.

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YEAR 8