Wireless and Mobile

Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-3 Lecture : 01 & 02

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Equalization Techniques
What is Equalization?

• Equalization is a signal processing technique used at the

receiver to reverse the distortion introduced by the
communication channel.
• It ensures that the transmitted data symbols are received with
minimal errors by mitigating the effects of channel-induced
interference.

➢ Equalization techniques are fundamental in wireless

communication systems to combat the effects of inter-symbol
interference (ISI) caused by multipath propagation.
 Why Equalization is Important?
➢ Multipath Propagation: Wireless channels cause
signal reflections, leading to multiple versions of the
transmitted signal arriving at the receiver at different
times.
➢ ISI: Overlapping of delayed signals creates ISI,
which degrades signal quality and increases bit error
rates (BER).
➢ Equalizers help restore the transmitted signal by
estimating and compensating for the channel's
impulse response.
 Applications of Equalization
➢ Cellular Systems:
– Used in GSM, LTE, and 5G systems to combat
multipath fading.
➢ Wi-Fi and WLANs:
– Ensures reliable data transmission in environments
with significant interference.
➢ Satellite Communications:
– Mitigates distortion caused by long propagation
delays.
 Drawbacks and Challenges
➢ Complexity: Advanced equalizers like MLSE and
RLS require significant computational resources.

➢ Dynamic Channels: Rapidly changing environments

require equalizers to adapt quickly.

➢ Noise Enhancement: Linear equalizers like ZF

amplify noise under certain conditions.
Types of Equalization Techniques
• Equalization techniques can be broadly classified into linear
equalizers, non-linear equalizers, and adaptive equalizers.

1. Linear Equalizers
• Linear equalizers apply a linear filter to the received signal to
mitigate the effects of ISI.

(i) Zero Forcing (ZF) Equalizer:

– The ZF equalizer cancels ISI by inverting the channel
frequency response.
– Advantages: Simple to implement.
– Disadvantages: Amplifies noise, especially in channels
with deep fades.
(ii) Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) Equalizer:
Balances ISI mitigation and noise amplification by
minimizing the mean square error between the
transmitted and received signal.

➢Advantages: Better noise resilience than ZF.

➢Disadvantages: More complex than ZF.

 2. Non-linear Equalizers
Non-linear equalizers are designed to handle severe ISI and non-
linear channel effects.
(i) Decision Feedback Equalizer (DFE):
– Uses past decisions to cancel ISI in the current symbol.
– Advantages: Performs better in channels with severe ISI.
– Disadvantages: Error propagation can occur if an incorrect
decision is made.
(ii) Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE):
– Finds the most likely transmitted sequence using the Viterbi
algorithm.
– Advantages: Optimal performance under severe ISI.
– Disadvantages: High computational complexity.
 3. Adaptive Equalizers
• Adaptive equalizers dynamically adjust their parameters to track
channel variations.
(i) Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm:
– Adjusts equalizer coefficients iteratively to minimize the error
signal.
– Advantages: Simple and widely used in practice.
– Disadvantages: Slow convergence in rapidly changing
channels.
(ii) Recursive Least Squares (RLS) Algorithm:
– Provides faster convergence than LMS by minimizing the least
squares error.
– Advantages: Better performance in dynamic environments.
– Disadvantages: Higher computational complexity.
 4. Equalization in MIMO Systems
➢ Linear Equalizers for MIMO:ZF and MMSE
equalizers are extended to handle multiple antennas.

➢ MIMO-Specific Equalizers: Techniques such as

Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) and Space-
Time Block Coding (STBC) are used for MIMO
equalization.
Equalization Techniques with Focus
on Transversal Filters
➢ Equalization techniques are essential in wireless
communication systems to mitigate the detrimental
effects of inter-symbol interference (ISI), which
occurs due to multipath propagation.

➢ Transversal filters, also known as tapped-delay-line

equalizers, play a central role in equalization.
 I. What are Transversal Filters?
A transversal filter is a linear filter structure with multiple taps
(delays), weights, and summation points, designed to mitigate
ISI by appropriately shaping the received signal. It processes
the received signal through:

➢ Delayed Signal Taps: Provides a sequence of time-delayed

versions of the received signal.
➢ Adjustable Weights: Each delayed signal is multiplied by a
weight (or coefficient) that determines its contribution to the
output.
➢ Summation: Weighted signals are summed to produce the
equalized output.
Structure of a Transversal Filter
 Working of Transversal Filters
➢ Signal Reception: The received signal is fed into the
transversal filter.
➢ Delays: The signal passes through a series of delay
elements, each introducing a delay of Ts (symbol
duration).
➢ Weighting: Delayed signals are multiplied by
adaptive weights to counteract ISI.
➢ Summation: Weighted signals are summed to
reconstruct the transmitted signal.
 II. Classification of Equalization Techniques
(with Transversal Filters as Linear Equalizers)
1. Zero-Forcing Equalizer (ZF)

➢ Purpose: The ZF equalizer aims to cancel ISI by

applying an inverse filter that counteracts the
channel's effect.
➢ Principle: The equalizer forces the channel response
to be a delta function, ensuring that each transmitted
symbol contributes to only one sample at the output.
➢ The Zero Forcing Equalizer gets its name because it
"forces" the ISI to zero.
Mathematical Representation of ZF Equalizer
Design of a ZF Equalizer
 Advantages of Zero Forcing Equalizer

➢ Complete ISI Cancellation:

– ZF eliminates ISI entirely, assuming a perfect
channel estimation.

➢ Simpler Design:
– Easy to implement mathematically due to the
linearity of the channel inversion process.
 Drawbacks of Zero Forcing
Equalizer
➢ Noise Amplification:
– In channels with deep fades (where H(f) approaches zero),
G(f) becomes large, amplifying noise significantly.
➢ Practical Limitations:
– Requires accurate knowledge of the channel impulse
response, which is challenging in fast-varying wireless
channels.
➢ Computational Complexity:
– Channel inversion in the frequency domain or solving large
matrix equations for the weights can be computationally
intensive.
 Performance of ZF Equalizer
Noise Considerations:
• The ZF equalizer does not account for noise in its design.
It only focuses on eliminating ISI, which leads to noise
enhancement in poor channel conditions.

ISI and Noise Trade-off:

• In real systems, ZF equalizers are often not practical in
isolation due to their susceptibility to noise. Instead, they
are used with modifications or combined with other
techniques (e.g., MMSE equalization).
 2. Minimum Mean Square Error
(MMSE) Equalizer
• Principle: Balances ISI cancellation and noise
amplification by minimizing the mean square
error (MSE) between the transmitted and received
signals.
• Implementation: The weights wi are computed
using both the channel response and the noise
characteristics.
• Advantages: Better noise resilience compared to
ZF.
• Disadvantages: Increased computational
complexity compared to ZF.
 III. Decision Feedback Equalizers
➢ Purpose: To eliminate ISI using past decisions as
feedback, which improves the performance compared to
linear equalizers.

➢ Key Idea: DFEs utilize a combination of feed forward

filtering to cancel pre-cursor ISI and feedback filtering to
cancel post-cursor ISI based on previously detected
symbols.

➢ DFEs are particularly effective in channels with long

delay spreads where post-cursor ISI dominates.
 Structure of a Decision Feedback
Equalizer
• A typical DFE consists of two components:
1. Feedforward Filter (FFF):
– Processes the incoming signal to suppress pre-cursor ISI.
– Operates similarly to a linear equalizer.
2. Feedback Filter (FBF):
– Uses previously detected symbols to cancel post-cursor ISI.
– Reduces noise amplification compared to Zero Forcing (ZF)
and Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) equalizers.
3. Decision Device:
– Detects the transmitted symbols from the equalized signal.
Working of Decision Feedback Equalizers
1. Feedforward Filtering:
➢ The FFF processes the received signal y[k]y[k]y[k] to mitigate
the pre-cursor ISI.
➢ This step involves convolution with a set of weights optimized to
minimize ISI.
2. Feedback Filtering:
➢ Once the transmitted symbol x^[k−j] is detected, it is fed back
through the feedback filter.
➢ The FBF cancels the post-cursor ISI caused by previously
detected symbols.
3. Symbol Detection: The equalized signal is passed to the decision
device, which detects the transmitted symbol (e.g., using a slicer
for QAM or PSK).
 Advantages of Decision Feedback
Equalizers
➢ ISI Mitigation:
– DFEs effectively cancel both pre-cursor and post-
cursor ISI.
➢ Noise Reduction:
– The feedback filter reduces noise amplification, a
common issue in linear equalizers like ZF.
➢ Adaptability:
– DFEs can adapt to time-varying channels using
adaptive algorithms (e.g., LMS or RLS).
 Disadvantages of Decision Feedback
Equalizers
➢ Error Propagation:
– If an incorrect symbol is detected, it can propagate
errors through the feedback loop.
➢ Complexity:
– Requires more computation compared to linear
equalizers due to the feedback mechanism.
➢ Sensitivity to Channel Dynamics:
– Rapidly changing channels can degrade the
performance of DFEs.
 IV. Adaptive Equalization
➢ Definition: Adaptive equalizers are signal processing
systems that automatically adjust their filter
coefficients based on the changing channel
characteristics.

➢ Purpose: Their primary aim is to minimize ISI and

maximize the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in scenarios
where the channel conditions fluctuate due to
mobility, fading, or interference.
 Structure of an Adaptive Equalizer
An adaptive equalizer typically consists of:
1. Equalizer Filter:
– Could be a transversal filter (finite impulse response or FIR) or
decision feedback equalizer (DFE).
– Processes the input signal to reduce ISI.
2. Error Signal Generator:
– Compares the output of the equalizer with a reference or desired
signal.
– Generates an error signal to quantify the difference.
3. Adaptation Algorithm:
– Adjusts the equalizer coefficients based on the error signal.
– Common algorithms include Least Mean Squares (LMS),
Recursive Least Squares (RLS), and Kalman filtering.
 Working Principle of Adaptive
Equalizers
➢ Initialization: The equalizer starts with an initial set of
coefficients, often set to zeros or random values.
➢ Training Phase: A known training sequence is sent over
the channel. The equalizer adjusts its coefficients to
minimize the difference between the received and
reference signals.
➢ Tracking Phase: Once training is complete, the
equalizer uses decision-directed adaptation to adjust
coefficients in response to time-varying channel
conditions.
Types of Adaptive Algorithms
2. Recursive Least Squares (RLS):
➢More computationally intensive but faster
convergence compared to LMS.
➢Minimizes a weighted sum of past errors.
➢Suitable for rapidly changing channels.

3. Kalman Filtering:
➢A probabilistic approach that uses state-space
modeling.
➢Excellent for highly dynamic systems but requires
significant computational resources.
 Advantages of Adaptive Equalizers
➢ Dynamic Channel Adaptation: Tracks and
compensates for variations in the channel.

➢ Broad Applicability: Suitable for a wide range of

communication systems, including wireless, optical,
and DSL systems.

➢ Improved Performance: Provides better ISI

mitigation in time-varying channels compared to
fixed equalizers.
 Challenges and Limitations
➢ Computational Complexity:
– Algorithms like RLS and Kalman filtering are
computationally intensive.
➢ Error Propagation:
– Errors during the decision-directed mode can
degrade performance.
➢ Convergence Speed:
– LMS has slow convergence, making it less suitable
for highly dynamic channels.
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-3 Lecture : 03

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Multiplexing
➢ Multiplexing refers to techniques that combine
multiple signals into a single communication
channel to optimize the use of available
bandwidth.

➢ It ensures the transmission of multiple signals

over the same physical medium without
interference.
 Types of Multiplexing
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

➢ Description: Each signal is assigned a unique frequency band

within the available spectrum.
➢ Advantages:
– Simultaneous transmission of multiple signals.
– Simple implementation.
➢ Drawbacks:
– Requires large bandwidth.
– Prone to interference due to overlapping frequencies.
➢ Example: FM radio, where each station operates at a different
frequency.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Description: Multiple signals are assigned different time
slots for transmission over the same frequency.

Advantages:
➢ Efficient utilization of bandwidth.
➢ Suitable for digital communication.

Drawbacks:
➢ Synchronization issues between sender and receiver.
➢ Limited by the channel's capacity.

Example: GSM mobile communication.

3. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Description: All users share the same frequency and time but
are assigned unique codes (spreading codes) to differentiate
their signals.

Advantages:
➢ High data security.
➢ Resilient to interference.

Drawbacks:
➢ High computational complexity.
➢ Code synchronization is challenging.

Example: CDMA technology.

Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
4. Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(WDM)
➢ Description: A technique used in fiber optics where
multiple signals are transmitted on different wavelengths
of light.

➢ Advantages:
▪ Extremely high data rates.
▪ Efficient utilization of fiber-optic bandwidth.

➢ Drawbacks: Expensive equipment.

➢ Example: Optical fiber communication.

5. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

➢ Description: Uses physical separation, such as

multiple antennas, to transmit signals in parallel
streams.

➢ Advantages: Increased capacity.

➢ Example: MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output)

systems.
Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
 Multiple Access Schemes
➢ Multiple access schemes are techniques that allow
multiple users to share the same communication
medium efficiently.

➢ They extend the principles of multiplexing to multi-

user scenarios.
 Key Comparisons Between
Multiplexing and Multiple Access
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-3 Lecture : 04

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Multiple Access Techniques
➢ Multiple Access is a communication technique that
allows multiple users to share the same communication
channel (frequency, time, or code) simultaneously or in an
organized manner.

➢ It ensures efficient utilization of the available spectrum,

enabling multiple devices to communicate without
significant interference.

➢ Multiple access techniques allow multiple users to share

the same communication resources efficiently.
 Key Concepts of Multiple Access
1. Shared Medium: Multiple users access a shared
communication resource (e.g., a radio frequency
spectrum).

2. Efficient Resource Allocation: Prevents interference

and ensures smooth communication between users.

3. Applications: Used in cellular networks, satellite

communication, and Wi-Fi to handle communication
traffic.
 Importance of Multiple Access
➢ Efficient Spectrum Utilization: Maximizes the use
of limited bandwidth.

➢ Scalability: Allows numerous users to access the

network simultaneously.

➢ Minimized Interference: Reduces overlapping and

conflicts in transmissions.
Types of Multiple Access Techniques
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): Allocates
separate frequency bands to users.
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Divides time into
slots assigned to users.
3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Assigns unique
codes to distinguish user signals.
4. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
(OFDMA): Allocates orthogonal subcarriers dynamically to
users.
5. Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA): Uses spatial
separation (e.g., beamforming) to allocate resources.
 Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
➢ FDMA is one of the earliest and most fundamental
multiple access techniques used in wireless
communication systems.
➢ It allows multiple users to access a communication
channel by allocating distinct frequency bands to each
user.
➢ This ensures that signals do not interfere with one
another, enabling simultaneous transmissions over
shared resources.
 Key Features of FDMA
1. Frequency Band Allocation:
– Each user is assigned a unique frequency band for communication.
– The frequency bands are non-overlapping to prevent interference.
2. Continuous Transmission:
– Users transmit data continuously without waiting for time slots.
– This makes FDMA suitable for applications like voice
communication.
3. Guard Bands:
– Small frequency gaps (guard bands) are introduced between
channels to reduce inter-channel interference.
4. Simplicity:
– Easy to implement with straightforward hardware requirements.
 How FDMA Works
1. Frequency Spectrum Division:
– The total available bandwidth is divided into smaller sub-
bands, each assigned to a user.
2. Multiple Users:
– Each user modulates their data onto a carrier frequency
within the assigned sub-band.
3. Isolation:
– Filters are used to ensure signals are confined to their
designated frequencies.
4. Demodulation:
– At the receiver end, demodulators separate signals based on
their frequencies.
 Advantages of FDMA
➢ Continuous Transmission: No waiting for access
slots, ensuring minimal delay.

➢ Low Complexity: Straightforward implementation

due to fixed frequency allocation.

➢ Suitable for Voice Communication: Well-suited for

analog systems like first-generation (1G) cellular
networks.
 Limitations of FDMA
1. Inefficient Use of Spectrum:
• Guard bands reduce spectral efficiency.
• Fixed frequency allocation may leave some channels
underutilized.

2. Interference:
• Frequency interference due to poor filtering or adjacent
channel leakage.

3. Scalability Issues:
• Limited by the number of available frequency bands, which
makes it less suitable for dense networks.
 Applications of FDMA
➢ 1G Cellular Networks:
Used in analog systems like Advanced Mobile Phone Systems
(AMPS).

➢ Satellite Communication:
Efficient for allocating distinct frequency bands to different
satellite links.

➢ Private Mobile Radio (PMR):

Used in two-way radio systems for communication.
 Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)
➢ Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a multiple
access technique where multiple users share the same
frequency channel by dividing the signal into different
time slots.

➢ Each user is assigned a unique time slot for

transmission or reception, allowing them to use the
same frequency spectrum without interference.
 Key Features of TDMA
1. Time Slot Allocation:
• Each user is assigned a specific time slot within a communication
frame.
• During this slot, only the assigned user can transmit or receive
data.
2. Sequential Transmission:
• Data from multiple users is transmitted sequentially in time.
• After one user's time slot ends, another user's data is transmitted.
3. Synchronization:
• High synchronization is required to ensure that users transmit and
receive data in their designated time slots.
4. Flexibility:
• The number of time slots in a frame can be adjusted based on the
number of users and system requirements.
 How TDMA Works
1. Frame Division:
• The communication time is divided into frames, each containing multiple
time slots.
• Each frame repeats periodically, allowing users to send data during their
assigned slots.

2. Time Slot Assignment:

• Users are allocated specific slots within the frame.
• Slots are reused in subsequent frames.

3. Data Transmission:
• During a user’s time slot, their data is transmitted or received.
• Other users remain idle until their time slots arrive.

4. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:

• At the transmitter, user data is multiplexed into the assigned time slots.
• At the receiver, data is demultiplexed based on time slot synchronization.
 Advantages of TDMA
1. Efficient Use of Bandwidth:
• Multiple users share the same frequency spectrum.
• Reduces the need for additional frequency resources.
2. Reduced Interference:
• Time slots prevent simultaneous transmissions from multiple
users, minimizing interference.
3. Flexibility in Allocation:
• Time slots can be dynamically allocated based on user
demand.
4. Energy Efficiency for Mobile Devices:
• Devices transmit only during their slots, allowing them to
enter low-power states otherwise.
 Limitations of TDMA
1. Synchronization Requirements:
• Precise synchronization is crucial to avoid slot overlap, increasing
system complexity.

2. Idle Periods:
• Users must wait for their time slots, which can lead to idle periods
and increased latency.

3. Scalability Issues:
• Performance degrades with an increased number of users, as more
slots are required per frame.

4. Guard Times:
• Guard times are needed between slots to account for propagation
delays, reducing spectral efficiency.
 Applications of TDMA
➢ Second-Generation (2G) Cellular Networks:
– Used in systems like GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communications).
➢ Satellite Communication:
– Efficient for scheduling transmissions among
multiple users.
➢ Digital Cordless Telephony:
– Used in standards like DECT (Digital Enhanced
Cordless Telecommunications).
 Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
➢ Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a multiple
access technique where multiple users share the same
frequency spectrum simultaneously by encoding their
signals with unique, orthogonal spreading codes.

➢ Each user’s signal is spread across the entire

bandwidth, making it distinguishable from others,
even when transmitted concurrently.
 Key Features of CDMA
1. 1. Unique Codes for Users: Each user is assigned a unique pseudo-random
code for spreading their signal. Orthogonality between codes ensures minimal
interference.

2. Wideband Spectrum Utilization: Signals are spread over a wide frequency

range, offering robustness to interference and noise.

3. Concurrent Transmission: Multiple users can transmit simultaneously

without the need for time or frequency slot allocation.

4. Soft Handoff Capability: Seamless transition between base stations during

mobility due to overlapping frequencies.

5. Resilience to Multipath Effects: Spreading codes make CDMA signals robust

against multipath fading and signal distortion.
 How CDMA Works
1. Spreading the Signal:
– Each user’s data signal is multiplied by their unique
spreading code, which has a much higher rate than the data
signal. This process spreads the data over a wide frequency
band.
2. Transmission:
– The spread signal is transmitted over the shared channel.
3. Reception and De-Spreading:
– At the receiver, the incoming signal is multiplied by the
same spreading code used by the transmitter.
– Only signals with matching codes are de-spread back to the
original data, while others remain as low-power noise.
 Advantages of CDMA
➢ Efficient Spectrum Use: Allows multiple users to share the same
frequency band, increasing capacity.

➢ Resistance to Interference: Spreading codes reduce the impact of

narrowband interference.

➢ Robustness to Multipath Fading: Exploits multipath diversity,

improving signal reliability in wireless environments.

➢ Privacy and Security: Unique codes make it difficult for unintended

receivers to intercept or decode the signal.

➢ Dynamic Resource Allocation: Does not require strict frequency or

time slot management, enabling more flexible resource allocation.
 Limitations of CDMA
1. Near-Far Problem:
– Users closer to the base station transmit stronger signals,
potentially overpowering weaker signals from distant users.
– Solved by power control mechanisms.
2. Complex Code Management:
– Requires efficient generation and management of
orthogonal codes.
3. Receiver Complexity:
– De-spreading and decoding require sophisticated signal
processing.
4. Capacity Constraints:
– Although capacity is higher, interference grows with the
number of users, limiting scalability.
 Applications of CDMA
➢ Mobile Communication Systems: Used in 3G networks like
CDMA2000 and WCDMA (Wideband CDMA).

➢ Military Communications: High security and anti-jamming

properties make it suitable for defense.

➢ Satellite Communications: Effective in environments with

limited bandwidth and multiple users.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access (OFDMA)
➢ Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
(OFDMA) is a multiple access technique that divides
the available spectrum into numerous orthogonal
subcarriers and allocates these subcarriers to multiple
users.
➢ It builds on Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) and is widely used in modern
wireless communication standards such as 4G LTE
and 5G.
 Key Features of OFDMA
1. Subcarrier Allocation: The available bandwidth is divided into
orthogonal subcarriers, which are allocated dynamically to users
based on their requirements.

2. Orthogonality: Subcarriers are orthogonal, meaning they do not

interfere with each other despite overlapping in frequency,
maximizing spectrum efficiency.

3. Scalability: Supports varying bandwidths, making it ideal for

systems requiring flexibility, such as 4G LTE and 5G.

4. Resource Blocks: Subcarriers are grouped into resource blocks

(RBs) that are assigned to users for efficient data transmission.

5. Low Interference: Orthogonality ensures minimal interference

among subcarriers, enhancing overall system performance.
 Working of OFDMA
1. Signal Generation: Data from users is divided into smaller streams and
modulated onto orthogonal subcarriers using techniques like QAM
(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).

2. Subcarrier Allocation: Subcarriers are dynamically allocated based on

channel conditions, user demand, and Quality of Service (QoS)
requirements.

3. Transmission: The modulated signals are combined and transmitted

simultaneously over the shared medium.

4. Reception and Demodulation: At the receiver end, an Inverse Fast Fourier

Transform (IFFT) is used to separate the signals from individual subcarriers.

➢ The subcarrier signals are demodulated to retrieve the original data streams.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
 Advantages of OFDMA
➢ High Spectral Efficiency: Simultaneous transmission of multiple users’
data over orthogonal subcarriers maximizes spectrum utilization.

➢ Dynamic Resource Allocation: Resources can be allocated dynamically to

meet the varying needs of users, improving flexibility and efficiency.

➢ Low Interference: Orthogonal subcarriers prevent intra-cell interference.

➢ Support for Multiple Users: Allows multiple users to share the same
spectrum without overlapping interference.

➢ Scalability: Suitable for varying bandwidths, supporting both narrowband

and wideband communication.

➢ Robustness to Multipath Fading: Dividing the signal into smaller chunks

makes it resilient to frequency-selective fading.
 Limitations of OFDMA
➢ High Complexity: Requires sophisticated algorithms for
subcarrier allocation and synchronization.

➢ Sensitive to Synchronization Errors: Loss of orthogonality due

to timing errors or Doppler shifts can degrade performance.

➢ High Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR): Signals

combining multiple subcarriers can result in high PAPR,
requiring advanced power amplifier designs.

➢ Overhead in Control Signaling: Requires significant overhead

for scheduling and allocation of resources.
 Applications of OFDMA
➢ 4G LTE and Beyond: OFDMA is the foundational
multiple access technique in LTE and 5G NR,
providing high-speed mobile broadband.

➢ Wi-Fi Standards: Used in Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) for

efficient spectrum utilization.

➢ Broadband Wireless Access: Essential in

technologies like WiMAX for providing wireless
broadband services.
Comparative Overview
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-3 Lecture : 05

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
1. Single Carrier Frequency Division
Multiple Access (SC-FDMA)
➢ Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access
(SC-FDMA) is a multiple access technique that
combines the benefits of single-carrier transmission
and frequency domain equalization.

➢ It is a variant of OFDMA but uses a single-carrier

structure. SC-FDMA is primarily employed in uplink
transmission in 4G LTE due to its lower Peak-to-
Average Power Ratio (PAPR).
 Key Features of SC-FDMA
➢ Single-Carrier Transmission: Unlike OFDMA, SC-FDMA retains
the single-carrier nature of the transmitted signal, which simplifies
the design of power amplifiers.

➢ Frequency Domain Equalization: Enables effective handling of

multipath fading without the high computational complexity of
time-domain equalization.

➢ Lower PAPR: The single-carrier structure reduces PAPR, making it

more power-efficient for uplink scenarios.

➢ Flexible Resource Allocation: Allows subcarrier mapping to be

contiguous or distributed, enabling flexibility in bandwidth usage.
 Working of SC-FDMA
1. Input Signal: The user data is first modulated using techniques like QPSK,
16-QAM, or 64-QAM.
2. Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT): The modulated signal is transformed
into the frequency domain using DFT.
3. Subcarrier Mapping: The frequency domain signal is mapped onto a subset
of subcarriers.
1. Localized Mapping: Contiguous subcarriers are assigned to a user.
2. Distributed Mapping: Subcarriers are spread across the entire
bandwidth.
4. Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT): The mapped signal is
transformed back into the time domain.
5. Transmission: The resulting time-domain signal is transmitted over the
wireless channel.
6. Reception and Demodulation: At the receiver, the process is reversed:
IDFT is applied to extract the subcarriers, followed by DFT and
demodulation to recover the transmitted data.
 Advantages of SC-FDMA
➢ Low PAPR:
– Lower PAPR reduces the complexity and cost of power amplifiers,
making SC-FDMA ideal for uplink transmission.
➢ Improved Power Efficiency:
– Single-carrier nature ensures efficient use of battery power in
mobile devices.
➢ Robustness to Multipath Fading:
– Frequency domain equalization effectively handles frequency-
selective fading.
➢ Flexible Subcarrier Mapping:
– Can adapt to diverse user requirements and channel conditions.
➢ Reduced Interference:
– Contiguous subcarrier mapping minimizes inter-user interference.
 Limitations of SC-FDMA
➢ Complex Subcarrier Mapping: Requires sophisticated
algorithms to efficiently map subcarriers, especially for
distributed mapping.

➢ Sensitivity to Synchronization Errors: Loss of

synchronization can degrade performance, similar to
OFDMA.

➢ Limited Scalability: Not as flexible as OFDMA for

scenarios requiring extremely high bandwidth or low
latency.
 Applications of SC-FDMA
➢ 4G LTE Uplink: SC-FDMA is the standard multiple
access technique for uplink in 4G LTE, balancing
power efficiency and spectral efficiency.

➢ Wireless Sensor Networks: Useful in scenarios

where low power consumption is critical.
Comparison of SC-FDMA and OFDMA
 2. Interleave Division Multiple
Access (IDMA) Schemes
➢ Interleave Division Multiple Access (IDMA) is a multiple
access technique that primarily employs user-specific
interleaving to differentiate between users in a communication
system.

➢ IDMA is particularly well-suited for high-capacity wireless

communication systems and is a variant of Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA).

➢ The fundamental principle of IDMA lies in the use of

interleaving to ensure orthogonality among users, thereby
reducing inter-user interference.
 Key Features of IDMA
1. User-Specific Interleaving: Each user is assigned a unique
interleaver, which permutes the order of bits in a specific
way. Interleaving provides diversity and minimizes the effect
of interference among users.

2. Low Complexity: IDMA reduces the computational

complexity associated with multi-user detection (MUD)
compared to CDMA.

3. High Spectral Efficiency: It allows multiple users to share

the same frequency band, improving spectrum utilization.

4. Robustness: Offers resilience to multipath fading and

interference due to its interleaving process.
 Working of IDMA
1. Signal Generation: Each user's data is modulated using techniques
such as BPSK, QPSK, or higher-order QAM.
2. Interleaving:
➢ A user-specific interleaver permutes the bits of each user’s
signal.
➢ The interleaved signal ensures that each user has a unique
representation in the combined transmission.
3. Transmission: The interleaved signals from multiple users are added
and transmitted over the wireless channel.
4. Reception and Detection:
➢ At the receiver, a low-complexity iterative decoding process is
used.
➢ The receiver applies de-interleaving and decoding to separate
the signals of different users.
 Advantages of IDMA
➢ Reduced Interference:
– User-specific interleaving minimizes inter-user interference,
improving signal quality.
➢ Low Computational Complexity:
– Compared to CDMA, IDMA simplifies the decoding process with
iterative multi-user detection.
➢ High Flexibility:
– Supports a large number of users in the same frequency band.
➢ Enhanced Performance:
– Provides robustness to fading and noise, improving overall system
reliability.
➢ Scalability:
– Easily accommodates an increasing number of users without
significant performance degradation.
 Challenges of IDMA
1. Interleaver Design:
➢ Designing optimal interleavers for large-scale systems can be
challenging.
➢ The interleaving process must ensure minimal overlap between
user signals.

2. Iterative Decoding Latency: The iterative nature of the

decoding process introduces latency.

3. Complexity at High User Densities: Although simpler than

CDMA, the complexity increases with a very high number of
users.
 Applications of IDMA
➢ Wireless Cellular Networks:
– Used in scenarios requiring high user density and efficient
spectrum utilization.

➢ Satellite Communications:
– Enables multiple users to share the same satellite
transponder bandwidth.

➢ IoT Networks:
– Supports large-scale IoT systems by accommodating
numerous devices.
 IDMA vs CDMA

➢ IDMA offers a compelling alternative to traditional multiple access schemes,

particularly in scenarios requiring high capacity and low interference.

➢ Its reliance on interleaving and iterative decoding makes it a robust and efficient
choice for modern communication systems.
 Hybrid Multiple Access Schemes
➢ Hybrid multiple access schemes combine features from
different basic multiple access techniques (FDMA,
TDMA, CDMA, OFDMA, SC-FDMA, and others) to
leverage their respective advantages while mitigating
their individual limitations.

➢ Hybrid methods are increasingly used in modern

wireless communication systems, including 5G, due to
their ability to support diverse requirements such as
high user density, efficient spectrum utilization, and low
latency.
(i) Frequency Code Division Multiple
Access (FCDMA)
➢ Frequency Code Division Multiple Access (FCDMA) is
a hybrid multiple access scheme that integrates
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) techniques.

➢ It combines the frequency division's bandwidth

segmentation with the spreading code principle from
CDMA to enhance system capacity and minimize
interference.
 Principles of FCDMA
➢ Frequency Division Component:
– The available frequency spectrum is divided into
multiple non-overlapping frequency bands.
– Each frequency band can be assigned to a group of users
or a single user.

➢ Code Division Component:

– Within each frequency band, multiple users share the
spectrum by being assigned unique spreading codes.
– These codes are orthogonal or quasi-orthogonal,
allowing multiple users to transmit simultaneously
without significant mutual interference.
 Operation of FCDMA
1. Bandwidth Division:
• The spectrum is divided into Nf frequency slots (subcarriers).
• Each slot is allocated to a set of users.
2. Spreading Code Assignment:
• Within each frequency slot, Mc users are distinguished using
unique spreading codes.
• Codes spread the user’s data over the allocated frequency slot,
ensuring minimal overlap and interference.
3. Receiver Functionality:
• The receiver separates signals using frequency filters to isolate the
frequency bands.
• Within each band, matched filters or correlators decode user data
using the corresponding spreading codes.
 Characteristics of FCDMA
➢ Efficient Spectrum Utilization: By combining frequency and
code domains, FCDMA achieves higher spectral efficiency.

➢ Interference Management: Spreading codes reduce mutual

interference between users sharing the same frequency band.

➢ Flexibility: The scheme supports dynamic allocation of users to

frequency slots and codes based on traffic demands.
 Advantages of FCDMA
➢ Improved Capacity: Supports a larger number of
simultaneous users compared to standalone FDMA or
CDMA.

➢ Resilience to Interference: Spreading codes provide better

resistance to narrowband interference and multipath fading.

➢ Scalability: Frequency slots and codes can be adjusted

dynamically, allowing adaptation to varying user densities.

➢ Compatibility with 5G: FCDMA aligns with the flexible

spectrum management requirements of 5G networks.
 Drawbacks of FCDMA
➢ Complexity:
– Requires sophisticated transceivers for frequency and
code management.

➢ Power Control:
– Power disparities among users in the same frequency
band can lead to the "near-far problem.“

➢ Synchronization Requirements:
– High precision synchronization is needed for effective
code orthogonality.
 Applications of FCDMA
➢ Satellite Communication: Efficiently manages shared
bandwidth among multiple ground stations.

➢ Advanced Wireless Systems: Used in experimental 5G

and beyond technologies for enhanced capacity and
efficiency.
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-3 Lecture : 06

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
Various Hybrid Multiple
Access Schemes
(ii) Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency
Hopped Multiple Access (DS/FH-MA)
➢ Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple
Access (DS/FH-MA) is a hybrid multiple access
technique that combines the principles of Direct
Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) and Frequency
Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) to improve
spectrum utilization, system capacity, and resilience to
interference.
➢ This method incorporates the benefits of both
techniques to mitigate their individual drawbacks.
 Components of DS/FH-MA
1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
– Each user’s signal is spread across a wide bandwidth by multiplying the
data with a unique pseudo-random spreading code.
– The receiver uses the same code to despread the signal, enabling user-
specific data recovery.
2. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
– The carrier frequency of the transmitted signal is changed periodically
according to a pseudo-random hopping pattern known to both transmitter
and receiver.
– Frequency hopping can be slow (several symbols per hop) or fast (multiple
hops per symbol).
3. Combination of DSSS and FHSS:
– Each user’s data is first spread using DSSS and then transmitted over a
frequency-hopped carrier.
– This provides dual-layer interference mitigation: code diversity from DSSS
and frequency diversity from FHSS.
 Operation of DS/FH-MA
1. Spreading and Hopping:
– Each user is assigned a unique pseudo-random spreading code and a
frequency hopping sequence.
– Data is first spread across the spectrum using the spreading code (DSSS)
and then transmitted over frequency slots that change dynamically
(FHSS).

2. Synchronization:
– The transmitter and receiver must be synchronized in both the spreading
code and the frequency hopping pattern to ensure proper decoding.

3. Receiver Functionality:
– The receiver first tracks the hopping pattern to identify the correct
frequency band.
– The received signal is then despread using the user-specific code to
recover the transmitted data.
 Features of DS/FH-MA
➢ Enhanced Security:
– The combination of spreading and hopping makes the
system highly resistant to interception and jamming.

➢ Improved Multipath Performance:

– Frequency hopping mitigates multipath fading by spreading
the signal over a diverse range of frequencies.
– DSSS improves resilience to fading by averaging the
effects over a wide bandwidth.

➢ Robust Interference Management:

– DSSS mitigates narrowband interference, while FHSS
combats wideband interference.
 Advantages of DS/FH-MA
➢ Dual Diversity: Offers both code diversity and frequency
diversity, improving robustness against fading and interference.

➢ High Capacity: Supports multiple users by assigning unique codes

and hopping patterns, reducing the probability of collision.

➢ Jamming Resistance: Both direct sequence and frequency hopping

techniques inherently provide strong protection against jamming.

➢ Scalability: Can accommodate a large number of users due to the

wide spectrum and unique code-frequency combinations.
 Challenges of DS/FH-MA
➢ Synchronization Complexity: Synchronizing the
spreading code and hopping sequence between the
transmitter and receiver is technically challenging.

➢ High Bandwidth Requirements: Requires a large

bandwidth to accommodate spreading and hopping.

➢ Increased Hardware Complexity: Combining DSSS

and FHSS necessitates advanced transceiver designs,
increasing cost and computational demands.
 Applications of DS/FH-MA
➢ Military Communications: Used in secure
communications due to its resistance to jamming and
interception.

➢ Satellite Communications: Employed to enhance

capacity and reliability in satellite systems.

➢ 5G and IoT Networks: Supports a large number of

devices with varying data rate requirements and
interference conditions.
 (iii) Time Code Division Multiple
Access (TCDMA)

➢ Time Code Division Multiple Access (TCDMA) is

a hybrid multiple access scheme that combines the
principles of Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA).

➢ It leverages the advantages of both techniques to

increase system capacity, minimize interference, and
optimize spectrum utilization.
 Principles of TCDMA
1. Time Division:
➢ The communication channel is divided into multiple time slots, as in
TDMA.
➢ Each user is assigned a unique time slot for transmitting and receiving
data, ensuring no overlap in time.

2. Code Division:
➢ Within each time slot, users are further differentiated using unique
pseudo-random codes, as in CDMA.
➢ These codes enable multiple users to occupy the same time slot and
frequency band simultaneously without interference.

3. Hybrid Access:
➢ By combining time and code division, TCDMA achieves a higher
degree of resource utilization and supports a larger number of users
than either TDMA or CDMA alone.
 Operation of TCDMA
➢ Time Slot Assignment: The available bandwidth is divided into
discrete time slots, which are cyclically assigned to users.
➢ Code Assignment: Within each assigned time slot, users are
distinguished using orthogonal codes (e.g., Walsh codes or Gold
codes).
➢ Signal Transmission: Each user's signal is spread across the
frequency spectrum using its unique code and transmitted in the
designated time slot.
➢ Signal Recovery at the Receiver: The receiver synchronizes to
the specific time slot and despreads the signal using the
corresponding code to recover the transmitted data.
 Features of TCDMA
➢ Increased Capacity: TCDMA supports more users by
utilizing both time and code resources for multiplexing.

➢ Efficient Spectrum Usage: The hybrid nature of TCDMA

ensures that spectrum is utilized effectively, reducing idle
periods and interference.

➢ Interference Mitigation: Orthogonal codes and distinct time

slots minimize the risk of cross-user interference.

➢ Flexibility: TCDMA can adapt to varying traffic loads by

dynamically allocating time slots and codes.
 Advantages of TCDMA
➢ Enhanced System Performance: Combines the high
capacity of CDMA with the simplicity of time-based
resource allocation in TDMA.

➢ Scalability: Accommodates a growing number of users

without significant degradation in quality.

➢ Robustness: The use of orthogonal codes ensures that

signals are distinguishable, even in noisy environments.

➢ Efficient Power Management: Users transmit only

during their designated time slots, conserving power.
 Challenges of TCDMA
➢ Complexity: Requires synchronization in both time and code
domains, increasing system complexity.

➢ Latency: Time slot allocation may introduce delays, especially

in low-latency applications.

➢ Interference Management: Although orthogonal codes

mitigate interference, near-far issues (similar to CDMA) may
arise without proper power control.

➢ Implementation Cost: Advanced transceiver designs are

necessary to handle the hybrid nature of TCDMA.
 Applications of TCDMA
➢ Cellular Networks: Used in modern cellular communication
systems to handle high user densities.

➢ Satellite Communications: Ideal for satellite networks

requiring efficient resource allocation and interference
mitigation.

➢ IoT and 5G Networks: Supports massive device connectivity

with high data rate requirements.
 (iv) Time Division Frequency
Hopping (TDFH)
➢ The TDFH method is a combination of Time Division and
Frequency Hopping techniques to enhance multiple access in
wireless communication systems.

➢ This hybrid scheme is designed to provide improved security,

robustness, and interference resilience in environments where
wireless channels experience fading, interference, and noise.

➢ By combining these two techniques, TDFH increases both the

system's capacity and reliability.
 Components of TDFH
1. Time Division (TD):
➢ The available communication channel is divided into multiple time slots.
➢ Each user is assigned a unique time slot during which they can transmit their
data.
➢ Time slots are typically allocated in a round-robin or dynamic manner,
ensuring that multiple users can share the same frequency spectrum without
interference.
2. Frequency Hopping (FH):
➢ In frequency hopping, the communication signal rapidly switches between
different frequency channels during transmission.
➢ This process can be either random or pseudorandom, depending on the
system design.
➢ The signal hops from one frequency to another according to a predefined
pattern, making it more difficult for external interferers to impact the
communication process.
➢ It also improves the resilience of the system against frequency-selective fading
and jamming.
 How TDFH Works
1. Time Slot Allocation:
➢ The communication channel is divided into time slots, with each user
assigned a specific slot during which they can transmit or receive data.
➢ This ensures that users do not interfere with one another in the time
domain.

2. Frequency Hopping Pattern:

➢ Each user uses a frequency hopping sequence, switching frequencies
during their assigned time slot.
➢ The hopping sequence is carefully designed so that the receiver can
synchronize and track the sequence, ensuring that the signal can be
properly demodulated.

3. Combination of TDMA and FH:

➢ The system combines both time and frequency resources for better
capacity management and interference avoidance.
➢ This hybrid technique allows for the simultaneous use of multiple users
in the same time frame but across different frequency channels.
 Benefits of TDFH
➢Interference Resistance
➢Improved Security
➢Robustness in Fading Environments
➢Better Spectrum Utilization
 Drawbacks of TDFH
➢ Complexity in Implementation
➢ Potential for Increased Delay
➢ Channel Estimation and Synchronization
➢ Power Consumption

Application of TDFH

➢ Military Communications:
➢ Cellular Networks:
➢ Satellite Communication:
 (v) FDMA-TDMA Hybrid
➢ Concept: Combines Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA) with Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).

➢ Operation: The frequency spectrum is divided into multiple

channels (FDMA). Each frequency channel is further divided
into time slots (TDMA).

➢ Advantages: Efficient utilization of spectrum and time

resources. Reduces interference by dividing users across both
frequency and time domains.

➢ Applications: Early cellular systems (e.g., GSM).

 (vi) OFDMA-CDMA Hybrid
➢ Concept: Merges Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
(OFDMA) with CDMA.
➢ Operation:
– The spectrum is divided into orthogonal subcarriers using
OFDMA.
– Spreading codes are applied to each subcarrier for user
differentiation (CDMA).
➢ Advantages:
– Combines the robustness of OFDMA against multipath fading
with the interference management of CDMA.
– High spectral efficiency.
➢ Applications:
– Advanced wireless systems like WiMAX.
 (vii) SC-FDMA-CDMA Hybrid
➢ Concept: Blends Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple
Access (SC-FDMA) with CDMA.

➢ Operation: SC-FDMA provides low Peak-to-Average Power

Ratio (PAPR). CDMA adds user differentiation using
spreading codes.

➢ Advantages: Suitable for uplink communications due to low

PAPR. Robust interference management.

➢ Applications: LTE uplink.

 (viii) NOMA-OFDMA Hybrid
➢ Concept: Combines Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access
(NOMA) with OFDMA.

➢ Operation: Users are allocated orthogonal subcarriers

(OFDMA).Within each subcarrier, NOMA differentiates users
using power levels.

➢ Advantages: Supports massive connectivity with better

spectral efficiency. Suitable for IoT applications.

➢ Applications:5G networks and beyond.

 (ix) NOMA-SCMA Hybrid
➢ Concept: Integrates Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access
(NOMA) with Sparse Code Multiple Access (SCMA).

➢ Operation: NOMA differentiates users by power

allocation. SCMA employs sparse codebooks for low-
complexity decoding.

➢ Advantages: High spectral efficiency with low decoding

complexity. Enhanced performance in dense networks.

➢ Applications: 5G systems for eMBB and mMTC.

 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-3 Lecture : 07 & 08

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Rake Receiver
➢ A Rake Receiver is a type of receiver architecture widely used in
spread spectrum communication systems, particularly in Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems and other multipath
propagation environments.
➢ Its primary function is to exploit the diversity offered by multipath
propagation, combining signals arriving through multiple paths to
improve signal quality and reliability.
➢ In wireless environments, transmitted signals often arrive at the receiver
through multiple paths due to reflection, refraction, diffraction, and
scattering. These paths have different delays, amplitudes, and phases,
causing interference at the receiver.
➢ Instead of treating this multipath phenomenon as interference, the Rake
Receiver uses it as an advantage. It processes the multiple signal
components (multipath signals) individually and then combines them
constructively to enhance signal detection.
 Principles of Rake Receiver
➢ The Rake Receiver is based on the principle of multipath diversity, which is
the ability to separate and utilize different signal paths. It does this by using
several "fingers," each of which correlates to a specific delayed version of the
signal. The main steps include:

➢ Path Detection: The receiver identifies distinct signal paths using a delay
spread and estimates the time delays of these paths.
➢ Correlation: Each finger of the Rake Receiver correlates the received signal
with the spreading code for a particular multipath component. This isolates the
contribution of that path.
➢ Weighting: The outputs from each finger are weighted based on their signal
strength or Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR). Paths with higher strength are given
more weight.
➢ Combining: The weighted signals from all fingers are combined coherently
(phase-aligned) to form the final output. This improves the overall signal quality
by enhancing constructive interference and minimizing destructive interference.
 Architecture of Rake Receiver
The Rake Receiver consists of the following components:
➢ Antenna: Captures the transmitted signal, which includes multiple
delayed versions of the original signal.
➢ Delay Estimator:
– Determines the delays of the significant multipath components.
– Often uses autocorrelation techniques to identify delay spreads.
➢ Fingers (Correlators):
– Each finger corresponds to a specific multipath component.
– It correlates the received signal with the spreading code, isolating the
energy of the intended signal for that path.
➢ Weighting Block: Assigns weights to the signals from each finger based
on the channel conditions and the strength of the signal.
➢ Combiner: Combines the weighted outputs of all fingers coherently to
form the final output.
Mathematical Model
 Advantages of Rake Receiver
➢ Exploits Multipath Diversity: Instead of treating multipath as
interference, the Rake Receiver turns it into an advantage, improving
signal quality.

➢ Enhanced Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): By combining multiple paths

constructively, the Rake Receiver improves the overall SNR.

➢ Reduced Fading: Combines independent fading paths, effectively

reducing the impact of deep fades on overall signal quality.

➢ Improved Reliability: Particularly useful in environments with rich

multipath propagation, such as urban and indoor scenarios.
 Limitations of Rake Receiver
➢ Complexity: Requires precise delay estimation and
synchronization, increasing system complexity.

➢ Limited Effectiveness in High Delay Spread: As the number of

significant multipath components increases, the complexity
grows, and it becomes harder to track all paths.

➢ Interference: In systems with multiple users (like CDMA),

interference from other users may reduce the effectiveness of the
Rake Receiver.

➢ Power Consumption: Requires multiple correlators and

weighting/combining blocks, leading to higher power
consumption.
 Applications of Rake Receiver
1. CDMA Systems: Used in 3G cellular systems (e.g., WCDMA) to
handle multipath effects and improve signal detection.

2. Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Communication: Exploits the high-

resolution multipath diversity in UWB systems.

3. Satellite Communication: Useful in environments where

multipath propagation due to reflections from Earth's surface and
other structures is significant.

4. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs): Helps mitigate

multipath effects in indoor environments.
Multiple Access for Radio Packet Systems
Multiple Access techniques are essential in wireless radio packet
systems to efficiently allocate resources like bandwidth, power, and
time for multiple users to share the same communication medium.

Need for Multiple Access in Radio Packet Systems

➢ Wireless channels are inherently shared resources, and multiple
users need to coexist efficiently.
➢ Multiple access methods ensure fair and efficient use of the channel
while minimizing interference.
➢ Primary goals:
– Maximize throughput.
– Ensure fairness in resource allocation.
– Minimize packet loss and delay.
 Packet Radio Protocols
➢ Packet radio protocols are fundamental to wireless
communications, especially in systems where data transmission
is performed in discrete packets rather than continuous streams.

➢ These protocols govern how packets are transmitted, shared, and

managed in a wireless network to ensure efficient
communication and collision resolution.
Introduction to Packet Radio Protocols
➢ Definition: Packet radio protocols define the rules and
procedures for transmitting data packets over shared wireless
channels. They are essential in managing:
– Channel sharing among multiple users.
– Collision detection and avoidance.
– Efficient bandwidth utilization for bursty data traffic.

➢ Importance:
✓ Wireless systems typically involve multiple users contending for
the same channel.
✓ Protocols ensure that resources are used effectively while
minimizing packet loss, delays, and errors.
Challenges:

1. Interference: Wireless channels are prone to collisions when

multiple users attempt to transmit simultaneously.

2. Dynamic topology: In mobile environments, network

topologies frequently change.

3. Limited resources: Bandwidth and power constraints must be

considered.
 Types of Packet Radio Protocols
➢Packet radio protocols are critical in managing
communication in wireless systems that rely
on shared radio resources.

➢They ensure orderly and efficient transmission

of packets by handling channel access,
collision resolution, and resource allocation.
1. Random Access Protocols
Random access protocols are designed for environments with
unpredictable, bursty traffic, where users transmit packets without prior
reservation.

A. ALOHA-Based Protocols
ALOHA protocols are among the earliest and simplest random access
techniques. They operate on the principle of sending packets whenever
ready and resolving collisions through retransmission.

I. Pure ALOHA:

Mechanism: Users transmit whenever they have data. If two packets

collide, they are retransmitted after a random delay.
Efficiency: Channel utilization is only ~18% due to high collision
probability.
Applications: Initial satellite communication systems.
Limitation: Poor performance under heavy traffic.
II. Slotted ALOHA:

➢ Mechanism: Time is divided into discrete slots. Packets can

only be sent at the start of a time slot, reducing the likelihood of
collisions.

➢ Efficiency: Improved channel utilization (~37%) compared to

pure ALOHA.

➢ Advantages: More structured than pure ALOHA.

➢ Limitation: Requires time synchronization.

 B. Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA) Protocols
➢ CSMA protocols improve upon ALOHA by allowing users to
"sense" the channel before transmitting. This minimizes the
chances of collisions.

1. Non-Persistent CSMA:
– Mechanism: Users sense the channel. If busy, they wait for
a random time before trying again.
– Advantage: Reduces collision probability.
– Limitation: Increased delay compared to persistent
CSMA.
2. 1-Persistent CSMA:

➢ Mechanism: If the channel is busy, users wait and transmit

immediately when it becomes idle.
➢ Advantage: Maximizes channel utilization.
➢ Limitation: Higher chance of collisions due to aggressive
transmission.

3. P-Persistent CSMA:

➢ Mechanism: For slotted channels, users transmit with a

probability p when the channel is sensed idle, or defer with
probability 1-p.
➢ Advantage: Balances collision avoidance and channel
utilization.
4. CSMA with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA):

➢ Mechanism: Users reserve the channel before transmitting

by exchanging control packets (e.g., RTS/CTS in Wi-Fi).

➢ Applications: Widely used in IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi)

networks.

➢ Advantage: Effective in reducing collisions in high-traffic

scenarios.
 2. Reservation-Based Protocols
➢ Reservation protocols are designed to allocate resources to users
beforehand, minimizing collisions.

A. Polling Protocols

➢ Mechanism: A central controller polls users sequentially to check

if they have data to send.
➢ Advantages:
– Collision-free communication.
– Suitable for predictable traffic patterns.
➢ Limitations:
– Increased overhead due to polling messages.
– Inefficient under low traffic conditions.
B. Reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA):

➢ Mechanism: Users contend for a slot in the control channel to

reserve future data transmission slots.
➢ Advantages:
✓ Reduces collisions during data transmission.
✓ Improves efficiency compared to ALOHA.
➢ Applications: Satellite communication systems.

C. Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA):

➢ Mechanism: Combines random access and reservation

principles. Users contend for initial access slots but reserve slots for
future transmissions.
➢ Applications: Cellular systems for voice and data traffic.
 3. Hybrid Protocols
➢ Hybrid protocols integrate random access and reservation-based
approaches to combine flexibility with efficiency.

A. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

➢ Mechanism: Divides time into slots, with each user assigned a
specific slot for transmission.
➢ Advantages:
– Collision-free transmission.
– Efficient for continuous traffic.
➢ Limitations:
– Requires precise synchronization.
– Inefficient for bursty traffic.
B. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

➢ Mechanism: Allocates distinct frequency bands to users.

➢ Advantages:
➢No collisions as each user has a separate frequency.
➢Simple implementation.

➢ Limitations:
➢Fixed allocation may lead to underutilization of resources.
C. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

➢ Mechanism: Users share the same frequency and time but are
separated by unique spreading codes.

➢ Advantages:
✓ High user capacity.
✓ Robust against interference.

➢ Limitations:
✓ Complex implementation.
✓ Requires precise code management.
D. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA):

➢ Mechanism: Combines TDMA and FDMA by dividing the

frequency band into orthogonal subcarriers allocated to different
users.

➢ Advantages:
✓ High spectral efficiency.
✓ Scalable for modern systems like LTE and 5G.

➢ Applications: Cellular and broadband systems.

 Performance Metrics
The performance of packet radio protocols is evaluated based on:
➢ Throughput: The fraction of time the channel is effectively used for successful
packet transmission.
– ALOHA protocols have lower throughput than CSMA or reservation-based
protocols.
➢ Delay: Time taken for a packet to be successfully transmitted, including
retransmission delays.
– Random access protocols like ALOHA experience higher delays under
heavy traffic.
➢ Fairness: Ensures all users get equal access to the channel.
– Reservation-based protocols are typically fairer than random access ones.
➢ Scalability: The ability to handle an increasing number of users.
– Distributed protocols like CSMA are more scalable than centralized ones.
➢ Complexity: Refers to the implementation difficulty and resource requirements.
– ALOHA and CSMA are simpler than TDMA or CDMA.
 Modern Protocol Extensions
1. Adaptive Protocols:
– Dynamically adjust channel access based on traffic
and channel conditions.

2. Cognitive Radio Protocols:

– Enable opportunistic access to unused spectrum in
dynamic environments.

3. Machine Learning Integration:

– Enhances decision-making for collision avoidance,
resource allocation, and adaptive scheduling.
 Applications
1. Satellite Communications:
i. ALOHA protocols were originally designed for satellite
systems.
ii. Reservation-based protocols are commonly used for
efficiency.
2. Wi-Fi Networks: Use CSMA/CA to handle collisions and
optimize performance.
3. Cellular Networks: Hybrid protocols like PRMA and R-
ALOHA are employed in modern systems.
4. IoT and Sensor Networks: Random access protocols like
slotted ALOHA are suitable for low-power IoT devices.
 Conclusion
➢ Packet radio protocols form the foundation of modern wireless
communication systems. While random access protocols like
ALOHA and CSMA are suited for bursty traffic and simple
systems, reservation-based and hybrid protocols offer higher
efficiency and fairness for complex and high-traffic networks.

➢ The choice of protocol depends on system requirements,

traffic characteristics, and application needs. The insights
demonstrate that as wireless systems evolve, these protocols
continue to adapt, integrating advanced techniques like
OFDMA and cognitive radio to meet the demands of modern
networks.