Wireless and Mobile

Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-2 Lecture : 01

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Theory of Vocoders
and Types of Vocoders
 VOCODERS
 A vocoder (short for voice encoder) is a signal processing
technology that analyzes and synthesizes human speech by
separating the speech signal into its excitation and vocal tract
characteristics.

 Vocoders are widely used in wireless communications, audio

processing, speech synthesis, and compression, particularly for
reducing bandwidth in digital communication systems.

 The fundamental idea behind vocoders is to represent speech

in a more compact form for efficient transmission or storage
without significantly degrading intelligibility.
 In Theodore Rappaport's "Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice," vocoders are described as an
important element in digital speech processing, particularly for
wireless communication systems.

 The theory of vocoders is closely related to the

understanding of speech production and the efficient coding of
speech signals for transmission over limited band.
 Key Concepts of Vocoder Theory
1. Speech Production Model
The basic model for speech production consists of two primary
components:
 Excitation Source: This represents the airflow from the lungs. For
voiced sounds (like vowels), this source is periodic and corresponds
to vocal cord vibrations. For unvoiced sounds, the excitation is
noise-like.
 Vocal Tract: The shape and configuration of the vocal tract,
including the mouth, tongue, and throat, form a filter that modifies
the excitation signal. The vocal tract can be modeled as a dynamic
filter that shapes the sound.
 A vocoder mimics this model by extracting the excitation signal
and the filter characteristics from the speech signal. These two
components can then be transmitted separately and recombined at
the receiver.
2. Speech Signal Analysis

The speech signal is typically analyzed by dividing it into small

segments, called frames, which are processed individually. Each frame
is a short segment of speech, usually around 20 to 30 milliseconds,
during which the characteristics of the speech are considered constant.

For each frame, the vocoder extracts two main components:

 Pitch (Fundamental Frequency): This is the frequency of the vocal

cord vibrations for voiced speech. The pitch determines the periodicity
of the excitation.

 Spectral Envelope (Formants): The spectral envelope captures the

resonances of the vocal tract and is essential for identifying different
phonemes (distinct units of sound).
3. Linear Predictive Coding (LPC)

One of the most widely used methods in vocoders is Linear Predictive

Coding (LPC), which estimates the vocal tract's filter characteristics
based on the speech signal. LPC analyzes the speech signal and predicts
the current sample based on a linear combination of past speech samples.
The LPC coefficients represent the shape of the vocal tract, and the
residual signal (the error between the actual and predicted samples)
represents the excitation.

The LPC vocoder uses the following steps:

 LPC Analysis: Extracts the filter coefficients that describe the vocal
tract.
 Pitch Detection: Estimates whether the speech is voiced or unvoiced
and extracts the pitch for voiced speech.
 Excitation Signal: For voiced speech, a periodic pulse train is used.
For unvoiced speech, a white noise signal is used as the excitation.
4. Voice Encoding

 In digital vocoders, speech is encoded by transmitting the LPC

coefficients and the excitation parameters (such as pitch and
voiced/unvoiced flag) instead of the raw speech signal.

 This reduces the data rate significantly because the speech can
be represented by fewer parameters compared to transmitting the
full waveform.

 For example, traditional speech signals in telephony are

sampled at 8 kHz with 8-bit quantization, which results in a
data rate of 64 kbps. In contrast, vocoders can compress speech
to bit rates as low as 2.4 kbps to 16 kbps, making them highly
efficient for use in wireless communications.
5. Voice Synthesis

At the receiver, the vocoder reconstructs the speech by using the

transmitted parameters:

 The excitation signal (either periodic or noise-like) is generated

based on the received pitch information.

 The filter coefficients (LPC coefficients) are used to reconstruct

the vocal tract characteristics.

 The excitation signal is passed through the filter to generate the

synthetic speech signal.

This process is known as speech synthesis. While vocoders generally

focus on efficiency, the quality of the synthesized speech may not be
as high as the original, but it is typically intelligible and acceptable for
applications such as telephony and low-bandwidth communications.
Here is the diagram illustrating the concept of vocoders, detailing the flow of speech
analysis and speech synthesis processes. It visually explains the key components of
vocoders, including pitch detection, LPC analysis, and synthesizing the speech output.
 Applications in Wireless Communication
 Vocoders play a crucial role in wireless communication systems by enabling
the transmission of speech over limited bandwidth channels. In cellular systems,
for example, vocoders are used to reduce the data rate of voice signals, allowing
more users to be supported simultaneously.
1. Speech Compression for bandwidth-efficient voice transmission in mobile
networks (GSM, CDMA, VoLTE).
2. VoIP services for real-time voice transmission over the internet (Skype,
WhatsApp).
3. Public safety communications in digital radio systems (P25, TETRA).
4. Noise reduction and speech enhancement for clear communication in noisy
environments.
5. Adaptive rate control for wireless networks to handle varying bandwidth
conditions.
6. Secure communications for military and government use.
7. High-fidelity speech synthesis in virtual assistants and text-to-speech
applications.
8. Multimedia and streaming services to optimize voice transmission.
 Challenges with Vocoders
Although vocoders are efficient, they come with trade-offs, such
as:

 Speech Quality: At very low bit rates, the vocoder may not
capture all nuances of the speech signal, leading to robotic or
muffled sound quality.

 Latency: Some vocoder implementations introduce delays due

to the need to process speech in frames.

 Noise Sensitivity: Vocoders may struggle to encode speech

accurately in the presence of background noise.
 Types of Vocoders
1. Linear Predictive Coding (LPC) Vocoders

 Linear Predictive Coding (LPC) is one of the most fundamental and widely used
vocoder techniques. LPC vocoders analyze the speech signal and model it as a
source-filter system, where the vocal tract is modeled as a digital filter and the
excitation signal represents the airflow from the lungs.
Key Features:
 Vocal Tract Model: LPC models the vocal tract with a set of filter coefficients that
represent the shape of the vocal tract.
 Prediction of Speech Samples: LPC predicts the next sample of the speech signal
based on a linear combination of previous samples.
 Residual Signal: The difference between the actual and predicted speech signal (the
residual) is transmitted along with the filter coefficients.
 Low Bit Rate: LPC can compress speech to 2.4 to 4.8 kbps, which makes it suitable
for low-bandwidth applications.
Applications:
 Mobile and wireless communications, especially in earlier generation codecs.
 Speech compression in voice-over-IP (VoIP) applications.
2. Code-Excited Linear Prediction (CELP) Vocoders

Code-Excited Linear Prediction (CELP) is an extension of LPC and is

one of the most important vocoder types for high-quality, low-bit rate
speech coding. It adds a stochastic model for the excitation signal, using
codebooks to efficiently encode and reproduce the excitation parameters.

Key Features:

 Codebook-based Excitation: Instead of simply using a pulse or noise

for excitation, CELP uses a codebook to select an optimal excitation
signal for each segment of speech.
 Improved Speech Quality: CELP improves upon LPC by providing
more realistic modeling of the excitation signal, leading to higher speech
quality at low bitrates.
 Bit Rates: CELP-based codecs can achieve bitrates ranging from 4.8
kbps to 16 kbps.
Variants:

 Low-Delay CELP (LD-CELP): Designed to minimize the latency

associated with speech coding, often used in real-time communication
systems.
 Adaptive Multi-Rate (AMR) Codec: An important evolution of CELP
used in GSM and 3G networks, which adapts the bit rate depending on
network conditions to maintain an optimal balance between quality and
capacity.

Applications:

 Mobile telephony, especially in modern communication standards like

GSM, 3G, and 4G.
 Voice-over-IP (VoIP) services.
The CELP Vocoder: Analyzer Block Diagram
The CELP Vocoder: Synthesizer Block Diagram
3. Phase Vocoders

Phase vocoders focus on the phase information of the speech signal, analyzing
and synthesizing the phase spectrum along with the amplitude spectrum. While
less common in wireless communications, phase vocoders are often used in
speech manipulation and audio effects.

Key Features:
 Phase Spectrum Analysis: Phase vocoders analyze the phase changes of the
signal over time, enabling time-stretching and pitch-shifting without affecting
the speech's speed.
 High-Quality Synthesis: The output signal maintains the natural quality of
the original speech, making phase vocoders useful for certain speech processing
applications where naturalness is important.

Applications:
 Audio effects and music production.
 Speech manipulation in post-production environments.
The Phase Vocoder: Analyzer Block Diagram
The Phase Vocoder: Synthesizer Block Diagram
4. Formant Vocoders

Formant vocoders are designed to model speech based on its formants, which
are the resonant frequencies in the vocal tract. They focus on the formant
structure of the speech signal and attempt to synthesize the speech signal by
manipulating the formant frequencies.

Key Features:
 Formant Modeling: The formant vocoder models speech by identifying and
synthesizing the formant frequencies that define the characteristics of vowels
and other speech sounds.
 Natural Speech Synthesis: Formant vocoders produce speech that is
intelligible and relatively natural, although they tend to produce a slightly
robotic sound.
 Simpler Excitation Model: These vocoders typically use a simpler excitation
model, such as a pulse or noise source.

Applications:
 Speech synthesis in voice-based applications such as text-to-speech systems.
 Robotic speech effects.
The Formant Vocoder: Analyzer Block Diagram
The Formant Vocoder: Synthesizer Block Diagram
5. Multiband Excitation (MBE) Vocoders

Multiband Excitation (MBE) vocoders divide the speech signal into multiple
frequency bands and determine whether each band is voiced or unvoiced. The
unvoiced and voiced components are then synthesized separately, improving the
overall intelligibility and quality of speech.

Key Features:
 Frequency Band Division: MBE divides the speech signal into several
frequency bands and models each band separately as voiced or unvoiced.
 Improved Speech Quality: By modeling both voiced and unvoiced
components more accurately, MBE vocoders can deliver higher-quality speech
synthesis at relatively low bitrates.
 Bit Rate: MBE vocoders typically operate in the range of 2.4 to 4.8 kbps,
providing a balance between speech quality and bandwidth efficiency.

Applications:
 Digital radio systems such as P25 and D-STAR.
 Satellite communication systems.
6. Waveform Interpolation (WI) Vocoders

Waveform Interpolation (WI) vocoders attempt to achieve higher speech quality by

interpolating between successive speech waveform segments. They aim to maintain
the fidelity of the speech waveform during encoding and synthesis.

Key Features:
 Waveform Interpolation: WI vocoders break the speech into small waveforms
and use interpolation techniques to fill in the gaps between waveforms, ensuring
smooth transitions and high-quality synthesis.
 High-Fidelity Speech: These vocoders can reproduce speech with high fidelity,
making them suitable for scenarios where speech quality is paramount.
 Bit Rate: WI vocoders typically operate at moderate bit rates, around 4.8 to 16
kbps, depending on the system requirements.

Applications:
 High-quality speech coding for applications such as broadcast communications.
 VoIP systems that require good speech quality at moderate bitrates.
7. Channel Vocoders

Channel vocoders are among the earliest types of vocoders and were originally
designed for secure communication. They split the speech signal into several
frequency bands, each processed and encoded separately. These vocoders analyze
the envelope of each frequency band and then synthesize the speech signal using
a noise or pulse excitation signal.

Key Features:
 Frequency Band Processing: The channel vocoder splits the speech into
different frequency bands, analyzes each band for its amplitude envelope, and
then reconstructs the signal using a fixed excitation model.
 Robust but Artificial Speech Quality: The speech quality produced by
channel vocoders tends to be intelligible but robotic.
 Historical Significance: Channel vocoders were developed in the mid-20th
century and are less commonly used in modern applications but still form the
foundation for modern vocoder designs.

Applications:
 Secure voice communications during World War II.
 Early telecommunications research.
The Channel Vocoder: Analyzer Block Diagram
The Channel Vocoder: Synthesizer Block Diagram
8. Pitch-Synchronous Harmonic Vocoders

Pitch-Synchronous Harmonic Vocoders generate speech by modeling the

harmonic structure of the voice. They use a pitch-synchronous model, meaning
that the signal is processed in sync with the periodicity of the voiced speech.

Key Features:
 Pitch Synchronization: The vocoder is synchronized with the pitch of the
speaker's voice, allowing for better reproduction of pitch and harmonic content
in the speech signal.
 High Speech Quality: These vocoders are capable of producing speech with
very natural intonation and pitch, making them suitable for high-quality speech
synthesis applications.

Applications:
 High-quality speech synthesis in systems such as text-to-speech engines
and voice assistants.
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-2 Lecture : 02

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 SPREAD SPECTRUM
 Spread Spectrum is a wireless communication technology that
distributes the transmitted signal across a larger bandwidth
than the original signal. This approach improves
communication security and dependability by increasing the
signal’s resistance to interference, eavesdropping, and
jamming.

 Spread spectrum is a method of transmitting radio signals over

a wide range of frequencies. It spreads the signal over a
broader bandwidth than the minimum required to send the
information, which provides advantages such as increased
resistance to interference, improved security, and enhanced
privacy.
 This method uses air as a medium and extends bandwidth to
create a protective envelope for signals, reducing the risk of
interception or jamming.

 The ‘spread code’ is a patterned series of numbers that enlarges

the original signal’s bandwidth. This method is typically used in
situations where secure transmission is crucial.
Spread Spectrum
SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION
 Spread spectrum modulation is a technique used in wireless
communications to transmit signals over a wide frequency
bandwidth that is significantly larger than the minimum
bandwidth required for the signal.

 This technique enhances signal robustness, security, and

interference resistance.

 Spread spectrum systems are fundamental in wireless

communication systems such as CDMA, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
and GPS.
 Key Concepts of Spread Spectrum
Modulation
1. Basic Principle:

 In traditional modulation schemes, the bandwidth of the transmitted

signal is kept as small as possible to maximize efficiency. However,
in spread spectrum, the signal is spread over a much larger
bandwidth than necessary for transmission.
 The spreading is done by modulating the data signal with a pseudo-
random sequence (also known as a spreading code), which spreads
the signal over a wider frequency range.
 At the receiver, the signal is de-spread using the same pseudo-
random sequence to recover the original data.
2. Key Benefits:

 Interference Rejection: Spread spectrum systems are more

resistant to interference, as the spreading process makes the
signal harder to jam or intercept.

 Security: Since the pseudo-random sequence is known only to

authorized users, spread spectrum provides a level of security
against eavesdropping.

 Multipath Resistance: The wide bandwidth used in spread

spectrum systems helps mitigate the effects of multipath fading
(a common issue in wireless communication, where signals
bounce off obstacles and arrive at the receiver at different times).
 Processing Gain
 The processing gain of a spread spectrum system
is a critical factor in determining its ability to
reject interference and noise. The processing gain
is the ratio of the spread bandwidth to the original
signal bandwidth and is given by:

 A higher processing gain indicates greater

resilience to noise and interference.
 Pseudo-Noise (PN) Codes
 A PN code is a deterministic, periodic sequence of binary digits
(0s and 1s) that exhibits noise-like properties.

 Although they are deterministically generated, these sequences

are designed to appear as random as possible to any external
observer.

 They are used to spread a narrowband signal over a wider

frequency band, making the signal more resistant to interference,
noise, and eavesdropping.
 Properties of PN Codes in Spread
Spectrum Systems
 Autocorrelation: Ensures synchronization and despreading at
the receiver.
 Cross-correlation: Allows multiple users to share the same
frequency band without interfering with each other.
 Randomness: Provides interference resistance and security by
making the signal appear as noise.
 Periodicity: Ensures the sequence repeats predictably, essential
for synchronization.
 Balance: Guarantees even spreading across the frequency band,
minimizing interference.
 Run Length: Limits the length of consecutive 1s or 0s to
maintain noise-like characteristics.
 Types of PN Codes
Several types of PN codes are commonly used in spread spectrum systems:

 Maximal Length Sequences (m-sequences):

– Generated by linear feedback shift registers (LFSRs).
– These sequences are periodic and have the longest possible sequence
length for a given number of shift register stages.
– For an n-stage LFSR, the sequence length is 2^n -1.

 Gold Codes:
– Gold codes are generated by combining two different m-sequences.
– They have good cross-correlation properties, which are important in
systems like CDMA, where multiple users share the same frequency
band.
3) Kasami Codes:

 Kasami sequences are a set of binary sequences with better

correlation properties than m-sequences.
 They are commonly used in applications requiring multiple
access, such as in spread spectrum systems for multiple users.

4) Barker Codes:

 Barker codes are short sequences with excellent autocorrelation

properties, making them useful in radar and DSSS systems.
 They are often used in applications that require synchronization.
 Multiple Access Capabilities
Spread spectrum modulation also allows for multiple users to share the same
frequency band without interference. This is achieved through the following
multiple access techniques:
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
– In CDMA, each user is assigned a unique pseudo-random code. All
users transmit simultaneously over the same frequency band, and their
signals are distinguished by their unique codes.
– CDMA allows for efficient spectrum utilization, especially in
environments with many users. It is widely used in cellular networks
such as 3G.
 Frequency Hopping Multiple Access (FHMA):
– In FHMA, users are assigned different frequency hopping sequences.
The users' signals are transmitted on different frequencies, and
interference is minimized due to the rapid hopping of frequencies.
– FHMA is commonly used in Bluetooth and other short-range wireless
communication systems.
 Advantages of Spread Spectrum
Modulation
1) Interference Rejection: Spread spectrum modulation provides
significant resistance to both intentional jamming and
unintentional interference. Narrowband interference affects
only a small portion of the spread signal, which can be filtered
out during despreading.

2) Security: Spread spectrum signals are difficult to intercept

without knowledge of the spreading sequence. This makes them
inherently secure, as unauthorized receivers cannot easily
decode the signal without the correct code.
3) Multipath Fading Reduction: Wireless channels often suffer
from multipath fading, where signals bounce off obstacles and
arrive at the receiver at different times. Spread spectrum
modulation, especially FHSS, mitigates the effects of multipath
fading by spreading the signal across different frequencies,
reducing the likelihood of destructive interference.

4) Coexistence with Other Systems: Spread spectrum systems

can coexist with other narrowband communication systems in
the same frequency band. The wide bandwidth used by spread
spectrum systems spreads the transmitted power over a broad
frequency range, minimizing interference with other systems.
 Disadvantages of Spread Spectrum
Modulation
1) Complexity: Spread spectrum systems are more complex
to design and implement compared to traditional
modulation schemes. Both the transmitter and receiver
need to generate and synchronize with the pseudo-random
sequence.

2) Bandwidth Utilization: Spread spectrum systems use a

much wider bandwidth than required for the information
signal. While this enhances security and interference
resistance, it may not be an efficient use of spectrum in
bandwidth-constrained environments.
Applications of Spread Spectrum
1) Cellular Communication: Spread spectrum techniques,
especially CDMA, are widely used in 3G networks to allow
multiple users to share the same frequency band. CDMA
provides higher capacity and better performance in multipath
environments compared to traditional techniques like TDMA
and FDMA.

2) Military and Defense: Spread spectrum was originally

developed for secure military communications. Its
resistance to jamming, interception, and interference makes it
ideal for use in defense and secure communications systems.
3) Satellite Communication: Spread spectrum modulation is
used in satellite communication systems to provide secure
and reliable communication, even in environments with
significant interference.

4) Wi-Fi and Bluetooth: Early versions of Wi-Fi (802.11b) used

DSSS for reliable data transmission. Bluetooth uses
frequency hopping to avoid interference with other devices in
the crowded 2.4 GHz band.
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-2 Lecture : 03

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DS-SS)
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) is a popular
technique in wireless communication where a data signal is
spread over a wider bandwidth than required, providing
enhanced resistance to interference, multipath fading, and
unauthorized interception.

 The spreading is achieved by multiplying the data signal with a

pseudo-random (PN) code of much higher frequency, thus
spreading the signal across a wide frequency range.

 This method is widely used in Code Division Multiple Access

(CDMA), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11b), and Global Positioning
Systems (GPS).
 In DS-SS, the data signal is modulated by a high-rate PN code, which
spreads the signal over a much broader frequency range than what is
required by the data bandwidth alone.

 The key principle is that the signal is spread across a wide range of
frequencies, but it can still be despread and recovered at the receiver
using the same PN code.

How DS-SS Works:

1. Spreading the Signal:

 The data signal (which typically has a lower bit rate) is
multiplied by a spreading code (or chipping sequence) that
operates at a much higher bit rate. This operation spreads the data
signal across a larger bandwidth.
 The spreading code is a pseudo-random sequence of 1s and 0s,
often referred to as a PN sequence. It is generated using Linear
Feedback Shift Registers (LFSRs) or similar methods.
2. Transmission:
After the signal is spread, it is modulated and transmitted over the
communication channel. The transmitted signal appears as wideband noise
to any receiver that doesn’t know the spreading code.

3. Despreading the Signal:

At the receiver, the signal is despread by multiplying it with the same PN
code. This operation collapses the spread signal back into its original
bandwidth, allowing the data to be recovered.
Any interference or noise that is not correlated with the spreading code is
rejected during the despreading process.

4. Processing Gain:
One of the key advantages of DS-SS is its processing gain, which measures
the ratio of the spread bandwidth to the original bandwidth of the data
signal. This processing gain improves the system’s resistance to noise and
interference.
 Steps Involved in DS-SS
1. PN Code Generation: The PN code is a high-rate binary
sequence that modulates the data signal. This code typically has
good autocorrelation and cross-correlation properties to
ensure reliable spreading and despreading.
2. Multiplying Data with PN Code: The data bits are multiplied
with the chipping sequence of the PN code. For example, a
single data bit might be represented by a sequence of many
"chips," where each chip is one bit of the PN code. This
multiplication results in spreading the data across a wide
frequency band.
3. Modulation: The spread signal is then modulated using a
standard modulation technique, such as Binary Phase Shift
Keying (BPSK) or Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK),
for transmission.
4. Transmission and Reception: The modulated signal is
transmitted over the wireless channel, where it may encounter
noise, interference, or multipath fading. At the receiver, the
signal is multiplied by the same PN code that was used during
transmission, which results in despreading the signal and
recovering the original data.

5. Synchronization: Synchronization between the transmitter and

receiver is crucial for successful DS-SS communication. The
receiver must know the timing and the exact PN code to
properly despread the signal.
 Characteristics and Advantages of
DS-SS
1. Interference Resistance:
 DS-SS systems are highly resistant to narrowband interference. Since
the signal is spread across a wide frequency range, interference that
only affects a small portion of the frequency spectrum will have little
impact on the overall communication.
 Narrowband interference is averaged out across the entire bandwidth
during despreading, leading to improved signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

2. Multipath Fading Resistance:

 DS-SS improves multipath resistance because the wideband signal can
overcome the destructive effects of multiple delayed signals (caused by
reflections). The spread signal is less sensitive to time delays from
reflected paths, as the receiver despreads the signal based on the correct
PN code.
3. Security:
The pseudo-random nature of the spreading code provides security. Only
receivers that have knowledge of the spreading code can despread and
decode the transmitted signal. This makes the communication more secure
and resistant to eavesdropping.

4. Multiple Access Capability (CDMA):

In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems, multiple users can
share the same frequency band by transmitting their signals using different
PN codes. These codes have low cross-correlation, meaning that each
receiver can despread and recover the intended signal without interference
from other users. This is a key feature of CDMA systems, where many
users can transmit simultaneously in the same bandwidth.

5. Processing Gain and Improved SNR: PG = 10 LOG 10 (Spread BW/ original BW)
The processing gain achieved by spreading the signal improves the overall
SNR at the receiver. This results in better performance in noisy
environments and makes the system more robust against jamming and
interference.
 Applications of DS-SS
1. CDMA in Cellular Networks:

 DS-SS is used extensively in CDMA systems to allow multiple users to

share the same frequency band. Each user is assigned a unique PN code
that spreads their signal across the bandwidth. The receiver can
distinguish between different users by despreading the signals with the
correct code.
 3G and 4G Networks utilize CDMA techniques to increase the capacity
of the system.

2. Wi-Fi (802.11b):
 In early Wi-Fi standards, such as 802.11b, DS-SS was used to spread the
data signal across a wide bandwidth, improving resistance to
interference and providing better performance in environments with
multiple users or noise.
3. GPS (Global Positioning System): In GPS, DS-SS is used to spread
the signals transmitted by satellites over a wide bandwidth. This
allows for precise positioning information to be extracted even in the
presence of interference or multipath effects.

4. Military and Secure Communications: DS-SS is widely used in

military applications where resistance to jamming and secure
communication is critical. The pseudo-random spreading codes
provide additional security, making it difficult for unauthorized users
to intercept the communication.
 Frequency Hopped Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is a form of spread
spectrum modulation where the signal's carrier frequency rapidly hops
across different frequencies in a pre-determined, pseudo-random pattern.
 This technique spreads the signal over a wide bandwidth and improves
resistance to interference, jamming, and unauthorized interception.
 FHSS is widely used in secure communications, military applications,
Bluetooth, and older wireless LAN systems.
 In FHSS, the carrier frequency of the signal is not fixed but hops
between multiple frequencies during transmission, following a pre-
determined sequence known as the hopping pattern.
 Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to hop through
the same frequencies at the same time. This hopping pattern is usually
dictated by a pseudo-random sequence.
FHSS can be divided into two types based on how frequently the
hopping occurs:

 Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH): The carrier frequency

changes less frequently, often once per symbol or packet.

 Fast Frequency Hopping (FFH): The carrier frequency

changes more frequently, often several times per symbol.
 Working Principle of FHSS
1. Carrier Frequency Hopping: The core idea behind FHSS is
that the carrier frequency hops between a set of predefined
frequencies at regular intervals (called hop duration). This is
achieved by modulating the data signal on a carrier whose
frequency is dynamically determined by the pseudo-random
sequence.

2. Pseudo-Random Hopping Sequence: The hopping sequence

is typically generated by a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence or a
pseudo-random number generator. Both the transmitter and
receiver use the same PN sequence to stay synchronized.
3. Spreading the Signal: Each segment of the signal is
transmitted over a different frequency in the hopping
sequence. The total bandwidth used is much larger than what
would be required for the original signal, but the signal at
each hop is transmitted in a narrow frequency band.

4. De-spreading: At the receiver, the same PN sequence is used

to hop frequencies in sync with the transmitted signal. The
receiver tunes to the correct frequency at the correct time to
receive the signal.

 The despreading process rejects signals that do not follow

the same hopping pattern, improving resistance to
interference and eavesdropping.
 Steps in FHSS Operation
1. PN Sequence Generation:
 A pseudo-random sequence generator or an LFSR (Linear Feedback
Shift Register) generates the frequency hopping pattern.
 This pattern determines the order in which the carrier frequency changes
over time.

2. Modulation:
 The data is modulated using a standard modulation technique such as
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK), or
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK).

3. Frequency Hopping:
 The carrier frequency of the modulated signal hops according to the
pseudo-random hopping sequence.
 The transmitted signal appears as noise to an unauthorized receiver unless
they have access to the hopping pattern.
4. Synchronization:

 Both the transmitter and receiver must synchronize their hopping

patterns to ensure they hop to the same frequency at the same time. If
the receiver does not follow the same hopping pattern, it cannot
decode the transmitted signal.
 Advantages of FHSS
1. Interference and Jamming Resistance:
 FHSS provides excellent resistance to narrowband interference
and jamming. Since the signal hops over a wide range of
frequencies, an interferer would need to jam all frequencies
simultaneously, which is highly impractical.
 If a portion of the frequency spectrum is jammed, the system can
still operate by transmitting on the unaffected frequencies.

2. Multipath Fading Resistance:

 Multipath fading, a common issue in wireless communication
where signals arrive at the receiver via multiple paths with different
delays, is mitigated in FHSS because the signal hops to different
frequencies, reducing the likelihood of interference between
multipath components.
3. Security and Privacy:
 FHSS provides inherent security because the signal
appears as noise to any receiver that does not know the
hopping pattern. This makes it difficult for unauthorized users
to intercept the communication.

4. Multiple Access Capability:

 FHSS can be used for multiple access, where different users
follow different hopping sequences. These sequences can be
orthogonal to each other, ensuring that the signals from
different users do not interfere.
 This technique is used in systems like Bluetooth, where
different devices hop through the frequency spectrum using
unique hopping patterns.
 Disadvantages of FHSS
1. Bandwidth Utilization:
 FHSS requires a larger bandwidth than necessary for the data
rate because the signal hops over multiple frequencies, even
though each hop only occupies a narrow bandwidth at any
given time.
2. Synchronization Complexity:
 Maintaining synchronization between the transmitter and
receiver is crucial and can be complex, especially in
environments with significant noise, interference, or mobility.
3. Data Rate Limitation:
 Since the signal hops to different frequencies, there is a trade-
off between the hop rate and the data rate. High hop rates can
limit the achievable data rate.
 Applications of FHSS
1. Bluetooth:
 Bluetooth technology uses Adaptive Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum (AFHSS), a variant of FHSS. Bluetooth devices hop
between frequencies in the 2.4 GHz ISM band to avoid interference
with other devices operating in the same band.
 The frequency hopping provides robustness against interference
from other wireless technologies, such as Wi-Fi, which also operates
in the 2.4 GHz band.

2. Military Communications:
 FHSS was originally developed for secure military
communications due to its inherent resistance to jamming and
interception.
 It is still widely used in military systems to ensure secure, reliable
communication in hostile environments.
3. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs):
Early 802.11 wireless LAN standards used FHSS for communication
over the 2.4 GHz ISM band. While later standards adopted other
techniques, FHSS provided initial robustness against interference.

4. Satellite Communication:
In satellite communication systems, FHSS provides protection
against interference and jamming, which is critical for reliable
communication over long distances.

5. Cordless Phones:
Some older cordless phones used FHSS to avoid interference with
other wireless devices and ensure privacy of communication.

6. Public Safety Communication:

FHSS is employed in certain public safety communication systems
to ensure reliable voice communication, especially in areas with
significant interference.
Comparison Between FHSS and DSSS
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-2 Lecture : 04

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Time Hopping (TH) Spread Spectrum
 Time Hopping (TH) is a type of spread spectrum technique where the
transmission time of each data symbol is pseudo-randomly chosen from a set of
time slots within a larger time frame.
 This pseudo-random selection is controlled by a time-hopping sequence, which
determines when the transmission occurs.
 Time Hopping is commonly used in Ultra-Wideband (UWB) systems due to its
ability to spread the signal across a wide bandwidth while reducing interference
and improving privacy.

Key Principles of Time Hopping:

1. Pseudo-Random Time Slots:
– In Time Hopping, each symbol is transmitted in a randomly selected time
slot. The time slots are chosen according to a pseudo-random sequence,
which both the transmitter and receiver must know in advance to
synchronize.
– The signal is transmitted in short bursts (or pulses) during specific time slots,
creating an appearance of randomness over time.
2. Low Duty Cycle:
 Time Hopping typically operates with a low duty cycle,
meaning that the signal is transmitted for only a small fraction of
the time.

 This minimizes the chance of collisions or interference with

other signals and helps conserve energy, which is particularly
important for low-power systems like wireless sensors.

3. Spread Spectrum Through Time:

 Instead of spreading the signal across frequencies (as in
Frequency Hopping or Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum),
Time Hopping spreads the signal across time.

 The signal is transmitted in random time slots, which makes it

more difficult for eavesdroppers to detect the signal unless they
know the hopping pattern.
 Steps in Time Hopping
1. Pseudo-Random Sequence Generation: A PN (pseudo-noise)
sequence is generated to determine the transmission time slots
for each symbol. Both the transmitter and receiver use the same
PN sequence to synchronize their communication.
2. Time Slot Selection: The PN sequence selects a random time
slot within a larger frame, where each symbol is transmitted.
3. Transmission: The signal is transmitted in short bursts or
pulses in the randomly chosen time slots. These bursts are
spread over time, making the signal appear noise-like and
difficult to detect.
4. Synchronization: Both the transmitter and receiver must
maintain tight synchronization to ensure that they agree on the
time-hopping pattern.
Where tm is the message bit duration ;
M is the Total number of slots.
 Advantages of Time Hopping
 Interference Resistance: Time Hopping provides resistance to
interference because the signal only occupies a small portion of the
available time. Interference that occurs in other time slots has little
impact on the transmitted signal.

 Security: The random hopping pattern makes the signal difficult to

intercept or jam. An unauthorized receiver without knowledge of the
hopping sequence will struggle to detect the signal.

 Energy Efficiency: Time Hopping can conserve energy by operating at

a low duty cycle, making it suitable for low-power applications like
wireless sensor networks.

 Multipath Resistance: Since the signal is spread over time, multipath

fading (where signals arrive at different times due to reflections) has a
minimal impact on the performance of Time Hopping systems.
 Applications of Time Hopping
 Ultra-Wideband (UWB): UWB systems, which operate over very
wide frequency ranges, often use Time Hopping to spread the signal
over time. This improves spectral efficiency and reduces
interference with other wireless systems.

 Wireless Sensor Networks: Time Hopping is used in wireless

sensor networks due to its low duty cycle and energy efficiency. It
allows sensors to transmit data intermittently while conserving
power.

 Military Communications: Time Hopping is used in military

communications where robustness to jamming and eavesdropping
is critical. Its low detectability and interference resistance make it
ideal for secure communication.
 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Systems
 Hybrid Spread Spectrum (HSS) systems combine two or
more spread spectrum techniques to leverage the strengths of
each technique while mitigating their weaknesses.

 For instance, a common hybrid approach combines Direct

Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) with Frequency
Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS).

 The hybrid system inherits the benefits of both, providing

greater resistance to interference, jamming, and multipath
effects.
 Key Principles of Hybrid Spread
Spectrum
1. Combination of DSSS and FHSS:
 A typical hybrid system uses Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS) to spread the signal across a wide bandwidth using a
pseudo-noise (PN) code, while Frequency Hopping (FH) changes
the carrier frequency at regular intervals according to a hopping
sequence.
 The data signal is first spread using DSSS, and then the carrier
frequency is hopped using FHSS, providing the combined benefits
of both techniques.

2. Improved Interference Resistance:

 Hybrid systems improve resistance to both narrowband
interference (by spreading the signal over a wide frequency range
with DSSS) and wideband interference (by hopping across
different frequencies with FHSS).
3. Enhanced Security:
By combining spreading techniques, hybrid systems make it
even more difficult for eavesdroppers or jammers to detect or
disrupt the signal. The PN code used in DSSS provides one
layer of security, while the frequency hopping adds an
additional layer.

4. Synchronization:
Synchronization in hybrid systems can be more complex
because the receiver must synchronize with both the DSSS
spreading code and the frequency hopping sequence.
However, once synchronized, the receiver can benefit from
both techniques.
 Steps in Hybrid Spread Spectrum
1. DSSS Spreading: The data signal is first spread using a pseudo-
noise code, similar to the traditional DSSS process. The signal is
multiplied by the PN code to spread it across a wider bandwidth.

2. Frequency Hopping: After the signal is spread using DSSS, it

undergoes frequency hopping according to a frequency
hopping sequence. The carrier frequency changes periodically,
adding another layer of spreading.

3. Despreading and De-Hopping: At the receiver, the signal is first

de-hopped by following the same hopping sequence. Then, it is
despread using the PN code to recover the original data.
Advantages of Hybrid Spread Spectrum
 Combined Benefits of DSSS and FHSS: Hybrid systems combine
the advantages of both DSSS and FHSS. DSSS offers good
resistance to narrowband interference, while FHSS provides
robustness against jamming and wideband interference.

 Robustness Against Jamming: A hybrid system is more difficult to

jam because a jammer would need to attack both the spreading
sequence and the hopping pattern. This provides enhanced
protection in hostile environments.

 Multipath Resistance: Hybrid systems offer better resistance to

multipath fading than either DSSS or FHSS alone. DSSS helps
with despreading multipath signals, and FHSS reduces the impact of
frequency-selective fading.
Applications of Hybrid Spread Spectrum
 CDMA Networks: Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
networks, particularly in 3G and 4G wireless communication systems,
often use a hybrid approach to manage multiple users sharing the same
frequency band. Combining DSSS with FHSS allows these networks to
increase capacity while maintaining performance in challenging
environments.

 Military Communication: Hybrid systems are commonly used in

military communication due to their high resilience to jamming and
interception. By using both DSSS and FHSS, the system achieves
superior robustness and security.

 Satellite Communication: Satellite communication systems can

benefit from hybrid spread spectrum techniques to deal with the high
levels of interference, jamming, and multipath effects that are common
in satellite links.
Comparison Between DS-SS, FH-SS and
Time Hopping Methods
Comparison Between Time Hopping and
Hybrid Spread Spectrum
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-2 Lecture : 05

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Multicarrier Modulation (MCM)
 Multicarrier Modulation (MCM) is a technique in wireless
communications where the data signal is transmitted over multiple
subcarriers, with each subcarrier modulated independently.

 This approach divides the data stream into several parallel data
streams, each transmitted over its subcarrier, thus effectively
utilizing the available bandwidth.

 MCM is used to mitigate issues such as multipath fading,

intersymbol interference (ISI), and frequency-selective fading,
which are common in wireless channels.

 It is possible to use a variety of different techniques for multicarrier

transmissions. Each form of MCM has its own advantages and can
be sued in different applications.
 Key Features of Multicarrier
Modulation
1. Parallel Data Transmission: The key principle of multicarrier
modulation is that data is divided into parallel streams, which
are modulated on different subcarriers. This reduces the symbol
rate on each subcarrier, making the transmission more robust to
channel impairments.

2. Orthogonality of Subcarriers: In MCM, the subcarriers are

carefully designed to be orthogonal to each other. This ensures
that there is no interference between adjacent subcarriers, even
though they overlap in frequency.
3. Resistance to Multipath Fading: By transmitting the signal
over multiple subcarriers, the system becomes more resistant
to multipath fading. The parallel data streams allow the
receiver to process each subcarrier separately and mitigate the
effects of channel distortions.

4. Bandwidth Efficiency: MCM efficiently utilizes the available

bandwidth by packing the subcarriers closely together. This
allows for high data rates while maintaining robustness
against fading and interference.
 Common Multicarrier Modulation
Techniques
1. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM)

 OFDM is one of the most widely used multicarrier

modulation techniques in wireless communication.
 In OFDM, the entire bandwidth is divided into multiple
closely spaced orthogonal subcarriers, with each
subcarrier carrying a portion of the data.
 It is used in technologies such as Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11),
4G LTE, 5G NR, and Digital Video Broadcasting
(DVB-T).
Key Features of OFDM:

 Orthogonality: The subcarriers in OFDM are orthogonal to each

other, which eliminates inter-carrier interference (ICI).

 Cyclic Prefix (CP): A cyclic prefix is added to each OFDM symbol

to prevent intersymbol interference (ISI). The cyclic prefix repeats a
portion of the end of the symbol at the beginning, ensuring that delayed
multipath signals do not interfere with subsequent symbols.

 FFT/IFFT Implementation: OFDM uses Fast Fourier Transform

(FFT) and Inverse FFT (IFFT) for efficient modulation and
demodulation, simplifying the implementation of multicarrier systems.

 Robustness to Multipath: OFDM divides the transmission into

multiple subcarriers, each of which is less affected by frequency-
selective fading compared to a single carrier system.
 Advantages of OFDM
1. High Spectral Efficiency: OFDM efficiently utilizes the
available bandwidth by allowing subcarriers to overlap,
thanks to their orthogonality.

2. Robustness to ISI: The addition of the cyclic prefix and low

symbol rate per subcarrier makes OFDM more robust to ISI.

3. Ease of Equalization: Since each subcarrier in OFDM

experiences flat fading, equalization at the receiver is
simplified.
 Applications of OFDM
1. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11a/g/n/ac): OFDM is the core modulation
technique in modern Wi-Fi standards.

2. 4G LTE/5G NR: Both LTE and 5G NR use OFDM to

provide high data rates and support large numbers of users.

3. Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and Digital Video

Broadcasting (DVB).
2. Discrete Multitone Modulation (DMT)

 DMT is a type of multicarrier modulation similar to

OFDM but primarily used in wired communication
systems, such as Digital Subscriber Line (DSL).

 DMT divides the channel into multiple subcarriers,

each modulated with a different amplitude and phase,
depending on the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at that
subcarrier.
Key Features of DMT:

 Subcarrier Adaptation: DMT adjusts the power and

modulation order of each subcarrier according to the channel
conditions, making it suitable for environments where
different subcarriers experience different SNRs.

 Equalization: DMT includes adaptive equalization to

mitigate channel impairments.

Applications of DMT:

 DSL Systems: DMT is the primary modulation technique

used in ADSL and VDSL systems to provide high-speed
internet over twisted-pair telephone lines.
3. Filter Bank Multicarrier (FBMC)
 FBMC is another multicarrier modulation technique that
improves upon OFDM by using filter banks to filter each
subcarrier independently.

 This allows for better spectral shaping and eliminates the need
for a cyclic prefix.

Key Features of FBMC:

 No Cyclic Prefix: FBMC does not require a cyclic prefix,

making it more bandwidth efficient than OFDM.
 Improved Spectral Efficiency: The use of filter banks allows
for better control of the spectrum, reducing out-of-band emissions.

 Complexity: FBMC is more complex to implement than OFDM

due to the use of filter banks for each subcarrier.

Applications of FBMC:

 FBMC is being explored for future wireless systems, including

5G and beyond, due to its improved spectral efficiency.
 Conclusion
 Multicarrier Modulation (MCM) techniques, such as
OFDM, DMT, and FBMC, are integral to modern wireless
and wired communication systems due to their ability to
provide high data rates, spectral efficiency, and robustness to
multipath fading.

 Time Hopping and Hybrid Spread Spectrum Systems

further enhance communication performance by providing
additional layers of security, interference resistance, and
adaptability.
 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
 Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) is a form of distortion where
one symbol interferes with subsequent symbols, making it difficult
for the receiver to distinguish between them. ISI occurs when the
channel causes a signal to spread in time, typically due to factors
such as:

 Multipath propagation: Reflected signals arrive at the

receiver at different times, overlapping with the direct signal.
 Limited bandwidth: Bandwidth constraints can cause signal
distortion, leading to overlap between successive symbols.
 Delay spread: When signals traverse different paths, they
arrive at different times, causing previous symbols to interfere
with the current one.
Zero Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Communication Techniques

 Zero Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) Communication

Techniques are essential in wireless communication systems
to ensure that symbols transmitted over a channel do not
interfere with each other, which can degrade signal quality and
lead to errors in data transmission.

 ISI occurs when the current symbol interferes with

subsequent symbols due to channel effects like multipath
propagation, bandwidth limitations, or signal distortion.
 Need for Zero ISI Techniques
 Without addressing ISI, the receiver may not be able to
correctly detect the transmitted symbols, leading to errors
in the communication system.

 Thus, eliminating or mitigating ISI is essential to ensure

the integrity of data transmission.

 Zero ISI techniques aim to completely eliminate the

interference from previous symbols, allowing the receiver
to accurately decode each symbol independently.
Summary of Zero ISI Techniques
 Applications of Zero ISI Techniques:
 Mobile Communication (3G/4G/5G): Techniques like OFDM
and equalization are widely used in modern mobile
communication systems to combat ISI caused by multipath
propagation.
 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): OFDM with a cyclic prefix is used in Wi-
Fi standards to reduce ISI in indoor environments where multipath
effects are common.
 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): DMT (Discrete Multitone), a
variant of OFDM, is used in DSL systems to reduce ISI over
twisted-pair telephone lines.
 Satellite Communication: Pulse shaping and equalization
techniques are applied to minimize ISI caused by the long
distances and signal reflections in satellite communication.
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-2 Lecture : 06

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Detection Strategies
 Detection strategies in wireless communications refer
to methods used by the receiver to correctly interpret
the transmitted signals and decode the data, despite the
presence of noise, interference, fading, or other channel
impairments.

 These strategies are crucial for ensuring reliable

communication in various conditions and are based on
different mathematical models and techniques to
minimize errors.
 Key Detection Strategies
1. Coherent Detection
2. Non-Coherent Detection
3. Optimal Detection
4. Suboptimal Detection
5. Diversity Reception and Detection
6. Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) Detection
 1. Coherent Detection
 In coherent detection, the receiver has knowledge of the phase
and frequency of the carrier signal. This enables the receiver to
perform phase-sensitive detection of the transmitted signal.
 Coherent detection is used in modulation schemes such as Phase
Shift Keying (PSK), Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM), and Amplitude Modulation (AM).

Key Features:
 The receiver requires a reference signal that is in phase with the
transmitted carrier signal.
 Carrier recovery techniques are used to synchronize the
receiver’s reference signal with the incoming signal.
 Coherent detection is more accurate than non-coherent detection
but requires phase synchronization.
Common Applications:
 PSK, QAM: These modulation schemes rely on coherent detection for
accurate demodulation, especially in high data rate systems like 4G/5G.
 OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing): Coherent
detection is used in systems like Wi-Fi and LTE, where the phase
information of the subcarriers is known.

Advantages:
 High accuracy: Coherent detection allows precise recovery of the phase
and amplitude information, making it suitable for high-performance
systems.
 Higher efficiency: It performs better in terms of bit error rate (BER)
compared to non-coherent detection.

Disadvantages:
 Complexity: Requires carrier synchronization and phase tracking,
which can be challenging in dynamic environments like mobile
communication.
 2. Non-Coherent Detection
 In non-coherent detection, the receiver does not need knowledge
of the carrier’s phase. The receiver detects the signal based on the
envelope or magnitude of the received signal, without relying on
the exact phase.
 Non-coherent detection is typically used in Frequency Shift
Keying (FSK) and Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK).

Key Features:
 The receiver detects the amplitude or frequency of the signal
without needing to know the phase information.
 It is often used when phase synchronization is difficult or not
feasible.
 Commonly used in envelope detection or frequency detection
systems.
Common Applications:
 FSK and DPSK: Non-coherent detection is widely used in these
modulation schemes for systems with lower complexity.
 Low-power devices: Non-coherent detection is preferred in low-
power devices like wireless sensors, where energy efficiency is
critical.

Advantages:
 Lower complexity: Non-coherent detection is simpler to
implement since it does not require phase synchronization.
 Lower cost: Ideal for low-cost, low-power systems where
complexity needs to be minimized.

Disadvantages:
 Lower performance: Non-coherent detection is generally less
accurate than coherent detection, leading to higher BER in some
scenarios.
Comparison between Coherent Detection &
Non-Coherent Detection
 3. Optimal Detection (Maximum
Likelihood Detection)
 Maximum Likelihood (ML) Detection is a widely used optimal
detection strategy. In this approach, the receiver evaluates all possible
transmitted signals and chooses the one that is most likely to have been
transmitted, based on the received signal and the noise characteristics of
the channel.

Key Features:
 Optimal Performance: ML detection provides the best possible
performance in terms of minimizing errors, but it is computationally
intensive.
 Likelihood Calculation: The likelihood of each possible transmitted
symbol is calculated, and the symbol with the highest likelihood is
chosen.
 Soft Decision: In some systems, soft decision ML detection is
used, where the likelihood values are passed to the decoder for further
processing.

Common Applications:
 MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) systems: ML detection
is used in MIMO systems for joint detection of transmitted symbols
from multiple antennas.
 High-performance communication systems: Systems requiring
the lowest possible error rates often employ ML detection, such as
satellite communications and space communications.

Advantages:
 Best performance: ML detection minimizes the probability of
detection error, achieving the lowest BER.
 Theoretical Optimality: It is considered the most accurate
detection method for most communication systems.
Disadvantages:

 High complexity: ML detection can be computationally

expensive, especially in large MIMO systems or systems with a
large number of modulation levels.

 Not always practical: The complexity makes it difficult to

implement in real-time, high-throughput systems.
 4. Suboptimal Detection
 Due to the computational complexity of ML detection, suboptimal
detection techniques are often used as practical alternatives. These
techniques provide near-optimal performance with lower complexity.

Common Suboptimal Techniques:

 Zero-Forcing (ZF) Detection: In ZF detection, the channel effect is

inverted to recover the transmitted signal. While it cancels out
interference, it can amplify noise.
 Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) Detection: MMSE
minimizes both the noise and interference by balancing the trade-off
between the signal power and the noise power.
 Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC): SIC detects and
subtracts the strongest signals first, reducing the complexity of
detecting the remaining weaker signals.
Common Applications:
 MIMO Systems: ZF and MMSE detection are widely used in MIMO
systems to achieve lower complexity while maintaining acceptable
performance.
 NOMA (Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access): SIC detection is
employed in NOMA systems to handle multiple users sharing the same
frequency resource.

Advantages:
 Lower complexity: Suboptimal detection methods are
computationally less expensive than ML detection.
 Practical implementation: These methods are easier to implement in
real-time systems.

Disadvantages:
 Reduced performance: Suboptimal detection does not achieve the
same performance as optimal methods and may lead to higher BER.
 Comparison between Optimal Detection
(Maximum Likelihood) vs Suboptimal Detection
5. Diversity Reception and Detection
 Diversity techniques are used to combat fading and improve the
robustness of wireless communication.
 By using multiple copies of the same signal, diversity reception helps
reduce the impact of deep fades in the channel.

Types of Diversity:

 Spatial Diversity: Uses multiple antennas (MIMO) to provide

independent paths for the signal, increasing the likelihood that at
least one path will have a strong signal.
 Time Diversity: Transmits the same signal at different times,
allowing the receiver to exploit time-varying channel conditions.
 Frequency Diversity: Sends the same signal over different
frequency bands, reducing the effect of frequency-selective fading.
Common Techniques:

 Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC): Combines the signals from

multiple antennas, giving higher weight to stronger signals.
 Selection Combining: Chooses the strongest signal from a set of
received signals.
 Equal Gain Combining (EGC): Combines the signals from
different antennas with equal weighting.

Advantages:

 Improved reliability: Diversity techniques reduce the effect of

deep fades, ensuring a more reliable communication link.
 Increased capacity: In MIMO systems, diversity can also be used
to increase the system capacity through techniques like spatial
multiplexing.
Applications:

MIMO systems in 4G/5G: MIMO uses spatial diversity to

increase both reliability and data throughput.

Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Diversity techniques are employed to

improve signal reception in indoor environments.
 6. MIMO Detection Strategies
 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) systems use
multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to
improve the capacity and reliability of wireless communication.

 MIMO detection strategies aim to accurately detect the signals

transmitted from multiple antennas despite interference from
other transmitted signals.

Common MIMO Detection Techniques:

 Linear Detection: Includes Zero-Forcing (ZF) and MMSE
techniques. These are relatively simple but may suffer from
noise amplification or reduced performance in certain
conditions.
Maximum Likelihood (ML) Detection: Provides optimal
performance by evaluating all possible transmitted signal
combinations but is computationally expensive.

Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC): Detects and

subtracts the strongest signals first, making the detection of
remaining signals easier.

Applications: 4G LTE and 5G: MIMO detection strategies are

crucial for increasing data throughput and improving spectral
efficiency in modern wireless systems.
 Summary
1. Coherent vs Non-Coherent Detection: Coherent detection offers higher
performance at the cost of complexity due to phase recovery requirements,
while non-coherent detection simplifies the receiver design but sacrifices
performance.

2. Optimal vs Suboptimal Detection: Maximum Likelihood detection is

optimal in terms of error performance but is computationally expensive,
while suboptimal techniques like Zero-Forcing (ZF) and MMSE offer
practical performance with reduced complexity.

3. MIMO Detection: In MIMO systems, the choice of detection strategy

depends on the trade-off between complexity and performance. Maximum
Likelihood provides the best performance but is impractical for large
systems, while ZF and MMSE offer practical alternatives. Successive
Interference Cancellation (SIC) is well-suited for systems where
multiple signals are transmitted concurrently, such as NOMA.
 Wireless and Mobile
Communication (KEC-076)

Unit-2 Lecture : 07

Dr. Ram Chandra Singh Chauhan

Associate Professor
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow
 Diversity Combining Techniques
 Diversity Combining Techniques are essential strategies in
wireless communication systems to mitigate the effects of fading
and improve the reliability and quality of received signals.
 In wireless channels, signals often encounter multipath fading,
where the signal transmitted from the source arrives at the
receiver via multiple paths due to reflections, diffractions, and
scattering.
 These multiple paths can cause destructive interference, leading
to severe signal degradation.
 Diversity techniques are employed to combat these issues by
utilizing multiple versions of the received signal and combining
them intelligently to maximize the quality of the received signal.
Primary Diversity Combining Techniques

1. Selection Combining (SC)

2. Threshold Combining (TC)
3. Equal Gain Combining (EGC)
4. Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC)

 These techniques differ in how they process and combine

the multiple received signals, each offering trade-offs
between complexity, performance, and robustness.
 1. Selection Combining (SC)
 Selection Combining (SC) is one of the simplest diversity
techniques, where the receiver selects and processes only the signal
from the branch with the highest signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or
strongest received signal.

Working Principle:

 In a Selection Combining system, the receiver monitors all the

available branches (i.e., signals from different antennas or paths) and
selects the one with the best signal quality (typically the highest
SNR).
 The chosen signal is then passed through for demodulation and
decoding, while the signals from the other branches are ignored.
Key Characteristics:

1) Low complexity: Only one signal is selected for processing,

making SC the least complex diversity technique in terms of
hardware and computational resources.

2) No signal combining: Unlike other techniques, SC does not

combine signals from multiple branches; it simply picks the
strongest one.

3) Performance: SC provides a modest improvement in

performance compared to a single-antenna system. However,
its performance is not as good as more advanced techniques
like Maximum Ratio Combining.
Advantages:
 Simple implementation: SC is easy to implement and requires minimal
hardware, making it ideal for low-complexity, low-power devices.
 Low computational cost: Since only one signal is processed, SC
minimizes the computational burden at the receiver.

Disadvantages:
 Suboptimal performance: SC does not use the full potential of all
received signals. In cases where the selected branch has fading, the
performance may suffer.
 Limited diversity gain: SC only provides a diversity gain equivalent to
the number of antennas, but the actual gain is smaller compared to
techniques like MRC.

Applications:
 Mobile communication systems where simplicity and low power
consumption are required.
 Wireless sensor networks, where devices operate with limited energy
resources.
 2. Threshold Combining (TC)
 Threshold Combining (TC) is a variation of selection
combining that introduces a threshold level to determine
whether a signal branch is strong enough to be selected for
processing.

Working Principle:

 In Threshold Combining, the receiver monitors the received

signals from different diversity branches and selects the first
branch whose signal strength exceeds a predefined threshold.
 If none of the signals exceeds the threshold, the strongest
branch is selected by default.
Key Characteristics:

 Threshold-based decision: Unlike SC, which selects the

strongest signal, TC compares the signal strength to a threshold
before making a selection.
 Reduced probability of processing weak signals: By
introducing a threshold, the system avoids processing branches
with weak signals that are likely to introduce errors.

Advantages:

 Improved reliability: By only selecting signals above a certain

quality, TC reduces the likelihood of processing weak or noisy
signals.
 Moderate complexity: Similar to SC in terms of simplicity but
adds an extra layer of decision-making with the threshold
comparison.
Disadvantages:

 Threshold dependency: The performance of TC depends on

the choice of the threshold. If the threshold is too high, there may
be no branch available for selection; if it is too low, it may
perform like SC.
 Suboptimal performance: Like SC, TC does not combine
signals, leading to limited diversity gain compared to techniques
like MRC.

Applications:

 Satellite communication systems, where signal quality can

fluctuate due to atmospheric conditions.
 Wireless networks with intermittent fading conditions.
 3. Equal Gain Combining (EGC)
 Equal Gain Combining (EGC) is a diversity technique where
all received signals are combined with equal weighting, but with
their phases aligned to maximize the received signal strength.

Working Principle:
 In Equal Gain Combining, the signals from each diversity
branch are combined at the receiver with equal amplitude gains
but with their phases aligned.
 The receiver compensates for the phase differences between the
received signals and sums them to form a single output signal.
The phases are aligned to ensure that the signals combine
constructively.
Key Characteristics:

 Equal weighting: Each branch contributes equally to the

combined signal. Unlike MRC, EGC does not weight the signals
based on their SNR.
 Phase adjustment: The receiver adjusts the phases of the
incoming signals to ensure constructive addition.

Advantages:

 Improved performance: EGC provides better performance

than SC and TC by using signals from all branches, even though
the gain is not as high as MRC.
 Simpler than MRC: EGC does not require the calculation of
optimal weights based on SNR, making it simpler than MRC
while still offering performance improvement.
Disadvantages:

 Complexity: EGC requires accurate phase alignment of

signals, which can add complexity to the receiver design.
 Suboptimal gain: Although it improves performance
compared to SC, EGC does not achieve the same level of
diversity gain as MRC since it does not use the SNR to weight
the branches.

Applications:

 Wireless LANs (Wi-Fi) and other systems where moderate

complexity and performance are needed.
 Mobile communication systems where phase differences
between signals are relatively small.
4. Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC)
 Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC) is the most powerful
diversity technique, where the received signals are weighted
according to their signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) before being
combined.
 The goal is to maximize the SNR of the combined signal.

Working Principle:
 In MRC, the received signals from different diversity branches
are combined after being multiplied by optimal weights
proportional to their SNRs.
 The signals are also phase-aligned to ensure constructive
combination. The branch with the strongest SNR gets the
highest weight, and the weaker signals contribute less to the
final output.
Key Characteristics:

 Optimal weighting: Each received signal is weighted based on

its SNR, ensuring that the strongest signals contribute the most to
the final output.
 Phase alignment: As with EGC, the phases of the incoming
signals are aligned before combining.

Advantages:

 Optimal performance: MRC provides the best performance

among all diversity techniques, maximizing the output SNR and
achieving the lowest possible bit error rate (BER).
 Full diversity gain: MRC exploits the full diversity of the
system, with performance improving as the number of diversity
branches increases.
Disadvantages:

 Complexity: MRC requires precise knowledge of the SNR for

each branch, as well as phase alignment, making it the most
complex diversity technique to implement.
 Higher hardware requirements: MRC requires more
sophisticated hardware and computational resources to estimate
and apply the optimal weights.

Applications:

 4G/5G MIMO systems, where performance and reliability are

critical.
 Satellite and deep space communications, where achieving the
highest possible SNR is important due to long-distance signal
propagation.
Comparison of Diversity Combining Techniques