L O W VO L T A GE GRI D C O N N E C T I O N O F

PH O T O V O L T A I C PO W E R S Y S T E MS

E T S U Re p o r t No . S / P2/ 0 0 2 1 5 / R E P
EATL Report No: 5010

Con tractor:
EA Technology Ltd

Prep ared b y:
A C ollinson, EA Technology
J Thornycroft, Halcrow Gilbert

The work described in this report was carried

out under contract as part of the New and
Renewable Energy Programme, managed by the
Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU) on
behalf of the Department of Trade and Industry
(DTI). The views and judgements expressed in
this report are those of the contractor and do not
necessarily reflect those of ETSU or the DTI.

Fi rst Published S eptemb er 1999

Executive Summary
This report forms the final report of the project entitled “Technical Criteria for the
Electrical Integration of Photovoltaic Systems into Electricity Supply Networks”,
supported by ETSU and the DTI (contract number S/P2/00215/00/00). The project
was jointly supported by EA Technology’s Core Research Programme, carried out on
behalf of the UK Electricity Supply Industry (ESI). Note, the Core Research
Programme subsequently developed into EA Technology’s Strategic Technology
Programme in 1997.

Introduction & Background

The use of photovoltaic (PV) systems is well established for stand-alone applications,
but in recent years there has been growing interest in grid-connected PV systems using
DC to AC inverters. Building-integrated PV systems for the domestic market have
been identified as offering a large potential power source in the UK. However, the
integration of photovoltaic power systems into local electricity supply networks in the
UK is currently in the early stages of development. The current high costs of PV
systems mean that relatively few requests have been received by UK electricity
companies to date for the connection of such systems. However, the increasing
international activity related to cost-reduction of PV systems, especially in the area of
building integration, means that significant reductions in basic system costs will
continue to be made. If the current trend in cost reduction continues it will not be
long before PV systems are a true commercial proposition. Consequently, any
increased use of PV systems is likely to have a significant impact on the design,
operation and management of electricity supply networks. The electricity supply
industry has identified several technical and commercial issues which have caused
them some concern. These issues needed resolution before grid connected systems
could become more widespread.

Consequently in 1994, the DTI established a programme of work to investigate and

overcome the barriers to the introduction of grid connected PV and release this
potential, as well as supporting other projects designed to stimulate the new
technology.

With this in mind, and taking into account the greater practical experience of grid-
connected PV systems of countries overseas, the UK Government made the decision
to become involved in the international collaborative research work which was being
established to investigate the technical issues related to grid-connected PV, with the
aim of tackling these issues to ensure that no unnecessary technical barriers existed to
inhibit the future expansion of grid connected PV systems in the UK. Involvement in
this work would have the added benefit of encouraging UK research and
manufacturing companies to develop PV power systems for the UK and overseas
markets.
Objectives of the Work

The project was designed to:-

• explore the concerns of the UK ESI and address the concerns where possible
• raise awareness of the potential for application of PV in the UK
• provide the UK input to Task V of the IEA PV Power Systems Implementing
Agreement and benefit from the results of that programme.

In detail, the objectives set down were:-

• To develop specific research and demonstration activities which will resolve

concerns over technical problems
• To assist the ESI to participate in the development of international standards and
norms which will eventually apply in the UK via participation in their IEA work
on pre-standards
• To add to technical understanding of PV and grid connection in the ESI
engineering centres
• To assist the existing UK PV industry and new entrants to learn from the Task V
technical activities and to channel the industry’s input to Task V discussion and
decisions
• To encourage co-operation between the PV industry and the ESI in the
development and acceptance of new products
• To develop the guidelines and reference materials for application of grid
connected PV systems in the UK
• To improve awareness in the UK PV industry and ESI of export opportunities
• To develop recommendations for improved procedural practices

Summary of Work

It is generally accepted that grid interconnection of photovoltaic (PV) power

generation systems enables effective utilisation of the generated power. It enables
constant and automatic adjustment of electric power from the utility grid side and the
PV system side. However, technical requirements of both the utility power system
grid and the PV system must be satisfied to ensure the safety of the PV operator and
the reliability of the utility grid. Clarifying the technical requirements for grid
interconnection and solving the problems are therefore very important issues for the
widespread application of grid-connected PV systems.

In order to address the technical issues and develop a consensus view, the project
established a consultative group of representatives from the ESI. This group has been
instrumental in both guiding the technical work and raising awareness in the industry.

This report also summarises the important findings from the first stage of activities of
the International Energy Agency Implementing Agreement on Photovoltaic Power
Systems working group examining “Grid Interconnection of Building Integrated and
Other Dispersed Photovoltaic Power Systems” (commonly known as Task V) and
critically examines these issues from a UK perspective. The Task V work took place
between 1993 and 1998 and covered a review of existing techniques and rules related
to grid interconnection of photovoltaic power generation systems and included both
theoretical and experimental investigations.

The main objective of this work was to provide technical input into the development
of technical guidelines for the grid-connection of photovoltaic (PV) inverter
generators. These technical guidelines have subsequently been taken on board by the
electricity supply industry, who are about to produce Engineering Recommendation
G77, entitled , “UK Technical Guidelines for Inverter Connected Single Phase
Photovoltaic (PV) Generators up to 5kVA” to provide an industry-endorsed guide to
grid-connected PV in the UK. The technical guidelines produced as part of this work
formed the original basis for G77.

Summary of Results

A major output from the project has been the Draft G77 “UK Technical Guidelines
for Inverter Connected Single Phase Photovoltaic (PV) Generators up to 5kVA”
which is currently being prepared for publication as formal guidance to the ESI. The
provisional draft guidelines were launched to an audience of ESI representatives and
PV industry representatives at a workshop 1999 hosted by EA Technology in February
1999. As well as this, the sharing of experiences between the members of this group
and the PV specialists has helped to smooth the path for new PV installations during
the life of the project.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The UK Consultative Group in conjunction with the IEA PVPS Task V working
group has successfully completed the first stage of work by identifying grid
interconnection issues of PV systems and drafting possible recommendations for
improvement. During the period of this work it has been observed that some
countries have developed new guidelines for grid interconnection and some countries
have revised their guidelines due to the increased knowledge of requirements for grid
interconnection of PV systems. The introduction of small-scale, grid-connected PV
systems have also progressed in the UK and on a larger scale abroad. AC modules, a
new concept of a PV module with a tiny embedded inverter (typically up to 100Wp
output power), have been developed and are now sold in some countries, including the
UK.

There are still many issues still to be resolved such as islanding issues,
interconnection of many PV systems in a concentrated area, cost evaluation of grid
interconnected PV systems and so on. These issues will be studied in future work,
both within the UK PV Experimental Programme (Phase 2) and the newly established
UK Strategic PV Network Study, in collaboration with the continuing work of the
Task V Working Group.
In general there is a need to look at the effects of a range of PV penetration scenarios
on system operation and performance, with concentrations of multiple PV systems
operating in UK climatic conditions. The development of the technical guidelines
document highlighted the main areas of concern for electricity companies. These
areas of concern are:

• voltage level control

• power quality, including harmonics, power factor and DC injection
• the real risks associated with islanding
• safety, including earthing and generator isolation
• rate of change conditions (e.g. fast moving clouds) and flicker
• capacity of the existing LV network to accept PV systems
• future design of LV distribution networks containing PV systems
• the impact on infrastructure costs
• the impact on operating and maintenance costs
• effects on spinning reserve and unloading of conventional plant
• effects of renewable energy systems with unsecure, variable generation
characteristics
• the value of the energy from PV to the integrated system
• implications on distribution price control (i.e. DuoS)
• connection agreements with PV generators.

There is a need to increase the awareness of photovoltaics within the UK and a need
for further research focused on the wider impacts of large-scale embedded PV
generation. Also, many of the issues discussed within the context of PV are also
considered by electricity companies to be very relevant to the future development of
other network-connected generator systems, such as fuel cells and small-scale micro-
CHP.

It is also clear from the work carried out to date that the development of international
standards is essential to allow the grid-connected PV market to develop in a
sustainable fashion for the commercialisation of grid-connected PV systems. It has
proven difficult to establish complete unanimity amongst the international community
on grid-connected PV standards because of the differences in electrical network
topologies in different countries. These differences have been magnified by some PV
manufacturers who naturally endeavour to develop standards which are advantageous
to their own products. However, a major step forward from the UK perspective has
been the recent development of the UK's "Action Plan for PV Standards". The
overall action plan covers PV cells and modules, stand-alone systems and building
integration issues as well as grid connection issues. The main issues which were
identified include the development of a type approval testing methodology (this is
actually being carried out as part of the UK PV Experimental Programme), including
type approval accreditation and installation testing and commissioning procedure
specification.

Many of the issues raised during the course of this study will be tackled by a new
project supported by the DTI, entitled "Strategic PV Network Study". This study will
concentrate on the main areas of technical uncertainty which will need to be resolved
before grid-connected PV systems become widespread. Consideration in this study
will be given to possible roll-out scenarios for grid-connected PV inverter systems as
a pre-cursor to developing models for PV/grid interaction (primarily looking at
voltage levels and profiles on the LV distribution network). Another important
element of the study will be a risk analysis of islanding. The results of the modelling
work and the risk analysis will then be used to produce an impact study, examining
the likely effects multiple grid-connected PV inverters will have on conventional
electricity supplies.

Part of the UK activity will involve continued liaison with the activities of the IEA
“Task V” working group, who will be continuing their successful work carried out to
date within a new subtask, Subtask 50. The objective of the new subtask, called
“Study on Highly Concentrated Penetration of Grid-Interconnected PV Systems”, is
to assess the net impact of highly concentrated PV systems on electricity distribution
systems and to establish recommendations for both distribution and PV inverter
systems to enable widespread deployment of solar energy.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS

AC Alternating Current
DNO Distribution Network Operator
DC Direct Current
ESI Electricity Supply Industry
IA Implementing Agreement
IEA International Energy Agency
LV Low Voltage
MV Medium Voltage
MWp MegaWatt (peak)
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PES Public Electricity Supplier
PV Photovoltaic
PVPS Photovoltaic Power Systems
RCD Residual Current Device
REC Regional Electricity Company
STP Strategic Technology Programme
Contents
Page

1 Photovoltaics in the UK 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Installed Systems 1
1.3 The UK Initiative 3
1.3.1 Early Grid-Connected PV Studies 3
1.3.2 Current Grid-Connected PV Studies 4

2 Technical Criteria for Electrical Integration of PV Systems 5

2.1 Origins of Project 5
2.2 Project Objectives 5
2.3 Project Participants 6
2.4 Project Activities 6
2.5 Task V from a UK perspective 8

3 UK Guidelines for Grid Connected PV Systems 9

3.1 The Development of PV Grid Connection Guidelines 10
3.2 Protection 12
3.3 Operation and safety 13
3.4 Power quality 14
3.4.1 Harmonics 15
3.4.2 Power factor 15
3.4.4 Flicker 16
3.4.5 DC injection 16
3.5 Commissioning and acceptance testing 16
3.5.1 Metering 17
3.5.2 Labelling 17

4 Summary of Task V Activities 18

4.1 Task V Activities 18
4.1.1 Subtask 10 19
4.1.2 Subtask 20 19
4.1.3 Subtask 30 20

5 Results 20

6 Conclusions 22

7 Future Work 23

8 Acknowledgements 26

References 27
Appendices

Appendix A: "Draft UK Technical Guidelines for Inverter Connected Single Phase

Photovoltaic (PV) Generators up to 5kVA"

Appendix B: "Summary of IEA Task V Activities"

Appendix C: "Review of Systems and Guidelines (Subtask 10)"

Appendix D: "Utility Aspects of Grid-Connected PV Systems (Subtask 20)"

Appendix E: "Demonstration Tests of Grid-Connected PV (Subtask 30)"

Appendix F: "List of Task V Reports"

Appendix G: "List of PV Systems Installed in the UK"

1 Photovoltaics in the UK

1.1 Background
The technology of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells and systems has developed rapidly
over the last two decades in parallel with the development of the markets. Frequently
a first choice power source in remote locations as ‘stand alone’ battery systems,
photovoltaics are now being developed for connection to the local electricity
distribution network as ‘embedded generators’. These systems are described as
‘network connected’, ‘mains connected’ or ‘grid connected’ in international parlance.

Many thousand Photovoltaic ‘embedded generators’ have now been connected

worldwide, and their use is rapidly gaining ground in the leading industrialised
countries. There have been a significant number of high profile projects and
demonstration programmes leading to increased interest, whilst at the same time there
have been rapid strides in the development of the inverters and other components in
the power conditioner units, as well as improvements in cost.

Although they are not yet fully competitive with conventional power generation, or
even most other renewable generators on purely economic grounds they attract interest
because:-

• they are a clean power source

• they are quiet and have no moving parts
• they can be installed near the point of power demand
• they offer high reliability, long life and low maintenance
• they offer ownership of a power source to individuals and companies
• they are modular and therefore are easy to adapt to a location and to extend
• there are good prospects for continued reduction in costs as the markets and the
technology develop

In addition, they offer the following advantages over stand alone systems:-

• they do not require expensive battery storage, as the grid provides the back-up
source
• they can be integrated into buildings and other structures, thus saving on cladding
costs and land requirements

1.2 Installed Systems

In the UK the potential is seen for building-integrated grid-connected systems.
However, it is interesting to note that although economic analysis suggests that the
biggest potential in the market should be for large systems integrated into industrial
type buildings, much of the current take-up is for domestic buildings, funded by
‘pioneer’ enthusiast owners who are members of the public.

1
The table in Appendix G lists some of the systems installed to date in the UK (derived
from ETSU report ‘Update of the Database of Photovoltaic Installations in the UK,
ETSU S/P2/00301/REP’ by Altechnica). Statistics from the table are that over 100
buildings utilised some form of photovoltaic array, with a total generating capacity
approaching 1MWp. The buildings include some 60 houses, 9 offices, 5 university
buildings, 10 school buildings and a factory. It is assumed that the majority of the
systems are grid-connected although this data is not supplied in the report.

Ten of the schools are part of the Scolar Programme which is now installing 100 small
systems in schools and colleges. Two of the projects are petrol service stations in the
south of England which utilise various types of PV modules incorporated into the
facia and roof canopies of the fuel retail areas. These are both part of roll out
programmes, and will be the first contact with photovoltaic embedded generators for
many Electricity Companies.

The scene internationally is very different. Environmental benefits and other positive
factors are providing significant motivation to accelerate the technological and market
development of grid connected PV systems. In the USA, Japan, Germany and the
Netherlands there are major projects to introduce the systems on a large scale. There
are demonstration projects in many countries and under the European Union RD&D
programmes.

The USA initiated the ‘Million Solar Roofs’ programme in 1997 to install PV systems
and/or solar hot water on one million roofs by the year 2010, Japan has planned to
increase its installed capacity from 10,000 residential systems in 1997 to a capacity of
4,600MWp by 2010, and the German 1,000 roofs project in fact led to the installation
of more than 2,250 systems.

This increasing international activity is resulting in cost-reduction of PV systems,

especially in the area of building integration, and this means that significant
reductions in basic system costs will continue to be made. If the current trend in cost
reduction continues it will not be long before PV systems are a true commercial
proposition for the UK, with a consequent benefit to the export market.

With this in mind, and taking into account the greater practical experience of grid-
connected PV systems of countries overseas, the UK Government made the decision
to become involved in international collaborative research work which was being
established to investigate the technical issues related to grid-connected PV. This as
part of a UK programme would aim to tackle these issues to ensure that no
unnecessary technical barriers existed to inhibit the future expansion of grid connected
PV systems in the UK. Involvement in this work would have the added benefit of
encouraging UK research and manufacturing companies to develop PV power systems
for the UK and overseas markets.

2
1.3 The UK Initiative
1.3.1 Early Grid-Connected PV Studies

In the UK the potential for the application of grid connected and building integrated
photovoltaic systems for the home market has been investigated in a previous series of
reports prepared for DTI between 1992 and 1993:

The first by the Newcastle Photovoltaic Applications Centre (1992), “The Potential
Generating Capacity of PV-Clad Buildings in the UK”, ETSU Report S1365-P1,
confirmed the large potential to integrate PV power generators into many of the
building types found in the UK.

A second by Halcrow Gilbert (1993), “Grid Connection of Photovoltaic Systems”,

ETSU Report S1394-P1, established that there are no fundamental reasons, technical
or non-technical, why PV systems cannot be grid connected. However, it identified
several issues of concern, both technical and commercial, to the supply industry which
would need resolution before grid connected systems could become more widespread.

Consequently in 1994, the DTI established a programme of work to investigate and

overcome the barriers to the introduction of grid connected PV and release this
potential, as well as supporting other projects designed to stimulate the new
technology.

This research has been both on the UK level and on an international level, in
collaboration with countries where more systems have been installed. It has involved
a diverse range of interested parties all of whom are crucial to the take-up of PV in the
UK, bringing together the expertise from the Electricity Industry, the PV industry and
University research as well as interaction with the IEA Task V working group. This is
shown in the figure below:

RECs CONSULTATIVE
GROUP

UNIVERSITY INTERNATIONAL
COLLABORATIVE
RESEARCH IEA TASK V
PROJECTS

PV INDUSTRY STANDARDS
BODIES

Figure 1: Collaboration in the UK for Grid Connected PV

3
1.3.2 Current Grid-Connected PV Studies

As part of the work programme developed by the DTI, a project was initiated in 1995,
entitled “Technical Criteria for Electrical Integration of PV Systems”. This project
was developed by EA Technology and Halcrow Gilbert with funding from both the
DTI and the Electricity Supply Industry. This report forms the final report from this
study.

The project was designed to:

• explore the concerns of the UK ESI and address the concerns where possible
• raise awareness of the potential for application of PV in the UK
• provide the UK input to Task V and benefit from the results of that programme.

The project established a consultative group of representatives from the ESI who have
been instrumental in both guiding the technical work and raising awareness in the
industry. A major output from the project has been the Draft G77 “UK Technical
Guidelines for Inverter Connected Single Phase Photovoltaic (PV) Generators up to
5kVA” which is currently being prepared for publication as formal guidance to the
supply industry. As well as this, the sharing of experiences between the members of
this group and the PV specialists has helped to smooth the path for new PV
installations during the life of the project. It also resulted in the identification of the
experimental work described below.

The identification of additional, experimental work required to support the above

project led to the initiation of an experimentally-focused research programme. This
programme started in 1996 and was titled ‘Co-ordinated Experimental Research into
PV Power Interaction with the Supply Network’. This project represented a novel
collaboration between EPSRC and ETSU for the DTI in which conventional EPSRC-
funded university research projects were closely co-ordinated with a DTI research
programme with co-ordination from the DTI/ETSU contractor.

The objectives for Phase I which were developed in conjunction with the electricity
supply industry (ESI) were:

• to research the design and performance of small PV power conditioners for

network connection
• to investigate the potential for small power conditioners to operate in “islanded”
mode
• to investigate the effects of multiple installations and possible interactions
between inverters
• to resolve key technical issues relating to the integration and operation of PV
systems connected to the UK electricity supply
• to disseminate information and experience from the project work
• to help raise the understanding of PV technology within the electricity supply
industry

4
• to provide the UK R&D input for Task V of the IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems
Programme

The key issues chosen were the performance of small power conditioners in terms of
power quality and safety of the network and connected equipment, the interaction
between power conditioners, and the cumulative effect of multiple installations on a
section of the distribution network.

2 Technical Criteria for Electrical Integration of PV

Systems

2.1 Origins of Project

This project was set up in the UK with the overall objective to resolve or assist the
resolution of the important technical criteria and procedural issues which constitute
barriers to the development of the application of grid connected PV systems, and in so
doing disseminate technical understanding of the technology. The UK is achieving
this within the framework of Task V activities, bringing the considerable benefits of
extensive international experience and knowledge.

2.2 Project Objectives

In detail, the objectives originally set down are:

1. To develop specific research and demonstration activities which will resolve

concerns over technical problems
2. To assist the ESI to participate in the development of international standards and
norms which will eventually apply in the UK via participation in their IEA work
on pre-standards
3. To add to technical understanding of PV and grid connection in the ESI
engineering centres
4. To assist the existing UK PV industry and new entrants to learn from the Task V
technical activities and to channel the industry’s input to Task V discussion and
decisions
5. To encourage co-operation between the PV industry and the ESI in the
development and acceptance of new products
6. To develop the guidelines and reference materials for application of grid
connected PV systems in the UK
7. To improve awareness in the UK PV industry and ESI of export opportunities
8. To develop recommendations for improved procedural practices

The contract was extended to ensure that the activities in the first phase of the
programme were brought to a satisfactory conclusion and to achieve full benefit from
participation in Task V after that programme was extended. The plan for the
extension emphasised the dissemination activities and the preparatory work for the

5
development of international standards. A final seminar in the UK was also added to
the programme.

2.3 Project Participants

The project was operated by a team of representatives taken from both the ESI and the
UK PV Industry. EA Technology took the lead role in co-ordination and management
of the activities and was assisted by Halcrow Gilbert with representation at IEA
meetings, the production of technical documents, and the organisation of
dissemination or consultation exercises. The Electricity Association, in partnership
with Halcrow Gilbert, act to promote the transfer of information and to co-ordinate the
Consultation Group from the ESI, the members of which are named in the next
section. The consultation group contribute their knowledge and experience by acting
as a primary source of information on ESI requirements and interests. This is at their
own cost, and this has been an invaluable input to the programme. EA Technology
and Halcrow Gilbert act under the auspices of the UK PV Association to co-ordinate
the PV industry interests.

Additional effort and interest from the academic community and interested
manufacturers is encouraged and has resulted in useful contributions as well as wider
dissemination of the results.

2.4 Project Activities

The project activities are summarised below.

Activity 1 Standards and Regulations

1. This is the core activity for the programme. A draft document on Guidelines for
grid connection of small PV systems has been drafted with the ESI to supplement
current Engineering Recommendations. Available standards and recommendations
have been reviewed with the REC consultative group and the routes for
introduction of change have been explored.

2. A review of BS 7671 (16th of IEE Wiring Regulations) for areas that are unclear
about PV systems or may need revision and stimulation of action for the next
revision of the standard was proposed, but has not been progressed into a
documented form because it is not of direct interest to the electricity utilities.

Activity 2 Experience and Guidelines

1. Experience of both UK and overseas projects has been exchanged within the REC
consultative group to increase awareness, and has been a resource for the draft
Guidelines.

2. Guidance for the REC system planners is contained in the draft Guidelines.

Activity 3 Technical Development

6
1. Metering: A study of acceptable two way power metering systems has been
difficult to develop as the electricity industry has been engaged in the greater task
of dealing with metering issues for the open market. OFFER have been
approached and a dialogue established on the concerns of the PV industry
regarding the impact of new metering arrangements.

2. The work in this project identified the research themes for the co-ordinated
experimental programme which is discussed in section 1.3.3. A study of the effects
of multiple inverter connections to typical UK distribution lines has been
undertaken. A research programme on power conditioner performance and
interaction has also been undertaken.

Activity 4 Dissemination

1. Dissemination activities have continued throughout the project, including

presentations at conferences and workshops, the relations with the consultative
group of RECs and other supply industry contacts, and dissemination through the
British Photovoltaic Association events and newsletter. This effort has resulted in
an improved awareness of photovoltaics in the electricity supply.

2. The small group of UK manufacturers with activity in grid connected PV

equipment has shown interest in the project. New companies have entered the
scene in the last three years.

3. An interface and improved understanding between the RECs and the PV industry
has been established which will assist the connection of new systems on to
networks and the development of mutually acceptable standards.

Activity 5 Programme Management

1. Overall project management has been provided by EA Technology while Halcrow

Gilbert have provided support, particularly in the development of the REC
consultative group and liaison with PV-UK.

Activity 6 Integration in IEA Task V

1. EA Technology and Halcrow Gilbert have provided representatives to the Task V

six-monthly meetings and disseminated the information from Task V in the UK. In
addition, they have provided major contributions to selected parts of the Subtasks
as follows:

Sub Task 10 Review of Systems and Guidelines

• Submit UK responses to questionnaire survey;

• Collect ESI views on problems and technical issues to be addressed in Task V;
• Comment on questionnaire form and results;
• Prepare a technical briefing paper for the ESI and for manufacturers/other
industries on the programme and objectives of Task V.

7
 Sub Task 20 Definition of Guidelines

• Liaise with ESI over their technical concerns and presentation of their
requirements for inclusion in the guidelines;
• Arrange consultation with the ESI through a technical workshop;
• Assist with drafting the guidelines and identifying key issues, representing the
UK views;
• Disseminate the guidelines in the UK and collate comments for feedback to Sub
Task. Workshop on new standards and new products for grid connection;
• Endeavour to obtain commitment from the ESI and industry to develop practical
projects for inclusion in the remaining stages of the programme.

Sub Task 30 Demonstration Test Sites

• Participation in testing and demonstration of the new guidelines. Expand UK

participation in Task V by introducing new partners who will either develop
testing/ demonstration in the UK or will work with other countries on their test
sites.

Sub Task 40 Summary of Results

• Report on UK activities and contribution to sub task reports;

• Dissemination through publications and seminars for ESI and industry;
• Participation in preparation of new UK standards/specifications and guidelines.

A new Subtask 50 has now been established, with the UK input to be provided
under the follow-on ‘Network Strategy’ project.

2.5 Task V from a UK perspective

The UK’s participation in the international activities of the Task V working group has
allowed UK electricity companies and the UK PV industry an opportunity to consider
the technical issues related to grid-connection of PV systems before such systems
become widely used. It is important that any PV system which is likely to be
connected to the UK’s electricity network combines safety, reliability and cost-
effectiveness.

There are no fundamental principles that prevent the connection of PV systems into
local electricity supply . However, electricity companies have a legal requirement to
maintain safety standards and at the same time achieve a high quality of supply to
customers, both of which could be compromised by the characteristics of PV systems
incorporated into the network. Safety considerations include the fact that in the event
of a network power supply interruption, the PV generator could still maintain power
in some parts of the network - referred to as 'islanding'.

The Task V working group has provided useful background information and
validation for the UK’s technical guidelines document (see Appendix A), which was

8
officially launched in conjunction with the 2nd UK PV Conference which took place
at the Renaissance Hotel in Manchester on the 17th/18th February 1999. The
guidelines have been taken on board by the Electricity Association and (following on
from an official electricity industry review) are shortly to be issued as an official
industry standard document in the form of an Engineering Recommendation, G77.

3 UK Guidelines for Grid Connected PV Systems

A key feature of the studies outlined in the previous chapter was the involvement of a
Consultative Group from the Electricity Supply Industry (ESI). This was originally
convened in 1994 under the project reported on here, but has also proved invaluable to
subsequent projects to date. It is important to acknowledge that this support in time
and cost has been given as an in-kind contribution by the electricity companies to the
various projects, and that without this group it would have been impossible to develop
the forerunner to the Draft G77 Recommendations to the point where they are now
near publication.

The Consultative Group currently consists of:

• the Electricity Association as the overall body responsible for publishing ESI
regulations in the UK

• a group of electricity generators and distributors including:

London Electricity
South Western Electricity
Eastern Electricity
East Midlands Electricity
South Wales Electricity
Northern Electric
Manweb
PowerGen
Midlands Electricity
Seeboard

• co-ordinators Halcrow Gilbert and EA Technology

Its terms of reference are to meet approximately twice a year to consolidate work with
other working groups on topics such as the guidelines for grid connection.
Information was exchanged between the PV and Electricity Industry, including
experience on other forms of distributed generation and research on photovoltaic
systems. It has also provided valuable input into the Task V work through the supply
of survey data and feedback on international results.

It was formed by drawing on two existing links; the Electricity Association’s

continued representation of the ESI in some areas including standards development,
and EA Technology’s co-ordination or management of a number of common
programmes which are supported by some or all of the RECs. These links were drawn

9
together by Halcrow Gilbert in 1994, to set up a consultative group of industry
representatives which grew to involve the companies or their subsidiaries listed above.

The requirement for the work was that, despite the large potential, the integration of
Photovoltaic Power Systems into local electricity supply networks in the UK was
currently in the early stages of development compared with countries abroad. The
current high costs of PV systems and lack of a major government installation
initiative, meant that relatively few requests had been received by UK electricity
companies to date to stimulate development for the connection of such systems. In
fact, despite the table in the previous chapter, the UK has one of the lowest quotients
of installed PV capacity per head of population (i.e. kWp/capita) of any of the
countries involved in the IEA’s PV agreement.

The Consultative Group has been instrumental in both guiding the technical work and
raising awareness in the industry. The sharing of experiences between the members of
this group and the PV specialists has helped to smooth the path for new PV
installations during the life of the projects so far.

3.1 The Development of PV Grid Connection Guidelines

The rationale behind the development of the PV Grid Connection Guidelines

(contained in Appendix A) can be traced back many years when the growing potential
for the connection of single-phase low voltage (LV) generators to the mains supply at
the domestic household level was first recognised. The connection of small-scale
generators dispersed within the LV distribution network is often referred to as
“dispersed or “embedded” generation. This type of generation effectively changes the
electricity distribution system from a passive to an active network and therefore has
implications for the design, management and operation of the distribution network.
Grid connected generators operate in parallel with the existing mains supply and
therefore the supply network operates in a manner for which it was not originally
designed.

The UK electricity transmission and distribution networks were designed to transport

electrical energy from the few very large generating power stations to the many
domestic, commercial and industrial users of electricity. There is a predominance of
generation in the north of England, with major load centres in the south. Thus, bulk
electricity transmission from north to south is achieved by the National Grid
transmission network, operating at 275kV and 400kV, whilst local electricity
distribution is achieved on the medium voltage (MV) distribution network, mostly at
33kV and 11kV. Distribution to domestic premises is then achieved using the LV
distribution network, operating at 230 volts AC.

Considered in its simplest form, the design of the distribution network is based on the
assumption that power flows from the higher voltage levels to the lower levels via
transformers and the direction of current flow is from the primary and distribution
transformers to the customer loads. This assumption is used to predict the voltage
profiles along the cables and overhead lines which supply the customers In this way,

10
it can be ensured that the electricity supply that customers receive is within the
statutory voltage limits (i.e. 230V+10%, -6%). The size and ratings for the network
plant (such as the distribution transformer, associated switchgear, cables/overhead
lines and protection) are determined, based on predicted consumer load profiles and
known local physical topology. However, the addition of dispersed generation makes
these original design calculations no longer valid, since the embedded generation will
effect the actual voltage profiles on the network, as well as associated fault levels and
protection settings.

Many technical aspects related to the connection of embedded generators are covered
by the electricity supply industry (ESI) Engineering Recommendation G59/1
(amendment 1). Whilst this document does consider single-phase LV connected
generators, it was written mainly to cater for larger generators (typically >1MW power
rating), which would typically be connected to the MV network, (11kV is the typical
MV distribution voltage level in the UK). Also, G59/1 tends to treat the connection
of single-phase LV generators as a special case derived from the general case, but if
the numbers of single-phase embedded generators increases significantly in the near
future, a different approach will need to be taken towards such generation.

The procedures laid down in G59/1 place a significant burden in terms of time on the
technical engineering departments of electricity companies to ensure safe, competent
installation of embedded generators. This is acceptable when dealing with a handful
of larger (i.e. >1MW) schemes. However, such a high level of direct involvement by
technical personnel would not be appropriate for a larger number of smaller schemes.
Thus, the aim of the technical guidelines (and associated type approvals document) is
to provide a cost effective solution to the safe and reliable connection of single phase
PV generators to the LV network.

The technical guidelines document covers the four main areas considered to be
important in the context of achieving safe and practical interconnection of single
phase PV inverter generators. These areas are:-

• protection
• operation and safety
• power quality
• commissioning and acceptance testing

These issues are discussed in more detail later in this chapter.

The technical guidelines document gives recommendations for best practice and
highlights any existing standards that need to be adhered to in the grid connection
process, including European standards, British standards and ESI standards and
regulations. In the absence of formal standards, the guidelines recommend tests
which can be carried out to allow grid connected PV systems to obtain “approved”
status from the UK electricity supply industry, in the form of "type testing".

The concept of an “ESI Approved” inverter is an important one, since it shows that
the inverter design has considered the relevant factors related to grid connected
operation and the inverter meets the criteria laid down by the electricity industry to

11
ensure safe operation, with the correct protection functions and can operate without
significantly degrading power quality to the PV owner/operator and other consumers.

When evaluating the likely effect that small-scale single phase PV generators might
have on the electricity distribution network, the following principles are considered:-

• ensuring that the statutory requirements set out in the Electricity Supply
Regulations 1988 are met
• meeting the requirements of the Distribution Code (and Grid Code, if
appropriate)
• ensuring the security of supply to other customers is not prejudiced
• ensuring quality of supply to other customers is not prejudiced.
• ensuring plant and equipment already on the distribution system will operate
within their rating
• ensuring the grid inter-connection meets appropriate technical standards

The issues which are of primary concern include the effect that PV-inverter generators
connected to the network will have on:-

• network capacity
• network security
• voltage regulation
• power quality
• earthing
• fault level
• asset utilisation
• losses

It is part of the network operator's licence that the design of the network connection
for any generator must be achieved at minimum cost, whilst meeting all of the
relevant legal, regulatory and safety requirements.

3.2 Protection
Protection can mean different things to different people, depending on perspective and
viewpoint. In general, protection is necessary to fulfil several different requirements
and in the context of electrical safety of PV systems these requirements include:

• protection of people (including electricity company personnel, customers and

the general public)
• protection of the electrical network
• protection of the PV inverter system (including the installation)

The voltage and frequency protection trip limits specified in the guidelines document
are fairly straightforward, being identical to the G59/1 limits (which are in turn
directly related to the supply limits set in the Electricity Supply Regulations (1988)).

12
The issue which causes the most discussion and commands the least consensus is the
issue of loss of mains (LOM) protection under an “islanding” condition. Islanding is
a phenomenon which can only occur when generation is embedded within the
distribution network. The islanding phenomenon refers to the condition which can
exist whereby part of the network has become electrically isolated from the main
network and all the loads within that network are being supplied by the generators
embedded within that network. The electricity company (or more accurately the
public electricity supplier, or PES) has no way of controlling the voltage and
frequency of an islanded network, since it has no control over the generation within
the islanded section of network Since the PES is responsible for the safety of the
network and for maintaining satisfactory power quality, it will require all generation
within the 'island' to be shut down to ensure the system is in a safe state and to prevent
customers receiving a supply that could jeopardise their equipment.

However, power quality is not the only issue which is raised by islanding. The debate
surrounding the risks of islanding is normally associated with megawatt scale
generators. With these larger generators, the energy stored by virtue of the inertial
mass of the rotor shaft means that the consequences of an "out-of-sync" circuit breaker
reclosure on a multi-megawatt generating set can be quite dramatic. Such events
have been recorded and have resulted in the generator shaft being torn out of its
bearings, allowing it to make contact with the generator stator and thereby completely
destroying the generator. An out-of-sync reclosure is still an event that could effect
grid connected PV inverters, but the lack of mechanical inertia within the inverter
should mean that the inverted is in a better position to survive such an event without
damage to itself.

3.3 Operation and safety

The UK enjoys a relatively good safety record with respect to electrical safety, mainly
due to high safety standards, and good education about the dangers of electric shock.
Thus, within the electricity industry there are fewer accidents and injuries related to
electric shock than caused by other physical causes (i.e. motor vehicle accidents, falls
from 11kV wood poles, etc.). Similarly, within the domestic environment there are
more deaths caused each year by fire due to electrical faults (such as faulty earthing)
than are due to electric shock.

The concern for safety is the main reason for the clauses within the technical
guidelines document stating the need for various switches, including a manual
isolation switch and a mechanical isolation switch (often referred to as the automatic
disconnection switch). There has been some confusion over the various terms used
and this has resulted in confusion in understanding the purpose and the reasons behind
the requirement for each switch. The following paragraphs attempt to clarify the
situation.

Firstly, there is a requirement for a manual isolation switch, which is "easily

accessible" and "lockable". This switch should isolate the PV inverter output from
both the domestic circuit and the grid supply to allow maintenance to be done to
either. The switch needs to be lockable to allow it to be a true point of isolation,

13
otherwise someone could close the switch whilst someone else was still working on
the installation. The use of lockable isolation switches is standard practice within the
ESI.

The second requirement is for the automatic protection (including islanding

protection) to be via a mechanical relay to IEC 255. There are two reasons for this.
Firstly, the requirement for a mechanical relay relates to the IEE Wiring Regulations,
which requires any point of isolation to have a physical gap between conductors.
Secondly, the IEC 255 (electrical relays) standard refers to the insulation and
isolation performance of relays between the relay CONTROL pins and its
INPUT/OUTPUT pins (and NOT between the INPUT-OUTPUT pins when the relay
contacts are open). The purpose of this requirement is to prevent voltage transients
present on the electrical supply (such caused by local lighting activity) and which will
also appear on the relay I/O terminals from effecting the integrity of the controller
which is controlling the relay (and likely to be controlling other peripheral devices as
well). Thus, the automatic protection is not required solely for the islanding
protection function, but to disconnect the equipment under any “fault” condition (such
as PV array failure, inverter failure, inverter power transistor failure, over/under
voltage, over/under frequency, islanding, etc).

In practice, it is likely that any LV network which is likely to have PV inverters

connected to it will have to be treated as if it were still live by anyone called upon to
work on it. Maintenance staff would feel no more re-assured that a PV inverter was
isolated by an automatic mechanical relay than they would if the inverter were isolated
by a solid-state switch. Live-line working at LV voltages is carried out for certain
maintenance and repair functions already, but under very strict, controlled procedures
and only if there is no other way of carrying out the work. There is constant pressure
from the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to reduce the amount of live-line
working carried out within the ESI and so a likely outcome for LV networks with
grid-connected PV inverters is that the HSE will insist on ensuring as far as possible
that the line is not energised, but to call for live-line working techniques to be adopted
in any case. This does have implications for the costs of network maintenance, since
live-line working techniques are more costly than normal working techniques.

3.4 Power quality

The level of power quality experienced by any consumer is the responsibility of the
contracted public electricity supplier (PES). This is governed by the PES licence,
which is a legally binding document, formally linked to the Electricity Supply
Regulations (which defines such things as nominal supply voltage) and other industry
documents, such as the Distribution Code and Grid Code, both of which are further
supplemented by engineering recommendations (such as G59/1, etc.) and engineering
equipment approvals lists. Thus, the PES license holder has responsibility for
ensuring adequate power quality for its customers and it is because of this
responsibility that power quality is included within the scope of the technical
guidelines document.

14
In the context of the technical guidelines document, power quality includes
harmonics, power factor, flicker, EMC and DC injection.

3.4.1 Harmonics

Levels of harmonic generation by non-linear loads have been subject to limits for
many years. Harmonics can be viewed as a form of electrical pollution on the
distribution network, since they provide no useful benefits but their existence can
interfere with the correct operation of certain types of systems connected to the
network. Such systems include line-commutated rectifiers and mains-synchronised
clock circuits, etc. Excess harmonics can also result in network plant having to be
operated at reduced ratings. Thus, it is in the interest of both distribution network
operator (DNO) and consumers alike to minimise the levels of harmonics present on
the network. The most notable incident related to excess harmonics occurred in the
late 1960's and was caused as a result of the rapid expansion of television. The
power supplies used within the TV sets of that period were very crude, with the
cheapest using half-wave rectification (which saves the cost of three diodes, compared
with full-wave rectification!) and produces high levels of even-order harmonic
distortion. The effect on the network of the high level of harmonics was:

a) some household clocks which were synchronised with the mains frequency ran too
fast
b) large harmonic currents were present at the LV distribution transformer, causing
localised overheating

The problem was cured mainly by simple, minor changes in the manufacturing
procedures used in the TV's power supplies. The principle change in the
manufacturing process allowed for a random orientation of the half-wave rectifier
diode, which allowed for a statistical spread of load between the positive and negative
sine wave cycles of the mains supply, thus balancing out the even-order harmonic
currents.

3.4.2 Power factor

Power factor is a technical term defining the relative displacement in time between the
mains voltage waveform and the current waveform. (Both of these waveforms are
sinusoidal, but the peaks will only be co-incident at unity power factor).. “Real
power" relates to the current component at peak voltage, whilst “reactive power"
relates to the current component at voltage zero. Many domestic loads (most notably
induction motors, commonly found in refrigerator compressor units etc.), require a
reactive power component to operate correctly. In this context, the network is often
referred to as “supplying Vars”. Approximately 30-50% of domestic load (excluding
space heating) is made up of loads requiring reactive power (i.e. induction motors).

"Useful work” is only done by the “real” part of the power (the domestic meter
measures only “real” power). So, since for a sustained island to occur there needs to
be a match of both real and reactive power components, restricting grid connected PV
inverters to only exporting real power dramatically reduces the chances of the
necessary conditions for islanding being met.. This is why the technical guidelines

15
document restricts PV inverters to export between unity power factor and 0.95 leading
(i.e. importing Vars). Note, this refers to reactive current "exported” to the network,
and does not restrict the inverter from supplying reactive power to the loads within the
same premises as the PV generator. However, the simpler inverter designs are not
likely to be able to distinguish between power exported to the network and power
taken by the domestic loads. In this case, the inverter output will be restricted to
operate between unity power factor and 0.95 leading.

3.4.4 Flicker

Flicker problems are normally associated with non-linear or pulsed loads, such as
welding equipment. As its name suggests, flicker is associated with lighting and is
caused by repetitive, periodic voltage fluctuations. The eye is particularly sensitive to
fluctuations in the range once per second to ten times per second, where voltage
fluctuations of 1% or less can be detected by the human eye. Concerns over flicker is
much greater in other European countries than it is in the UK, mainly because of
differences in electrical network configurations. However, there is general concern
that because of the time-varying output of PV systems, they have the potential to
cause flicker problems. Thus, flicker is given consideration in the connection
guidelines document.

3.4.5 DC injection

The purpose of the electricity distribution network is to distribute electrical power at

50Hz AC. The presence of anything else on the network, such as harmonics,
transients, and DC is therefore regarded as pollution. However, current standards
make no reference to DC, other than to say its presence is "deprecated" (i.e. not
approved). This effectively says that DC should be zero. This requirement can be
easily met if all connections to the network are made to linear devices (such as
resistors, capacitors or inductors) or via a transformer. However, with the
development of modern power electronic devices it is possible to design PV inverters
whose power devices can interface directly to the electrical network. This can
remove a costly component from the inverter design, but it does mean that there is
likely to be some residual DC output component from the inverter, however small.
Thus, in the absence of a defined limit for DC within existing standards, the technical
guidelines document states a maximum value of 5mA DC for a single installation.
This is in line with limits set for harmonic currents and is less than the sensitivity
levels used in RCD protection devices (typically 25mA AC).

The 5mA limit could be changed in the future (either up or down), dependent on
operational experience, further research or additional information on the likely effects
of DC on the network.

3.5 Commissioning and acceptance testing

Under current regulations, most notably G59/1, the electricity company asks to either
witness the commissioning of generators or to see copies of the commissioning test
results. This requirement for witnessing of commissioning tests was aimed at the

16
larger embedded generator (of typically 1 to 5 MW size). Such a procedure is
obviously not practical for grid-connected PV inverters at the domestic-level and so
the technical guidelines document aims to simplify the process by agreeing to a
minimum number of commissioning tests for an “Approved” inverter. DNOs have
reserved the right to have additional commissioning tests carried out for “Non-
approved” inverters, and may wish to witness the commissioning also.

3.5.1 Metering

Much has been written about metering for PV systems and so only a brief review will
be given here. Needless to say, the metering aspect will form part of the Connection
Agreement. "Net metering", where exported units run the meter backwards (making
the PV-generated unit selling price effectively the same as the purchase rate for utility-
supplied electricity), is seen as the most attractive option for PV system owners and
gives quite an attractive rate of return (some estimates have shown that this method
can contribute approximately 15% of the PV system cost recovery). However, for
any electricity import/export arrangement, a meter with two separate metering
registers is required. It is not satisfactory to allow the meter to simply run backwards
for exported units, since this leaves the meter open to fraudulent abuse. In any case,
the commonly used Ferraris electro-mechanical meter is mechanically damped to
prevent the meter from rotating backwards. Also, modern electronic meters can be
programmed to run only in one direction (i.e. only forwards), again to combat meter
fraud. A more conventional approach is to use a PV-generated unit selling price
equivalent to the electricity pool price (approximately 1/3 of the domestic purchase
rate). However, the cost of the two-way import/export meter becomes a major cost
factor for smaller PV installations . For smaller systems the value of units exported is
likely to be small and so it may be beneficial to ensure that as much of the PV output
as possible is used within the house. A final option may be to negotiate a fixed,
unmetered, annual payment from the local PES.

3.5.2 Labelling

Adequate labelling of the installation provides a very simple but effective way of
ensuring improved safety of PV inverter installations. This is particularly important
in the early development of the grid connected PV market, since these types of
systems will be unfamiliar to many people until they become much more widely used.
Simply indicating the presence of on-site generation at the key electrical locations
(service termination, meter position and isolation switch - normally in the same place
anyway) will encourage people to proceed with additional care. For electricians and
electricity company personnel, having a circuit diagram available of the PV system
wiring as well as summaries of protection settings within the equipment can save
valuable time on-site. It is also helpful to have contact details for the
supplier/installer/maintainer of the equipment should queries arise, and so labels on
the equipment giving such information would also improve maintenance efficiency.

17
4 Summary of Task V Activities
The International Energy Agency (IEA), headquarters in Paris, is an autonomous body
within the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD). The Agency was established in November 1974 to carry out a
programme of energy co-operation among its 23 member countries: Australia, Austria,
Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States.

An important part of the IEA’s programme is collaboration in research, development

and the demonstration of new energy technologies. This work is carried out through a
series of collaborative programmes to which countries opting to sign up have to agree
to commit a minimum level of resources. The national resource is usually a mixture
of direct government support, research funds and contributions from relevant
industries and agencies.

The International Energy Agency (IEA) Implementing Agreement on Photovoltaic

Power Systems (PVPS) Task V Working Group is entitled: “Grid Interconnection of
Building Integrated and Other Dispersed Photovoltaic Power Systems" and since its
formation in 1993 has investigated the grid interconnection issues through
international collaboration. The main objective was to develop and verify technical
requirements which may serve as technical guidelines for grid interconnection of
building integrated and other dispersed PV systems. The development of these
technical guidelines will enable safe and reliable interconnection of PV systems to the
utility grid at the lowest possible cost.

Comprehensive Task Reports have been issued under the auspices of the International
Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme and so those readers interested in the details
of the work and would like further reading are invited to obtain copies of other
reports, as listed in the Reference section of this report, with supplementary material
listed in Appendix F. Task V has proved to be one of the most productive and focused
groups within the IEA PV Implementing Agreement.

A brief summary of the Task V activities is given below. A more comprehensive

summary can be found in the report “Grid-connected Photovoltaic Power Systems:
Summary of Task V Activities from 1993 to 1998”, IEA-PVPS Report, IEA-PVPS T5-
03: 1999, March 1999.

4.1 Task V Activities

In order to achieve the objectives of Task V, three sub-tasks were established and
collaborative work between participating experts in Task V was conducted.

• Sub-task 10 : Review of existing PV grid interconnection guidelines, grid structure

and previously installed PV experience

18
• Sub-task 20 : Theoretical studies on various aspects for grid interconnection and
configuration of PV systems

• Sub-task 30 : Experimental tests using the Rokko Island and/or other test facilities

4.1.1 Subtask 10

Sub-task 10 had four items of study. The first item was a review of existing technical
guidelines or local regulations for the interconnection of PV systems with the utility
network. This survey enabled an understanding of the general requirements for safe
and reliable interconnection to be obtained. The result of the survey was summarised
as Task V internal report, “Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems: Status of
existing guidelines and regulations in selected IEA member countries (Revised
Version)”, Task V Report IEA-PVPS V-1-03, March 1998. The second study item
reviewed utility distribution network configurations in order to understand the
differences in grid interconnection requirements from country to country. The result of
the survey was also summarised as a Task V internal report, “Information on
electrical distribution systems in related IEA countries (Revised Version)”, Task V
Report IEA-PVPS V-1-04, March 1998. The third study item reviewed the status of
technology for interconnecting equipment (inverters and protective devices) in order
to identify the applied criteria to satisfy the requirement for grid interconnection.
Specifications and characteristics of many inverters and protective devices have been
collected and summarised as a Task V internal document. The fourth item was a
review of the operating experience of grid interconnected PV systems to identify any
known problems relating to PV system operation.

4.1.2 Subtask 20

The scope of work for sub-task 20 was to analyse present day and possible future
problems relating to the grid interconnection of PV systems and to draft possible
recommendations for improvement. The following subjects were considered.

• Harmonics
• AC-Modules
• Multiple inverters and AC grid
• Grounding of equipment in PV systems
• Ground-fault detection and array disabled for PV systems
• Overvoltage protection
• Islanding
• Electro-magnetic compatibility (EMC) of inverter
• External disconnect
• Re-closing
• Isolation transformer and DC injection

19
The results of the work were given in the formal IEA PVPS report, “Utility aspects of
grid connected photovoltaic power systems”, Task V Report IEA-PVPS-T5-01,
December 1998. The scope of the work, theoretical results, experimental results,
conclusions and recommendation for future work were described for each subject.
The information within the subtask 20 report is easy to access and useful for readers
with a technical background.

4.1.3 Subtask 30

In sub-task 30, actual experimental tests of PV system grid interconnection were

conducted using the Rokko Island Test Facility in Japan. These tests were intended to
show the actual phenomena of grid interconnection problems and to be the reference
for subtask 20 work. In reality, only a few tests were actually directly related to
subtask 20 work. Subjects of the tests conducted at Rokko Island are listed below.

• Output power variation of many PV systems

• Harmonics from PV systems
• Temperature measurement of PV array
• DC injection
• Islanding
• Short circuit fault in distribution system
• Output power variation of PV system with battery

The results of the work was given in the formal IEA PVPS Task V report,
“Demonstration Tests of Grid-Connected PV Power Systems”, Task V Report IEA-
PVPS- V-3-01, May 1999.

5 Results
A major output from the project has been the Draft G77 “UK Technical Guidelines
for Inverter Connected Single Phase Photovoltaic (PV) Generators up to 5kVA”
which is currently being prepared for publication as formal guidance to the ESI. The
provisional draft guidelines were launched to an audience of ESI representatives and
PV industry representatives at a workshop hosted by EA Technology in February
1999. As well as this, the sharing of experiences between the members of the REC
consultative group and the PV specialists has helped to smooth the path for new PV
installations during the life of the project.

The UK technical guidelines document was itself based on the foundation work
carried out within the international Task V working group activities. Several Task V
reports produced the background information which was subsequently used to identify
areas of common concern related to grid-connected PV systems. The information
gathered together in the reports was also helpful in understanding the reasons behind
any differences in approach adopted by different countries.

20
Firstly, the fundamental parameters and characteristics of electrical networks were
compared from each country in order to identify common features and differences
between countries. This information is contained in the following reports:

• “Information on electrical distribution systems in related IEA countries”, Task V

Internal Report, IEA-PVPS V-1-02, July 1996.

• “Information on electrical distribution systems in related IEA countries (Revised

Version)”, Task V Internal Report, IEA-PVPS V-1-04, March 1998.

Other reports included several survey reports on the status of guidelines development,
including:-

• “Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems: Status of existing guidelines and

regulations in selected IEA member countries”, Task V Internal Report, IEA-
PVPS V-1-01, July 1996.

• “Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems: Status of existing guidelines and

regulations in selected IEA member countries (Revised Version)”, Task V Internal
Report, IEA-PVPS V-1-03, March 1998.

• “Proceedings of the IEA Workshop on Existing and Future Rules and Safety
Guidelines for Grid Interconnection of Photovoltaic Systems”, Zurich, September
1997.

A report of a more technical nature was then produced which examined the technical
issues of grid-connected PV systems in more detail. This report was entitled “Utility
Aspects of Grid Interconnected PV systems”, IEA-PVPS Report, IEA-PVPS T5-01:
1998, December 1998. Those readers who wish to develop a deeper understanding of
the technical issues of grid-connected PV systems are encouraged to read this report.

Finally, the results of experimental work carried out by members of the Task V
working group (principally Japan - Rokko Island) are detailed in the report
“Demonstration Tests of Grid Connected Photovoltaic Power Systems”, IEA-PVPS
Report, IEA-PVPS T5-02: 1999, March 1999.

From the above, it can be clearly seen that the development of the technical grid
connection guidelines document illustrates the successful interaction that has taken
place between the REC consultative group and the Task V working group, where a
wealth of international experience has been tapped into as well as the UK experts
contributing to the developing international knowledge on the subject of grid-
connected PV systems.

21
6 Conclusions
The UK Consultative Group in conjunction with the IEA PVPS Task V working
group has successfully completed the first stage of work by identifying grid
interconnection issues of PV systems and drafting possible recommendations for
improvement. During the period of this work it has been observed that some
countries have developed new guidelines for grid interconnection and some countries
have revised their guidelines due to the increased knowledge of requirements for grid
interconnection of PV systems. The introduction of small-scale, grid-connected PV
systems have also progressed in the UK and on a larger scale abroad. AC modules, a
new concept of a PV module with a tiny embedded inverter (typically up to 100Wp
output power), have been developed and are now sold in some countries, including the
UK.

In general there is a need to look at the effects of a range of PV penetration scenarios

on system operation and performance, with concentrations of multiple PV systems
operating in UK climatic conditions. The development of the technical guidelines
document highlighted the main areas of concern for electricity companies. These
areas of concern are:

• voltage level control

• power quality, including harmonics, power factor and DC injection
• the real risks associated with islanding
• safety, including earthing and generator isolation
• rate of change conditions (e.g. fast moving clouds) and flicker
• capacity of the existing LV network to accept PV systems
• future design of LV distribution networks containing PV systems
• the impact on infrastructure costs
• the impact on operating and maintenance costs
• effects on spinning reserve and unloading of conventional plant,
• effects of renewable energy systems with unsecure, variable generation
characteristics
• the value of the energy from PV to the integrated system,
• implications on distribution price control (i.e. DuoS)
• connection agreements with PV generators.

There is a need to increase the awareness of photovoltaics within the UK and a need
for further research focused on the wider impacts of large-scale embedded PV
generation. Also, many of the issues discussed within the context of PV are also
considered by electricity companies to be very relevant to the future development of
other network-connected generator systems, such as fuel cells and small-scale micro-
CHP.

It is also clear from the work carried out to date that the development of international
standards is essential to allow the grid-connected PV market to develop in a
sustainable fashion for the commercialisation of grid-connected PV systems. It has
proven difficult to establish complete unanimity amongst the international community

22
on grid-connected PV standards because of the differences in electrical network
topologies in different countries. These differences have been magnified by some PV
manufacturers who naturally endeavour to develop standards which are advantageous
to their own products. However, a major step forward from the UK perspective has
been the recent development of the UK's "Action Plan for PV Standards". The
overall action plan covers PV cells and modules, stand-alone systems and building
integration issues as well as grid connection issues. The main issues which were
identified include the development of a type approval testing methodology (this is
actually being carried out as part of the UK PV Experimental Programme), including
type approval accreditation and installation testing and commissioning procedure
specification.

It is anticipated that by the time this report is published, G77 will have reached
official approval status as an ESI standard engineering recommendation. In view of
the pioneering nature of G77, it is fully anticipated that it will need to undergo formal
revision early in its lifetime (say, after about 18 months) in the light of practical
experience in order to gain a long-lasting mutual acceptance from both the ESI and the
PV industry.

The success of the present project and related work in reducing technical and non-
technical barriers to an enlarged PV market have resulted in the confidence to
continue activities in this area. Phase II of the ‘Co-ordinated Experimental Research
into PV Power Interaction with the Supply Network’ Project was established in 1998
to carry out research to progress the type-testing requirements for PV power
conditioners to be connected to the UK network and draft the procedures for testing.
It also provides the mechanism to continue the successful collaboration with the
Consultative Group from the Regional Electricity Companies (RECs) and prepare for
constructive UK participation in the international work on inverter standards.

At the end of these projects, it is hoped that the majority of the technical barriers will
have been researched and where feasible measures put in place to remove or reduce
them.

7 Future Work
Many of the issues raised in the previous section of this report will be tackled by a
new project supported by the DTI, entitled "Strategic PV Network Study". This study
will concentrate on the main areas of technical uncertainty which will need to be
resolved before grid-connected PV systems become widespread. Consideration in this
study will be given to possible roll-out scenarios for grid-connected PV inverter
systems as a pre-cursor to developing models for PV/grid interaction (primarily
looking at voltage levels and profiles on the LV distribution network). Another
important element of the study will be a risk analysis of islanding. The results of the
modelling work and the risk analysis will then be used to produce an impact study,
examining the effects likely effects multiple grid-connected PV inverters on
conventional electricity supply.

23
Part of the UK activity will involve liaison with the activities of the IEA “Task V”
working group, who will be continuing their successful work carried out to date
within a new subtask, Subtask 50. The objective of the new subtask, called “Study
on Highly Concentrated Penetration of Grid-Interconnected PV Systems”, is to assess
the net impact of highly concentrated PV systems on electricity distribution systems
and to establish recommendations for both distribution and PV inverter systems to
enable widespread deployment of solar energy. Subtask 50 can be broken down into
the following smaller subtasks:-

Subtask 51: Guidelines for Grid Interconnection, Certification Test Methods and
New Technologies
Subtask 52: The Islanding Phenomena, Probability of Occurrence, Detection
Methods, Impact of Islanding and Mitigation.
Subtask 53: Multiple PV Systems and their effect on power quality and power system
design and operation.
Subtask 54: Capacity of PV Systems

The activities of the Task V group are arranged with different countries taking a “lead
role” and additional countries acting as “co-worker” on some of the identified
subtasks. The UK has agreed to take a lead role in co-ordinating the activities of
Subtask 51. In addition, the UK has agreed in principle to act as co-worker on the
following subtasks:

• Subtask 51 (guidelines and testing certification methods only)

• Subtask 52 (probability of islanding, detection methods and mitigation only)
• Subtask 53 (effect of multiple PV connection on power system design and
operation only)
• Subtask 54 (capacity of PV systems - penetration levels only)

The UK ranked these subtasks in order of importance to the UK, based on current and
future predicted areas of interest (1= highest, 5 = least important).

Subtask 51, Guidelines for Grid Interconnection, Certification Test Methods and New
Technologies
(UK ranking = 2)

The status of grid connection guidelines in each country will be reviewed at each
meeting and the internal Task V report will be updated accordingly every year. This is
relevant to the UK PV connection guidelines, which are shortly to be launched as an
“Engineering Recommendation” by the UK Electricity Association. It is important
that the progress and experiences of other countries are monitored and fed back to the
UK electricity industry during the early life of the official PV guidelines document.

Related to the review of national guidelines, a review of testing certification methods

used in each participating country will be carried out. This activity can serve both as a
source of information for the UK PV Experimental Programme as well as a forum for
validation of planned UK activities.

24
A third, smaller, element of this subtask is the “new technologies” activity. As well as
being a product market survey, it is also a survey of new technologies, including novel
system configurations. This sub activity was ranked low by the UK representatives
and so will involve only a “watching brief” from the UK.

Subtask 52, The Islanding Phenomena, Probability of Occurrence, Detection Methods,

Impact of Islanding and Mitigation
(UK ranking = 1).

The aim of this subtask is to quantify the islanding issue in terms of the likelihood of
part of the network becoming disconnected from the grid (due to a local fault, etc.) at
the same time as there is a match between PV generation and local load requirements.
The task will rely heavily on results from an international study being co-ordinated by
the Dutch representative within Task V. The likelihood of islanding will be quantified
using statistical probability studies. The task will also assess the operation of
islanding detection methods (including ‘active’ techniques), the likely impact of an
islanding event (i.e. effect on the network, equipment connected to the network, the
inverter itself, and people (electricity company personnel and the general public).
The task will also look at what practical steps could be taken to mitigate the impact of
islanding (i.e. can inverters be made to withstand an out-of-sync reclose operation?,
new LV live-line working practices (isolation and earthing of supplies), etc.).

Subtask 53: Multiple PV Systems and their effect on power quality and power
system design and operation
(UK ranking = 3).

This subtask will investigate as far as possible through experimental experiences

safety issues, protection, fault currents (fault infeed), negative power flow and
reclosing. It will also investigate as far as possible issues related to power quality,
such as voltage fluctuations (including flicker), voltage profiles, harmonics and
customer service. In view of the fact that the UK currently has very few PV systems
connected to the domestic LV network, it is not possible for the UK to contribute
much in the way of experimental data. However, the UK will keep a watching brief
on the activities taking place in other countries.

Subtask 54: Capacity of PV Systems

(UK ranking = 2/3/4)

This subtask is made up of our main issues:

• network issues (power quality, voltage, etc.)

• capacity issues (i.e. need for generation, power balance)
• space constraints (this is the work of IEA, PVPS Task VII)
• Cost of PV

The network issues are effectively covered from a UK perspective by Subtasks 52 and
53. Thus, the main new area of interest to the UK are the capacity issues. The
subtask will look at how PV can be accredited with some kind of capacity rating.

25
It is the purpose of this project to develop the theoretical and practical understanding
of the likely effects that large-scale connection of dispersed photovoltaic power
systems could have on the electricity supply network.

8 Acknowledgements
EA Technology would like to thank the many people who have assisted in the
production of this report, including all of the Task V working group members,
especially the chairman, Mr Tadao Ishikawa, CRIEPI, Japan, the members of the
REC’s Consultative Group especially the chairmen, formally Geoff Finlay and now
John Sinclair of the Electricity Association, the members of STP Module 5,
Embedded Generation especially the chairman, Pete Thomas, Manweb. Additionally,
I would like to thank our colleagues Rod Hacker and Jim Thornycroft from HGa who
did such sterling work on developing the technical guidelines document. Finally, we
would like to thank Harry Edwards of ETSU, for his encouragement in helping to
guide the "vision" of grid-connected PV in the UK.

26
References
[1] Task I Report, “Photovoltaic Power Systems in Selected IEA Member
Countries”, Report IEA PVPS ExCo: T1 1997:1, March 1997.

[2] Halcrow Gilbert Associates Ltd, “Grid Connection of Photovoltaic Systems”,

ETSU Report S1394-P1, 1993.

[3] Halcrow Gilbert Associates Ltd, “Co-ordinated experimental research into

PV power interaction with the supply network - phase 1”, ETSU Report
S/P2/00233/00/REP, 1999.

[4] Newcastle Photovoltaic Applications Centre , “The Potential Generating

Capacity of PV-Clad Buildings in the UK”, ETSU Report S1365-P1, 1992.

[5] Altechnica, ‘Update of the Database of Photovoltaic Installations in the UK”,

ETSU S/P2/00301/REP.

[6] Electriciy Association Engineering Recommendation G77, “UK Technical

Guidelines for Inverter Connected Single Phase Photovoltaic (PV) Generators
up to 5kVA”, Draft July 1999.

[7] Task V Internal Report, “Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems: Status

of existing guidelines and regulations in selected IEA member countries”, IEA-
PVPS V-1-01, July 1996.

[8] Task V Internal Report, “Information on electrical distribution systems in

related IEA countries”, IEA-PVPS V-1-02, July 1996.

[9] “Proceedings of the IEA Workshop, “Existing and Future Rules and Safety
Guidelines for Grid Interconnection of Photovoltaic Systems”, Zurich,
September 1997.

[10] Task V Internal Report, “Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems: Status

of existing guidelines and regulations in selected IEA member countries
(Revised Version)”, IEA-PVPS V-1-03, March 1998.

[11] Task V Internal Report, “Information on electrical distribution systems in

related IEA countries (Revised Version)”, IEA-PVPS V-1-04, March 1998.

[12] IEA-PVPS Report, “Utility Aspects of Grid Interconnected PV systems”, IEA-

PVPS T5-01: 1998, December 1998.

[13] IEA-PVPS Report, “Demonstration Tests of Grid Connected Photovoltaic

Power Systems”, IEA-PVPS T5-02: 1999, March 1999.

[14] IEA-PVPS Report, “Grid-connected Photovoltaic Power Systems: Summary of

Task V Activities from 1993 to 1998”, IEA-PVPS T5-03: 1999, March 1999.

27
Appendix A:

UK Technical Guidelines for Inverter Connected Single

Phase Photovoltaic (PV) Generators up to 5kVA

Generally speaking, UK electricity company personnel will not be very familiar with
photovoltaic power generation systems, especially grid-connected systems. Therefore,
the UK technical guidelines were originally developed as an unoffical document to
assist electricity company personnel in dealing efficiently with requests for the
connection of grid-connected PV systems. The guidelines would also be useful to PV
system designers and installers in providing information on the electrical network
requirements for grid-connected PV systems.

Subsequently, in Autumn 1998, the technical guidelines document was taken on board
by the electricity supply industry under the chairmanship of the Electricity Association
and developed into its current form as “G77”, an official ESI Engineering
Recommendation. The document is currently undergoing the final stages of formal
review and it is anticipated that the final version of G77 will be formally approved in
Autumn 1999. It is also anticipated that the final version of G77 will not be
significantly different from the draft version contained here. However, it is
recommended that once it is officially published, an official version should be
obtained directly from the Electriciy Association, Millbank, rather than relying on the
draft version reproduced for information here.

28
 DRAFT (Dated: 15/7/1999)

UK TECHNICAL GUIDELINES FOR

INVERTER CONNECTED SINGLE PHASE PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV)
GENERATORS UP TO 5 kVA

SUMMARY

Recommendations for the connection of single phase inverter connected photovoltaic

(PV) generation equipment of up to 5kVA in parallel with a Distribution Network
Operators (DNO's) distribution system.

This document also contains guidance on the approval and type testing of inverters.
The aim of this document is to encourage the use of “approved” inverter equipment
and recognised connection procedures in order to lessen the need for DNO personnel
to perform local tests.

The guidelines do not cover practical or safety issues related to the customer’s
installation.

29
CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION

2 DEFINITIONS

3 PROTECTION
3.1 Automatic Protection
3.2 Automatic Disconnection

4 SUPPLY POWER QUALITY

4.1 Harmonics
4.2 Power Factor
4.3 Voltage Flicker
4.4 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
4.5 DC Injection

5 OPERATION & SAFETY

5.1 Connection Arrangements
5.2 Labelling
5.3 Maintenance & Routine Testing
5.4 Earthing

6 COMMISSIONING / ACCEPTANCE TESTING

6.1 Connection Requirements
6.2 Interaction between PV Inverter Generators

FIGURE 1 TYPICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

APPENDIX APPROVAL & TYPE TESTING

30
1. INTRODUCTION

The following principles underlie the national technical guidelines for inverter
connected single phase photovoltaic (PV) generators to the DNO’s distribution
system:

1.1 It is anticipated that DNOs will use these guidelines as a basis for formulating
their specific requirements for connection of inverter-connected PV generators
in conjunction with:

Engineering Recommendation G.59/1, Amendment 1 (1995)

Recommendations for the Connection of Embedded Generating Plant to the Regional
Electricity Companies’ Distribution Systems.

Engineering Technical Report No. 113, Revision 1 (1995)

Notes of Guidance for the Protection of Embedded Generating Plant up to 5 MW for
Operation in Parallel with Public Electricity Suppliers’ distribution systems.

BS EN 61727:1996, (IEC 1727:1995) Photovoltaic (PV) Systems

Characteristics of the Utility Interface.

1.2 The Guidelines are only concerned with the interface between the DNO
distribution system and the inverter connected PV generator.

1.3 The PV inverter should be an ‘Approved Inverter for PV Generators’ as defined

in the Approval and Type Testing Appendix.

1.4 The guidelines are written from a functional perspective. They are not
technology specific, i.e. they do not require specific technologies to be used for
connection to the DNO’s distribution system or the energy generation schemes
themselves. This approach allows for ongoing development to continually
improve the cost and technical performance of the equipment connected to the
DNO’s distribution system.

1.5 This document is only applicable for single installations where the total installed
PV generation capacity is 5 kVA or below.

31
2. DEFINITIONS

2.1 Inverter
A device for conversion from DC to nominal frequency AC.

2.2 Approved Inverter for PV Generators

At this stage, until suitable national standards are developed, an Approved Inverter for
PV Generators is one:

• constructed and demonstrated to an accepted specification such as in the Approval

and Type Testing Appendix; and
• accepted by a DNO for connection to its distribution system

2.3 Inverter Connected Photovoltaic (PV) Generators

One or more single phase inverter connected photovoltaic (PV) generation systems up
to 5 kVA total, connected to the DNO’s distribution system at the nominal voltage
and frequency.

2.4 Nominal Voltage and Frequency

Low voltage: 230 volts (+10/-6%) single phase, 50 Hz (+/- 1%).

2.5 Distribution Network Operator (DNO)

The company responsible for making technical connection agreements with
consumers seeking connection of equipment to its distribution network. A DNO may
be a PES which owns and operates a distribution network.

2.6 Publc Electricity Supplier(s) (PES)

A public electricity supplier or suppliers who hold licences granted under section
6(1)(c) of the Electricity Act 1989 or the Electricity (Northern Ireland) Order 1992.

2.7 Islanding
Islanding of inverter connected PV generator systems means any situation where the
source of power from the DNO’s distribution system is disconnected from the
network section in which the generator is connected, and one or more inverters
maintains a supply to that section of the distribution system or consumers installation.

32
3 PROTECTION

3.1 Automatic Protection

Protection shall be provided to isolate the inverter connected PV generator from the
DNO’s distribution system when:

• operating voltage is greater than 253V phase to neutral (230V +10%)

• operating voltage is less than 207V phase to neutral (230V - 10%)
• operating frequency is greater than 50.5 Hz (50Hz +1%)
• operating frequency is less than 47 Hz (50Hz - 6%)
• the mains supply is lost

The voltage and frequency limit settings should not be capable of adjustment by the
user.

The inverter should incorporate a recognised technique for providing loss of mains
protection (such as frequency shift or vector shift). Active techniques that distort the
voltage waveform beyond the limits specified in section 4.1 or inject current pulses
into the DNO’s network are not approved.

This protection must ensure that the inverter disconnects from the DNO’s distribution
system within 5 seconds, and does not reconnect until at least 3 minutes after the
supply from the DNO system has been restored to within the voltage and frequency
limits already specified.

As some distribution systems employ automatic reclosing, the inverter equipment

might be re-energised from the mains within the 5 second period. The inverter must
therefore be capable of withstanding connection to a non-synchronised mains supply –
refer to section A2.4.

3.2 Automatic Disconnection

The protection function can either be incorporated in the inverter or in separate relays.
In either case it shall be type tested for compliance with the above requirements and
the Approval and Type Testing Appendix.

When the system is disconnected, this must be achieved by the separation of

mechanical contacts to IEC 255. Electronic disconnection alone is not sufficient. The
electrical relays used for the automatic disconnection shall meet:

IEC 255-5: 1977 (BS 5992 Part 3) Electrical Relays

Electrical Relays: Specification for the Insulation Testing of Electrical Relays

33
4. SUPPLY POWER QUALITY

4.1 Harmonics
All equipment shall meet:

BS EN 61000-3-2 (1995) + A12 January 1996 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Part 3,

Limits
Section 2: Limits for harmonic current emissions (equipment input current ≤16 A per phase).
Equiv. IEC 1000-3-2: 1995

For equipment rated >16 A, the emission currents shall not exceed the limits quoted in Technical
Report IEC 61000-3-4 when the PV inverter generator is supplying a purely resistive load of equal
rating to the output of the PV inverter generator.

Note: for the purpose of assessing emission currents in accordance with 61000-3-4, the ‘Short Circuit
Power’ Scc, shall be assumed to be 548 KVA - derived using maximum values for open circuit voltage
and network impedance i.e. (2532/0.35) x 3.

Connection of the equipment shall be subject to compliance with EA Engineering

Recommendation G.5/3 (1976) Limits for Harmonics in the United Kingdom
Electricity Supply System or any superseding recommendation.

4.2 Power Factor

Power Factor shall be within the range of 0.95 leading to unity relative to the DNO
supply, unless otherwise agreed with the DNO. Note: Leading power factor is VARs
absorbed by the inverter.

4.3 Voltage Flicker

All equipment shall meet:

BS EN 61000-3-3 (1995) Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Part 3

Limitations of voltage fluctuations and flicker in low voltage supply systems for equipment with rated
current less than 16 A.
Equiv. IEC 1000-3-3: 1994

Connection of the equipment shall be subject to compliance with:

Engineering Recommendation P28 (1989) Planning limits for voltage fluctuations caused by
industrial, commercial and domestic equipment in the United Kingdom

Note: the automatic protection settings of section 3.1 afford adequate immunity for
operation of the PV inverter generator, against : voltage dips, short supply
interruptions (up to 5 seconds, dependent on protection time setting) and frequency
dips.

4.4 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

All equipment shall be CE marked in accordance with the UK EMC regulations and
meet the relevant EMC standards:

BS EN 50081-1: 1992 Electromagnetic Compatibility

Generic Emission Standard

34
BS EN 50082-1: 1998 Electromagnetic Compatibility
Generic Immunity Standard

4.5 DC Injection
DC currents entering the AC distribution system can give rise to technical problems.
G5/3 deprecates the existence of DC currents on the UK distribution system but does
not specify levels.

It is recommended that a transformer be installed between the inverter and the DNO’s
distribution system to prevent DC from entering the distribution system. However if a
DC detection device is installed at the point of connection on the AC side then the
transformer may be omitted; provided that the output of the inverter(s) is disconnected
if the level of DC injection exceeds 5mA (present regulation is zero).

Where fitted the DC isolation transformer will normally be located adjacent to the
inverter, which will either be in close proximity to or an integral part of the PV array.

5 OPERATION & SAFETY

5.1 Connection Arrangement

Connection of an Inverter Connected PV Generator will be subject to the requirements
of section 6.1 of this document.

Inverter connected PV generators should be connected directly to a double-pole

manual isolation switch that is located in an accessible position, and lockable in the
open position.

5.2 Labelling
There shall be labelling at the service termination, meter position and isolation switch
to indicate the presence of on-site generation and the point of isolation. The Health
and Safety (Safety Signs & Signals) Regulations 1996 stipulates that labels should display
the prescribed triangular shape, using black on yellow colouring. A typical label is
shown below:

In addition to the safety labelling, Schedule 3 of the Electricity Supply Regulations

1988 requires certain information to be displayed at the point of interconnection. In

35
the context of small single phase generators, which will typically be installed in
domestic environments, it is envisaged that this requirement can be met by displaying:

1) a circuit diagram showing the relationship between the inverter equipment and
supply
2) a summary of the protection settings incorporated within the equipment
3) a contact telephone number for the supplier/installer/maintainer of the equipment

A typical circuit diagram is shown in Figure 1.

5.3 Maintenance & Routine Testing

The DNO shall have the right to carry out tests pursuant to Regulation 27 of the
Electricity Supply Regulations 1988. The DNO may require the customer to re-test
the inverter equipment in association with supply quality and/or safety investigations.

5.4 Earthing
The system shall meet:

BS 7430 (1991) Earthing

Code of Practice for Earthing

BS 7671 (1992) Requirements for Electrical Installations

IEE Wiring Regulations Sixteenth Edition

In the UK, the majority of new low voltage (LV) electrical supplies are of the
Protective Multiple Earthing (PME) type. These supply cables have a Combined
Neutral and Earth (CNE) metallic outer conductor, which is earthed at multiple points
on the supplier’s Terra-Neutral-Combined (TNC) distribution network. Separate earth
and neutral terminals are then provided within the customer’s premises (TNC-S).
Generally the PME earthing facility is not allowed to be extended outside of the
equipotential zone and so exposed metalwork on the outside of the building must be
earthed independently using a local earth electrode.

In the case of older premises supplied from Terra-Neutral-Separate (TNS) networks or

service lines, the requirements of the PME approvals do not apply, although all
bonding should still comply with BS7671: 1992.

36
6 COMMISSIONING / ACCEPTANCE TESTING

6.1 Type Tested Equipment

An ‘Approved Inverter for PV Generators’ may be connected without further testing.
subject to:

• Satisfactory on site commissioning tests as agreed with the local DNO

• Opportunity for a DNO representative to witness the commissioning tests
• A satisfactory Connection Agreement is in place
• The installation is in accordance with IEE Wiring Regulations BS 7671 1992 and
any other regulations specific to the installation in question.

Non-approved inverter equipment may also be connected if additional commissioning

and acceptance tests are carried out, as defined by the local DNO.

6.2 Interaction between PV Inverter Generators

For multiple inverter installations a statement is required from the manufacturer
detailing how the design of his inverter avoids adverse interaction and interference
with the operation of the automatic protection functions of other inverter installations.
In particular the manufacturer should address the issue of inverters that employ a loss
of mains (LoM) protection that could interfere with other units on the same network
that employ contrary means of detecting LoM, e.g. frequincy shift up/down
techniques.

37
 FIGURE 1 - TYPICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The PV array shall be

connected to earth by
PV array, inverter means of:
and transformer
(1) a local earth electrode if
the array is outside the
equi-potential zone, or
(1)
(2)
(2) a bonding conductor
connecting the array to the
main earthing terminal of
the installation if the array
single phase fused switch is within the equi-potential
to be lockable in the open zone.
position for isolation

single phase
consumer unit fused switch export meter import meter
(only if reqd.)

PME
earthing
terminal blocks service cutout terminal
customer's
earthing
block

equi-potential bonds to
other metallic services
service cable

Typical installation arrangements for a PV array connected in a

residential premises

38
APPENDIX - APPROVAL & TYPE TESTING

The following points will be checked and tests carried out as necessary to establish if
an inverter can be classed as an ‘Approved Inverter for PV Generators’ for the
purposes of the UK Technical Guidelines for Inverter Connected Single Phase
Photovoltaic (PV) Generators up to 5kVA.

A1 CE Marking and Certification

In the first instance, the equipment should be checked for compliance with European
CE Mark Regulations. The following table can be used to identify equipment
specifications which may be covered by European Norm (EN) standards, those which
are covered by British Standards (BS), those which are covered by Electricity Supply
Industry (ESI) standards and those which in the absence of official standards will
require additional verification:

Function Standard/Specification Reference

Protection

General “Electrical relays” IEC 255, Part 5 (1977)

Under/over “Recommendations for the connection of embedded ...” G59/1
voltage “Notes of Guidance for the protection of ...” ETR113
Under/over
frequency
Loss of mains
Supply Quality

Harmonics “Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Part 3 - Limits” BS EN 61000-3-2 (1995)

+ A12 (1996)
“Limits for harmonics in the UK electricity supply system” G5/3
Voltage Flicker “Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Part 3 - Limits” BS EN 61000-3-3 (1995)
“Planning limits for voltage fluctuations ..... ” ER P28
Electromagnetic “Generic Emission Standard (EMC)” BS EN 50081-1 (1992)
Compatibility “Generic Immunity Standard (EMC)” BS EN 50082-1 (1992)
DC Injection “Limits for harmonics in the UK electricity supply system” G5/3
Safety

Earthing “Code of practice for earthing” BS 7430 (1991)

39
A2 TESTING OF AUTOMATIC PROTECTION

A2.1 Over / Under Voltage

Trip times and settings shall be tested as follows:

The inverter equipment shall be tested by operation into a variable AC voltage test
supply system, whilst being fed from a DC source (which is simulating the PV DC
output). The set points for over and under voltage at which the inverter system
disconnects from the supply will be established by varying the AC supply voltage.
These set points and trip times shall be within the guideline requirements of section
3.1.

Check reconnection feature as in A2.4.

DC Source Variable AC
(simulating Inverter Voltage Test
PV generator) Supply

A2.2 Over / Under Frequency

Trip times and settings shall be tested as follows:

The inverter equipment shall be tested by operation into a variable frequency test
supply system) whilst being fed from a DC source (which is simulating the PV DC
output). The set points for over and under frequency at which the inverter system
disconnects from the supply will be established by varying the supply frequency.
These set points and trip times shall be within the guideline requirements of section
3.1.

Check reconnection feature as in A2.4.

DC Source Variable
(simulating Inverter Frequency
PV generator) Test Supply

Note: It may be necessary to disable any loss of mains protection function built in
to the inverter in order to perform this test.

40
A2.3 Loss of Mains Protection

The time to trip upon loss of mains will be verified to be less than the time required by
the guidelines under the conditions below:

The inverter equipment shall be fed from a DC source to simulate the output from a
PV source. The inverter output shall be connected to a variable impedance test set to
model the local load (at the inverter output terminals) and a switch placed between the
local load/inverter combination and the DNO’s distribution system as shown below:-

DC Source DNO’s
(simulating PV Inverter Variable Distribution
generator) Impedance Test System
Circuit to Model
Local Load

The inverter equipment is to be tested at three output powers and two local load
conditions, giving six tests in all (see table below):

Local Load Þ Load Match 10% greater than load match

Inverter output ß
10%
50%
100%

Load match conditions are defined as being when the current from the inverter
connected generator meets the requirements of the local load i.e. there is no export or
import of current to or from the DNO’s distribution system. (It is assumed that the
local load will be mostly resistive. If other power factors are allowed these tests
would have to be modified depending on the controllability of the inverter).

The tests will record the inverter output voltage and frequency from at least 2 cycles
before the switch is opened until the inverter protection system operates and isolates
itself from the DNO’s distribution system. The time from the switch opening until the
protection isolation occurs is to be measured and must comply with the guidelines
under all conditions of output power and local load.

Check reconnection feature as in A2.4.

41
A2.4 Re-connection

Further tests will be carried out with the three test circuits to check the inverter time-
out feature prior to automatic network reconnection. This test will confirm that once
the AC supply voltage and frequency have returned to their nominal values following
an automatic protection trip operation there is a minimum time delay (as specified in
the guidelines) before the inverter output is restored (i.e. before the inverter
automatically reconnects to the network). The inverter shall be tested for connection
to a mains supply which is 180 degrees out of phase and at peak voltage to ensure no
damage occurs.

A3 POWER QUALITY

A3.1 Harmonics

In addition to compliance with BS EN 61000-3-2 (limits for harmonic current

emissions), harmonics shall be measured in accordance with Engineering
Recommendation G5/3.

A3.2 Power Factor

For this test, the inverter can be fed by a DC source to simulate the DC output of a PV
generator. The inverter generator supplies full load to the DNO system via the power
factor (pf) meter and the variac shown below. The inverter pf should be within the
limits given in 4.2, for the three test voltages:

DC Source DNO’s
(simulating PV Inverter pf Variac Distribution
generator) System

Note: for reasons of clarity, points of isolation are not shown.

Test Voltage (supplied by variac) Inverter PF (measured)

230V +8%
230V
230V-8%

42
A3.3 Voltage Flicker

In addition to compliance with BS EN 61000-3-3 (Limitations of Voltage Fluctuations

and Flicker etc.), voltage flicker shall be measured in accordance with Engineering
Recommendation P28.

A3.4 Electromagnetic Compatibility

The manufacturer shall ensure that the equipment is tested to BS EN 50081-1:1992

(emissions) and BS EN 50082-1: 1998 (immunity).

A3.5 DC Injection

The level of DC injection from the inverter connected PV generator in to the DNO
network shall not exceed 5mA when measured during tests A2.1, A2.2, A2.3 and
A3.2. This condition is satisfied by installation of a transformer on the AC side of
the inverter connected PV generator.

A4 SAFETY

A4.1 Earthing

The manufacturer shall ensure that the equipment is tested to the relevant British
standards.

A4.2 Labelling

There shall be labels supplied with the inverter for use at the service termination,
meter position and isolation switch as outlined in the guidelines.

43
Appendix B:

Summary of IEA Task V Activities

44
Summary of IEA Task V Activities

1 Task V organisational structure

The International Energy Agency (IEA), founded in November 1974, is an
autonomous body within the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) which carries out a comprehensive programme
of energy co-operation among its 23 member countries. The European Commission
also participates in the work of the Agency. More information about the IEA is
available on their web site at:

http://www.iea.org

The IEA Implementing Agreement on Photovoltaic Power Systems (PVPS) is one of a

number of collaborative R&D agreements established within the IEA, and since 1993
its participants have been conducting a variety of joint projects in the application of
photovoltaic conversion of solar energy into electricity.

The PVPS Programme has members from 20 countries (Australia, Austria, Canada,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, the
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and
the United States) and the European Commission.

The PVPS Programme is divided up into a number of Task Sharing group activities,
each focusing on different aspects of PV.

• Task I is entitled “Exchange and Dissemination of Information on Photovoltaic

Power Systems” and is the parent task taking the overall strategic view, promoting
and facilitating the overall gathering and dissemination of information related to
photovoltaic power systems.

• Task II is entitled “Operational Performance and Design of Photovoltaic Power

Systems and Subsystems” and its objectives are to develop an information system
on design characteristics and technical performance of PV systems as well as
examining procedures for the measurement of PV power plant performance. The
UK does not participate in this task.

• Task III is entitled “Use of Photovoltaic Power Systems in Stand-Alone and

Island Applications” and as its name suggests it objective is to advance the state-
of- the-art for PV systems located remotely from any grid supply. Again, the UK
does not participate in this task.

• Task IV is entitled “Modelling of Distributed Photovoltaic Power Generation in

Support of the Electric Grid” and has the aim of developing methods for
evaluating the benefits of grid-connected PV systems. This task has not yet been
implemented.

45
• Task V is entitled “Grid Connection of Building Integrated and Other Dispersed
Photovoltaic Power Systems” and has the overall objective to identify the technical
requirements and develop technical guidelines for grid-connected PV systems.
This task forms much of the background to this report.

• Task VI is entitled “Design and Operation of Modular Photovoltaic Plants for

Large Scale Power Generation”. This task has not yet been implemented.

• Task VII is entitled “Photovoltaic Power Systems in the Built Environment” and
aims to improve the architectural design and implementation of PV in buildings,
including residential and commercial buildings as well as infrastructure
installations.

Not all countries participating in the PVPS Implementing Agreement participate in

every Task. For example, the UK only participates in Task I, Task V and Task VII.
Thus, only a subset of eleven of the twenty previously named countries participate in
Task V. These countries are Australia, Austria, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Japan,
Mexico, The Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States.

2 Task V work programme

The UK was instrumental in forming the IEA Task V Working Group. The first stage
of the PVPS Task V activity was carried out between 1993 and 1998 with the
participation of experts from 11 countries. The objectives of this task were the
identification of technical issues related to small-scale building-integrated PV systems
connected to low voltage distribution networks, with a view to propose possible
solutions to the problems identified.

More specifically, the main objective was to identify the technical requirements in
pre-normative technical guidelines for the network interconnection of building-
integrated and other dispersed photovoltaic (PV) systems. The aims of the guidelines
were to allow a safe, reliable and low cost interconnection of PV systems to the
electric power network.

The Task V work programme consisted of three main subtasks:-

• Subtask 10: “Review of Systems & Guidelines”

• Subtask 20: “Utility Aspects of Grid-Connected PV Systems”
• Subtask 30: “Demonstration Tests of Grid-Connected PV Power Systems”

Sub-task 10 had four items of study. The first item was a review of existing technical
guidelines or local regulations for the interconnection of PV systems with the utility
network. This survey enabled us to understand the general requirements for safe and
reliable interconnection. The second item was a review of utility distribution network
configurations in order to understand the difference of grid interconnection
requirements from country to country. The third item was a review of the status of
technology for interconnecting equipment (inverters and protective devices) and to
identify the applied criteria to satisfy the requirement for grid interconnection.

46
Specifications and characteristics of many inverters and protective devices have been
collected and summarised as a Task V internal document. The fourth item was a
review of the operating experience of grid interconnected PV systems to identify any
known problems relating to PV system operation.

The scope of work for sub-task 20 was to analyse present day and possible future
problems relating to the grid interconnection of PV systems and to draft possible
recommendations for improvement.

In sub-task 30, actual experimental tests of PV system grid interconnection were

conducted using the test facility in the Rokko Island Test Facility in Japan. These tests
were intended to show the actual phenomena of grid interconnection problems and to
be the reference for subtask 20 work. In reality, only a few tests were actually directly
related to the subtask 20 work.

47
Appendix C:

Review of Systems and Guidelines

(Subtask 10)

48
1 Introduction to Subtask 10

For Sub-task 10 the following subjects were studied:-

• Existing guidelines and regulations for grid interconnection of PV systems in

Task V participating countries.

This was summarised as Task V internal report, “Grid-connected photovoltaic power

systems: Status of existing guidelines and regulations in selected IEA member
countries (Revised Version)”, Task V Report IEA-PVPS V-1-03.

• The differences between distribution systems in each Task V member country.

This was summarised as Task V internal report “Information on electrical distribution

systems in related IEA countries (Revised Version)”, Task V Report IEA-PVPS V-1-
04.

• The actual characteristics of inverters and related protection equipment and actual
operating experience of grid interconnected PV systems.

These were summarised as Task V internal documents.

1.1 Grid-Interconnection Guidelines

The following information relating to the guidelines was clarified according to the
research on the guidelines of each country participating in Task V.

- Type of generation (Energy sources covered by the guidelines document)

- Classification of interconnection voltage (differences between guidelines with
interconnection voltage)
- Limitation of generation capacity per customer
- Correspondence to reverse power flow (i.e. export power)
- Requirements for facility
Electrical system
Power factor
Harmonics
HF Noise
Flicker
Protection co-ordination
Protection and safety
Necessity of isolation transformer
Restriction on inverter
External disconnect switch
Location of switch
Reclosing procedure

49
 Detection of islanding phenomena
Voltage fluctuation
Short-circuit capacity
- Safety and wiring of DC side
- Metering
- Lightning protection
- Authorisation procedure
- Standard configuration and electrical layout
- Islanding Protection

In general it can be said that no common guidelines for the connection of PV systems
to the utility grid exist in the participating countries. Every country has its own set of
rules, and in many countries these rules vary in different regions. This reflects the fact
that in many countries it is up to the individual utilities to define rules for connecting
independent power generators to their grid.

Safety is the most important issue in all of the regulations. At this moment it seems
that the problem of possible islanding (i.e. continued operation of a PV inverter even
when the grid is off) is a crucial issue and needs further study as it could immediately
lead to severe accidents. Topics such as cabling and earth fault detection seem to be
well known and can be readily adopted from guidelines governing conventional
electrical systems. However, the potential for DC currents to flow from the solar
panels leads to possible dangers that are different from those associated with AC
currents.

To enable successful promotion of photovoltaics it is of great importance to set

internationally recognised standards which allow identical PV systems to be
connected to the grids of different countries. During the progress of Task V activities,
both utilities and manufactures have been aware of the problems of grid
interconnection of PV system leading to revision of guidelines and regulations in
some countries. The guidelines summary report is important in that it contains
information that allows comparisons to be made of the various approaches to the
problems and dangers specific to PV.

1.2 Distribution System Configuration

It is important that the configuration, equipment, required protection relays and so on
of the distribution system are known because they are strongly related to the
requirement for grid interconnection equipment. Therefore, the distribution system
configuration for each country participating in Task V were studied and summarised.

The following information was obtained:

- Voltage level and network structure
HV transmission
HV distribution
MV distribution
LV distribution

50
 - Capacity of transformers - Feeders - Capacitors
Transformer
Feeders per transformer
Impedance
Average length
Number of switches per feeder
Number of sectionalisers per feeder
Capacitor for p.f. improvement
Average number of customer per feeder per phase for LV
Power rating of customer for LV
- Protective devices
Protective device installed in the public network
Reclosing
Protective co-ordination with independent producer
- Type and setting levels of the interface devices installed in the independent
producer’s network
- Operation criteria
Voltage fluctuation
Voltage regulation
Temporary supply
Work method for fault repair

It is worth noting that some data contained in the report must be considered as
referring to mean or typical conditions. As a consequence data referring to countries
where many local utilities exist and network characteristics and operating procedures
differ from region to region, should be treated carefully.

In general, it can be said that the LV grids in Europe have similar voltage levels while
USA and Japan have a different voltage level for the LV grid. Distribution system
configuration are different from country to country, and protection schemes also vary.
This is one of the reasons why the grid interconnection guidelines for PV systems are
different in each country.

This electrical distribution system report aids understanding of the differing electrical
grid configurations and the different approaches to the grid interconnection
requirements.

1.3 Inverter and Related Protection Equipment

Characteristics of grid-interconnected PV systems are very much dependent on the
performance of inverters and protective devices. These interconnecting devices
should be designed to comply with existing guidelines and regulations on grid
interconnection. Therefore, the survey of interconnection devices makes it possible to
identify the status of existing applied measures for PV system grid interconnection.
This survey is also intended to identify remaining technical issues on interconnection
equipment including cost reduction and to clarify the concepts for requirements and
devices for grid interconnection in the future. The survey was carried out by
circulating a questionnaire on interconnecting equipment including inverter

51
specifications, protective device specifications etc. More than 50 responses were
obtained including 5 inverters for AC modules, a new PV system concept in which an
inverter is integrated into a PV module. The summarised results are as follows:-

1.3.1 Inverter design and specifications

Type of Conversion

Most converters are self-commutated PWM inverters with current control. Some
voltage controlled self-commutated PWM inverters and line-commutated inverters are
listed.

Nominal AC voltage & Standard grid connection

- Europe

230 V (1 phase/3 wires)

380 V (3 phase/3 or 4 wires)
400 V (3 phase/3 or 4 wires
50 Hz

- Japan

100 V (1 phase/2 wires)

200 V (1 phase/2 or 3 wires, 3 phase/3 wires)
50/60 Hz

- USA

120 V (1 phase/3 wires)

240 V (1 phase/2 or 3 wires)
480 V (3 phase/4 wires)
60 Hz

Harmonic current

Less than 5% in total and less than 3% for each harmonic.

There are inverters compliant with EN/IEC/VDE or G5/3 standards.

Control methods of harmonics

Mostly current controlled PWM with or without filtering.

EMC standards/directives with which inverter complies

Europe: EN (CENELEC), IEC, VDE, CISPR

Japan: VCCI (Japanese Voluntary Directives)

Value of AC power factor in each power output point

52
 Almost constant in each power output point except for very low power
(around 1).

Control method of power factor

Mostly synchronising current phase with line voltage at zero crossing.

Control method of voltage fluctuation

Japanese inverters have reactive power supply or output power suppression

option. Most of the other inverters have no control on voltage fluctuation.

Isolation transformer

Utility power frequency transformer or high frequency transformer are employed.

Control system

Almost all employ Maximum Power Tracking.

Many inverters have power factor control (optional on some).

Operations AC voltage and frequency ranges

Voltage: nominal rated voltage +/- 10%

Frequency: Majority is utility frequency +/- 1%, Maximum +/- 10%.
Others are +/- 1 Hz, +/- 3%, +/- 5%, etc.

Conditions for start-up and stop

Start-up: Mainly by DC voltage level increase.

Stop: Mainly by DC or AC output power decrease. DC current and DC voltage
decrease are also employed.

Control power source

Depend on the inverter design. Either DC side or AC side is used. Some inverters
can be powered from both DC side and AC side.

53
1.3.2 Protective Devices

Required protective devices, protection level and operation time

AC side: Overvoltage, Undervoltage,

Over frequency, Under frequency,
Overcurrent, Fuse (in Europe),
Metal oxide varistor (in Europe and USA),
Optional AC disconnecter (in USA)

DC side: Ground fault detection,

Over current, Fuse (in Europe),
Over/Under voltage,
Metal oxide varistor (in Europe and USA),
Optional DC disconnecter (in USA)

Presence and specification of overvoltage protection/device

Transient: Varistor, TSV-Diodes, Metal oxide varistor (in Europe and USA)
Dynamic: Over-voltage relay or software detection

Necessary protective devices for preventing islanding phenomenon

Europe
- Required in most countries:
frequency relay, voltage relay, harmonic increase, frequency shift

Japan
- Yes:
combination of both passive measure and active measures

USA
- Not required yet (although P929 will require active frequency shift technique)
some inverters already use the frequency shift technique

Disconnection procedure at abnormal state

Gate blocking and trip of breaker (or opening of contactor).

Restart

Most are automatic. Typical restart times are:

30 sec (Austria),
180 sec, adjustable (Italy),
150 sec, 160 sec, 0-300 sec adjustable (Japan),
first zero crossing, 6 sec, 120 sec after utility return to spec. (USA),
5 sec, 15 sec, 2 to 4 min (Switzerland),
3 minutes (UK)

54
Location of protective device

Most included in inverter.

Prices of inverter and protective devices

Depends on output power and quantity to be sold. Cost 1000 to 3000 (5000) $/kW for
under 5 kW devices. Less than 1000 $/kW for large power inverters. AC module
could be 1$/W.

1.3.3 Other issues on interconnection devices

- Noise reduction
- Full evaluation of islanding prevention measures
- Transformer-less design
- To customise control board and other components
- Islanding prevention measures with a number of interactive inverters
- Minimisation of wiring in construction
- Minimisation of heat dissipation
- Minimisation of certification procedure
- Inclusion of external disconnecter into the inverter
- External transient protection may be needed in some installation
- Standard EMI specifications could define minimum standards

1.3.4 Operating experiences for existing PV systems

It is useful to review the operating experience of existing grid connected PV systems

to identify the problems actually encountered. The survey was mainly focused on a
review of faults and failures. By understanding the cause of a failure countermeasures
and required design modification could be clarified. The survey was carried out by
circulating a questionnaire on faults in low voltage grids and faults in PV systems. A
summary of the results follows.

1.3.4.1 Grid conditions (low voltage grid)

Frequency and duration of power outage

From some seconds to some hours per outage, few times per year

Failure or malfunction of protective device(s) of an interconnected power plant

No information available

1.3.4.2 Faults and failures for PV Systems

PV array

55
 total number of incidents: around 90. Typical reasons given are:-

human error (string not connected, wiring error, loose terminal)

design error (partial shading, module overrating)
manufacturing error (insulation failure, defective diode)
other (condensation in junction box, corrosion, theft, broken glass, lightning)

Inverter

total number of incidents: over 470. Typical reasons given are:-

human error
design error (poor MPPT, malfunction of control circuit)
manufacturing (defective fuse)
Other (unspecified internal cause, grid transients, power limitation)

(Note: many problems occur at the pre-production stage.)

Utility interface

total number of incidents: 8. Typical reasons given are:-

Static switch, MV grid, frequency shift due to thermal failure

Other component failure

loose terminal in junction boxes, varistor burnt, burned contacts in circuit breaker
in front of battery (stand alone system), break of battery case (stand alone system)

Problems caused for the local grid or loads by introduction of PV systems

voltage rise after long feeder

Transient overvotage protection

damaged inverter

Lightning strike

module destroyed

Grounding fault

many faults in systems with old module design

Grounding fault detectors or insulation monitors

frequent tripping under high humidity, GFCI worked well with transformerless
inverter

56
Experience of islanding

No actual islanding incidents were reported

Problems due to DC injection

No problems were reported

Problems due to reclosing

No problems were reported

Problems due to electromagnetic interference

Some old inverters caused disturbances on radio and TV, no problem with new
design.
Disturbance on telephone

Experience of multiple inverters on one feeder of the grid

Several countries have experience and working well so far

It was found that inverter failure is the most frequent incident. This is mostly caused
by the lack of experience in first generation equipment and newly designed inverters
have good reliability. Only a few faults or failures caused by interconnection of PV
systems have been reported so far. However, this fact does not always indicate that
there is no problem for grid interconnection of PV systems. It is difficult to identify
the cause of the fault in some cases due to the absence of precise measuring
equipment. Some unexplained inverter failures may have been caused by grid
disturbances, reclosing and other interconnection issues.

57
Appendix D:

Utility Aspects of of Grid-Connected PV Systems

(Subtask 20)

58
1 Introduction to Subtask 20

In subtask 20, several topics were studied on the utility interface of grid connected PV
systems and summaries of the selected topics are described below. Detailed
information on the topics is given in the subtask 20 report “Utility aspects of grid
connected photovoltaic power systems”, Task V Report IEA-PVPS T5-01: 1998.

1.1 Harmonics
Problems

The harmonic problem has assumed a particular relevance starting from the 1960s
with the increasing use of static converters, which directly effect the quality of the
electricity supply.

In general, the harmonic problem can be defined as that particular disturbance that is
caused by the presence of non-linear loads which cause a modification of the voltage
and current sinusoidal waveforms in terms of sinusoidal components at a frequency
which is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency.

Findings

It was found that since PV generators are connected to the distribution network
through solid state inverters they are potentially liable to cause harmonics, thereby
downgrading the quality of electricity and altering the performance of other equipment
sensitive to voltage harmonics. In addition, static converters themselves can be
sensitive to harmonics and may operate incorrectly as a result of harmonic voltage
distortion. An investigation of the harmonic phenomena as applied to PV systems
took into account aspects relevant to the generation (emission) and effects on
(susceptibility) the PV systems.

The work done has also showed the necessity to further investigate the effects on
harmonics in the case of multiple PV systems.

1.2 AC Modules
Problems

An AC Module is an integrated combination of a single solar module and a single

inverter. The inverter converts the DC energy from the module into an AC energy and
feeds this energy into the AC network. The main advantage of AC Modules is the
modularity. Complicated DC wiring is not required and the solar power is directly
available as AC power.

59
This modularity allows for very simple systems that can easily be expanded by simply
paralleling several AC Modules at the AC side. An AC Module is an electric product
and comparable to other appliances. It is anticipated that AC Modules will become
easily available at local retail outlets, which will enable people to buy and install them
without consulting a certified electrical engineer.

This “plug and play “ idea of AC Modules has raised several questions by experts
from electrical safety bodies and utilities. Plug and play means that the AC Module is
equipped with a standard AC-plug that allows for a direct plug-in to a regular mains
socket outlet in the electrical installation of a building. Some national and
international safety standards do not allow this, other standards are unclear.

Findings

A survey revealed that only a restricted number of countries are actually developing
and/or using AC Module systems. Other countries have no objections to AC Modules
but wait for other countries to gain hands-on experience. Nevertheless it is expected
that AC Modules will be used world-wide within a few years.

The most important unresolved question is how to connect an AC Module to the

network. Manufacturers are in favour of allowing the AC Modules to be connected to
a regular mains socket outlet. This allows easy installation and reduces cost. Safety
standards, however, do not always allow this and/or utilities do not like the idea of
having generators connected at normal feeders of an electrical installation. There is
also a non-technical but realistic aspect to this discussion. When AC Modules become
generally available, it can be expected that people will not install a separate feeder to
the consumer unit/metering point just for one or two AC Modules, mandatory or not,
and will connect the AC Module to a regular outlet.

The Netherlands have issued a pre-draft guideline that AC Modules (or other types of
small generators) may be connected to normal feeders if the generated power is below
approximately 500 W. This philosophy is also under discussion in Switzerland.
However, some countries for example Australia and USA, have strict regulations not
to allow AC Modules or other types of small generators to be connected to a regular
feeder; a separate feeder is always necessary.

There are two certification standards for AC Modules available in the world. Both
these standards provide a set of rules to guarantee the electrical, mechanical safety of
an AC Module. The Dutch standard is issued by KEMA, in the USA the standard is
issued by Underwriters Laboratories (UL). UL and KEMA are working to harmonise
both these standards.

AC Modules have recently been introduced as a commercial product, application can

be found in a limited number of countries. It is expected that this number will grow
dramatically in the next few years.

Although AC Modules have been available on the market for some years now, there is
still a lot of discussion on methods for interconnecting AC-Modules with the network.
Also, the method of interconnection is an important topic; is there a need for an AC-

60
 marshalling box or is an AC-cord with (special) plugs an option, and what about the
connection to the AC-mains supply, bolted terminals or a separate plug?

If AC-Modules become as popular as expected, these issues have to be settled. Present

day standards and guidelines need to be adapted to cater for AC-Modules.

1.3 Multiple Inverters and the AC Grid

Problems

As small PV power generation systems become more common, it will be necessary to

investigate several effects that are not significant for single inverter systems. For
example, if a large number of dispersed PV generators are connected to a branch of
the low voltage distribution system, then the reverse power flow to the higher voltage
power system will substantially increase during periods of light load and maximum
daylight. This may cause a significant voltage rise in the distribution lines, particularly
at the ends. Also, the PV systems will supply a part of the fault current in the event of
a distribution line fault. This additional fault current will decrease the fault current
flowing at the substations and might cause fault detection relays in substations to
malfunction. It is thus necessary to identify effects that may occur when connecting
large numbers of PV systems, and to establish countermeasures.

Findings

The voltage at the customer’s terminals may exceed the upper statutory limit because of
reverse power flow from PV systems during light-load hours in the daytime. Leading
power factor operation of the PV system is an effective countermeasure to prevent the
voltage rise without reducing effective power.

If each customer supplied by a distribution transformer installs PV systems with a

capacity equal to or above their contracted power, the reverse current flowing through
the transformer could exceed the transformer. It would be necessary to consider
replacement of the transformer or installation of an energy storage facility in such a
situation. If a diversity figure is used such as After Diversity Maximum Demand
(ADMD) for distribution system design purposes, restricting generation to the ADMD
could be an effective countermeasure.

In the event of a short-circuit fault condition occuring in the distribution line, the
increase in short-circuit capacity of the distribution line and the malfunction of OCRs
or fuses in the distribution system may occur as part of short circuit current is supplied
from PV systems. It would be necessary to develop a new fault detection system for
the PV system. A method of detecting the voltage phase change occurring in the fault
condition may be one useful option.

The effects anticipated to occur when a large number of PV power generation systems
are interconnected with distribution lines were investigated. The theoretical results
and experimental result regarding the effects and countermeasures are reported.
Recommendations for future work are as follows.

61
 Development of a new fault detection for PV systems to detect a short-circuit fault
occurring at an end of a long distribution line, with a high resistance, or during
distribution line overload.

Further studies on the effect on distribution line voltage variation caused by the wide-
spread application of PV power generation, covering different application areas and
the number of interconnected systems.

It would also be important to study and encourage the application of various

distribution line support systems which make the best use of the added values offered
by PV power generation.

1.4 Grounding of Equipment in PV Systems

Problems

When rules for early power generation and electrical distribution systems were being
developed in the late 1890 to early 1900’s, grounding requirements were limited to
lightning protection. In the United States, the National Electrical Code (NEC) and its
grounding requirements were first published in 1897. Most other countries throughout
the world, often independently, developed other versions of electrical codes to address
safety and grounding issues for electrical generation and distribution systems. The
resulting grounding techniques and requirements vary from country to country.
Optimised grounding for personnel protection does not optimise fire safety of a
system and grounding for fire safety does not optimise personnel safety. Grounding to
provide protection for equipment would require a third set of requirements.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems, as distributed current sources, require additional
grounding considerations. Distributed leakage paths, multiple fault paths and new
roles for fuses and circuit breakers are among a few of the new issues that need careful
consideration for PV applications. Codes for PV have closely followed the national
practice for AC power systems in each country, but many PV codes are being
developed as separate documents, rather than being included into existing codes.
Grounding of batteries associated with PV power sources adds another consideration
when grounding the PV array.

Findings

System and equipment grounding practices and requirements vary widely with
applications, among the countries, and sometimes within individual countries and a
survey of participating IEA countries revealed requirements and practices. Codes in
the USA require equipment grounding of all systems, and system grounding for
systems with voltages over 50 volts (open circuit module voltage). European and
Japanese codes require equipment grounding, but do not require system grounding and
most of their PV systems do not have grounded current-carrying conductors on the DC
side.

62
The grounding of power systems is complicated by the introduction of current-limited
PV sources interconnected with batteries and conventional voltage-source
electromechanical generators. Two universal conclusions for grounding were: a) most
codes and standards generally require equipment grounds for all metal surfaces that
might become energised, b) when system grounds are used, single-point grounds are
required. The ungrounded system provides the best fire hazard reduction because
multiple ground faults are needed to create a fire hazard. Ungrounded systems allow
easy ground fault detection and simple PV array disable.

The grounded PV system generally provides the best personnel protection from
electrical shock because the voltages to ground are well defined. The system
grounding ensures a solid or known PV array ground through properly sized
conductors. The distributed capacitance to ground, of the PV modules and wiring,
does not build static charges and the system voltage is stable and known in the
grounded PV system. With proper design, both grounded and ungrounded PV systems
can achieve good personnel, fire and equipment safety.

1.5 Ground-Fault Detection and Array Disable

Problems

Installed PV systems rarely perform exactly in the manner indicated by electrical

schematics. Accumulative leakage currents associated with the large PV array, long
runs of wiring, surge protection, diodes, junction boxes that collect moisture, and
conduit often make actual ground-fault detection difficult. Leakage currents in early
PV systems were often sufficient to cause false indications of ground faults and
contributed to many hours of system down time. The leakage currents associated with
all of the distributed PV source components and wiring also pose unseen and
unfamiliar hazards to personnel, or may contribute to ground faults that increase fire
danger and personnel hazards.

Fault currents may occur between active conductors in the circuit called line-to-line or
bolted faults, and active circuit conductors-to-ground called ground faults. Utility-
interconnected PV systems are often installed in close proximity to utility power lines
and accidental cross connection is a possibility that must be addressed. Unintentional
connections or faults may result in insulation failures and line-to-line (bolted) faults or
line-to-ground (ground) faults. The ground-fault protection of the PV system must be
consistent with the ground-fault protection used on the connected AC power system.
The AC circuit ground-fault protection requirements are generally part of electrical
system installation codes for the application.

Findings

A review of PV system experiences and requirements related to ground faults for grid-
connected applications was included as part of a survey of participating IEA countries.
The survey included hardware compatibility reviews and ground-fault detection
requirements as well as detection methods and disable methods. New developments
such as the rapidly evolving AC PV module will not require the use of ground-fault

63
detection on the PV-side DC circuits, since the DC voltage is self-contained within the
module and inverter, and there is no external access to the DC circuits. Additionally,
the tests associated with listing or certifying the self-contained AC PV modules will
assure both fire and personnel safety. It is very unlikely that any conditions will
require DC ground-fault detection in AC PV module applications.

The evolution of building-integrated PV systems using DC wiring circuits, PV source

circuit combiners and inverters will require ground-fault detection and PV array
disable devices for fire and personnel safety. Issues such as backfeeding that may
result from inadvertent four-quadrant operation of an inverter, transformer insulation
breakdowns or internal circuit failures must be addressed for building-integrated
systems

Comparisons of the fire and personnel safety of the grounded and ungrounded PV
systems along with considerable research, showed the advantages and disadvantages
of each with respect to ground-fault detection. Users and operators must be aware of
the grounding methods used and the ground-fault detection and array disable methods.
The work included comparisons of PV array ground-fault detection requirements and
array disable experience, along with hardware, standards, listing guidelines and
practices used for PV system installations. The results of simulated ground faults,
simulated transients and lightning, and measured performance for the selected
grounding methods are reported and referenced.

1.6 Overvoltage Protection

Problems

PV systems are installed on roof tops, facades of buildings and special applications
such as sound barriers on motorways. PV-systems have, by definition, a large
exposure to the external environment and are therefore subjected to atmospheric
influences. A lightning strike is one of the most severe atmospheric influences. To
protect a PV-system for a direct lightning strike is not possible due to the very high
energy content of the lightning strike. However, a PV system must and can be
designed to withstand the effects of an indirect lightning strike.

Another cause for transient overvoltages in grid-connected PV systems is the AC-

network itself. These overvoltages originate from switching phenomena, fault
clearance in the power network, and/or lightning induced voltages in overhead lines of
the utility. These transient overvoltages are not special for PV systems and are
applicable for all types of equipment connected to the distribution network.

Findings

Overvoltages due to indirect lightning strikes can be controlled with proper design of
the grounding structure of the PV-system. The main objective is to reduce loops
between the DC and AC wiring and the ground structure. This can be solved by
having a grounding wire running down from the metal support structure of the array,
DC wiring, inverter, AC wiring to the ground structure at the main fuse box. If an
external lightning protection system is available this should be connected to the metal

64
support structure of the array. This deliberately formed ground loop allows currents to
flow, but reduces the presence of overvoltages to a minimum. Since these currents
flow in a well defined path, no hazards are present.

1.7 Islanding
Problems

Islanding is the continued operation of a grid-coupled inverter (or generator in

general) in cases where the utility grid has been switched off, cut off or the
distribution lines have been damaged so that no electric energy is delivered from the
utility side. In such a situation the safety of persons and/or the safety of equipment
might no longer be guaranteed.

Findings

A lot of anti-islanding methods have been identified in the literature and have been
tested in practice. They can be divided into 2 groups:

• Passive methods:
a detection circuit monitors grid parameters (e.g. voltage, frequency, voltage
phase jumps, voltage harmonics); these methods do not have any influence on
grid power quality.

• Active methods:
a detection circuit deliberately introduces disturbances (e.g. active or reactive
power variation, frequency shift) and deduces from the reaction to these
disturbances if the grid is still present. Active methods can therefore directly
effect local power quality.

Currently, no two countries have the same rules as far as islanding is concerned, but
there is some common ground: in all countries a PV inverter (or some external
protective device) is required to monitor voltage and frequency. However, the set-
points for shutdown and disconnection from the grid are not generally agreed upon.

Islanding seems to be the most controversial topic with grid-coupled PV systems.

However, theoretical studies show that islanding can only happen under very special
and unlikely circumstances if basic safety methods are implemented. These basic
methods are

• monitoring of grid voltage

• monitoring of grid frequency

As these parameters can be monitored very easily it is recommended to include the

sensing circuits in the inverter electronics to reduce system costs. Some countries like
The Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland and Austria have tried this approach and
would say that they have had good experiences.

65
It is further recommended to perform a scientific risk analysis based on real load
patterns in real distribution systems to determine the probability of islanding. Such an
analysis could form the common ground from where generally accepted anti-islanding
methods could be derived. At present the dangers of islanding seem to be over-
estimated; in some countries this has led to legislation demanding very costly or too
sensitive anti-islanding methods.

From the technical point of view it seems to be possible to include effective and
reliable anti-islanding methods in the inverter control software which would make PV
systems more simple to install and bring costs down.

1.8 Electro-Magnetic Compatibility

Problems

Electro-magnetic compatibility is the ability of an electric or electronic device or

system to operate according to its purpose in its electromagnetic environment without
negatively influencing other equipment by conducted or radiated electromagnetic
emissions.

Therefore a manufacturer of PV inverters has to make sure that his device has a
certain immunity against external electromagnetic phenomena. At the same time it
must not produce emissions disturbing other electronic devices.

Findings

All industrialised nations have some form of legislation which sets limits to the
maximum allowable level of electromagnetic emissions. These limits are usually a
result of long discussions and are well-proven in practice. The compliance with these
limits is tested in well-defined test set-ups with standardised test instruments. The
relevant standards for Australia, Europe, Japan and the US have been compiled and
referenced. Where possible, the relevant immunity standards (if such exist) have also
been cited.

The problem of EMC is not a PV-specific topic. Therefore it does not make sense to
create new standards for PV equipment like inverters as the existing standards are
generally valid. The only remaining topic: the test set-up for measurements of
emissions on the DC lines has to be defined more clearly as conventional devices
usually do not have DC connections.

1.9 External disconnect

Problems

This topic examined the necessity for PV systems to have an external manual AC
disconnect switch to allow the Utility to disconnect the PV system in the case of
maintenance on the AC network or fire hazard etc., to comply with Health and Safety
Regulations

66
Findings

Nearly all countries required a means of physically disconnecting the PV generator

from the mains for maintenance of the inverter and the AC network to which it is
connected. The traditional means to achieve this was a mechanical switch mounted in
an external position such that the Utility could operate it before carrying out
maintenance on the AC network. This had evolved for a situation of a relatively small
number of large generators.

It was generally agreed that as small generators became more common, the task of
isolating every unit at an external switch would become impossible to implement
reliably, and moreover it did not take into account units that were illegally connected,
and thus not registered with the Utility. For this reason, and the relatively high
installation costs for such a switch, it was proposed to investigate other solutions.

Some countries, such as Germany the Netherlands and Austria, were coming to the
view that in certain circumstances protection relays and operational procedures could
be relied upon. This was backed up by a risk assessment study in Germany by the
Employer’s Liability Insurance Association to IEC guidelines.

It was generally agreed that if anti-islanding devices were used for the external
disconnect function, they would have to be relay devices with a physical opening of
contacts rather than an electronic semiconductor switch.

For PV it is anticipated that the situation evolving in Germany and the Netherlands
will become more widely adopted, where the external switch is not mandatory, and
the Utility relies on the relay 'islanding' protection and their practices for checking and
grounding the conductors, assuming that they are live, before carrying out
maintenance. This relies on the involvement of the Utilities.

It is important to recognise that the problem is not specific to PV but also applies to
other embedded generators, and so it is sensible to harmonise with other work being
carried out in this area.

When more information is available from the anti-islanding work, then these devices
should be assessed for their suitability to provide the function of the external
disconnect also.

1.10 Re-closing
Problems

By re-closing, it is meant the automatic procedure used by the distribution network

operator to reduce the duration of the power supply interruption to the users caused by
network faults.

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Findings

Re-closing is utilised by the distributor on the MV network but, as MV networks are

usually operated in an open-ring scheme, it has consequences on the downstream LV
network where PV systems are connected.

In fact, the re-closing procedure may lead to out-of-phase parallel conditions with
consequent potentially dangerous stress for the inverters, for the loads, for the line-
breakers and for the transformers installed on the utility network.

1.11 Isolation Transformer and DC Injection

Problems

Transformerless inverters gain increasing importance for grid-connected PV systems

due to technical and economical advantages. Contrary to current technology, which
mostly relies on transformers built into the inverter, transformerless inverters offer no
inherent protection against a dc component fed into the utility’s network.

A dc current fed from the customer's side into the grid can disturb the regular
operation of the upstream distribution transformer. It can shift the transformers
operating point and cause saturation. This would result in high primary current peaks,
which might trip the input fuse and thus cause a power outage to that specific section
of the grid. It would furthermore cause increased harmonics.

An overview is given how the participating countries view the requirement for an
isolation transformer. The possible impact of a dc current on the operation of a
distribution transformer was assessed using literature review and laboratory
experiments.

Findings

From the references it can be concluded that dc components from a transformerless

inverter may cause saturation effects in the local distribution transformer. However, a
disruption of the utility service is unlikely. The experiments showed that primary
currents from secondary ac and pulsed dc components linearly superimpose.

Under high dc components high primary current peaks occur. Also, a high level of
harmonics is generated. The pulsed dc component may reach levels around 10 % of
rated current without jeopardising the proper operation of the transformer.

Conclusions

The hazard of dc currents from small PV systems for the local distribution transformer
seems to be negligible, therefore a general requirement for isolation transformers for
PV inverters is not justified on these grounds. However, dc currents could cause
problems in other areas, such as accelerated corrosion of underground cables due to
cathodic erosion, adverse effects on residual current protection devices (RCD's) as

68
well as adverse effects on the mains transformers within the consumers other mains
appliances.

69
Appendix E:

Demonstration Tests of Grid-Connected PV Systems

(Subtask 30)

70
1 Introduction to Subtask 30

In subtask 30, experimental studies using the Rokko Test Centre for Advanced Energy
Systems test facility were conducted. Experiments were conducted for many aspects
like harmonics, islanding, PV system output variation, dc-ac mixing and others.
Summaries of the experimental results are described below. Detailed information on
the test results are given in the IEA PVPS report “Demonstration Tests of Grid
Connected Photovoltaic Power Systems”, Task V Report IEA-PVPS T5-02.

1.1 Harmonic Distortion Caused by PV Systems

Problems and Objectives

A grid-connected PV system generates harmonics because it requires a DC/AC

converter to convert the DC from the PV array to the AC of the grid. These harmonics
may affect the quality of the power supply. As the number of grid-connected PV
systems increase, the total harmonic content in the system may increase. The
relationship between the number of interconnected PV units and total harmonic
current was measured.

Findings and Conclusions

It was found in the experiments carried out at Rokko Island that the third and the fifth
harmonic current increased with the increase in the number of connected inverters.
However, the higher harmonics did not always increase or sometimes decreased with
the number of connected units. From these results, it can be concluded that third and
fifth harmonic current from inverters have almost the same phase displacement and
the total harmonic current is superimposed, while higher harmonics from inverters
have different phase displacement and total harmonic current is cancelled to a degree.
The phenomenon that the third harmonic and the fifth harmonic increases with the
number of connected units is considered to be caused by the exitation current of the
isolation transformers.

1.2 Measurement of Islanding Characteristics

Problems and Objectives

Islanding may cause problems such as human and equipment safety if it continues for
a long time. It is therefore important to clarify the conditions under which continued
islanding occurs, and verify the necessity of measures for preventing islanding and the
effectiveness of these countermeasures, especially when a large number of PV systems
are interconnected to one distribution line.

Findings and Conclusions

The Rokko Island tests showed that when many PV systems whose inverters have
only ordinary protective relays such as over/under voltage relays and over/under

71
frequency relays, islanding can be continued for a long time if the total output power
the from PV systems is higher than total load on the local distribution system. This
result shows that some measures for detecting islanding conditions are required.
Various kinds of islanding detection or prevention techniques, including passive and
active schemes, have been proposed.

Islanding does not continue for a long period of time if multiple PV systems having
islanding detection functions for their inverters were interconnected to the power
distribution line, especially when inverters manufactured by different manufacturers
were interconnected together. This means that when different islanding detection
schemes co-existed, islanding did not occur. It was confirmed that mainly the passive
scheme detected islanding phenomenon, while the contribution of the active islanding
detection scheme was not clarified. It was also found that islanding detection time
increases when a load which can sustain a distribution line voltage such as induction
motor load is connected.

1.3 Characteristics under Distribution Line Short Circuit

Problems and Objectives

PV systems may supply fault current under short circuit fault conditions in the
distribution system. Fault current from PV systems could affect fault detection,
causing a delay in the operation of protection. Therefore, it is necessary to verify the
effect of the short circuit current from PV systems on system fault detection.

Fault current from PV systems were measured under short circuit conditions at the LV
side of the distribution transformer. Measurements were conducted for various output
power of the PV system.

Findings and Conclusions

The Rokko Island tests showed that some inverters do not supply fault current at all
(only maintaining the current before short circuit fault) and stop operation quickly
(within 1 or 2 cycles) by the under voltage relay. Even for inverters supplying fault
current the magnitude of fault current is only twice the pre-fault value and lasts only 1
or 2 cycles.

It was concluded from the Rokko Island tests that PV systems do not significantly
affect the protection for short circuit faults in distribution systems.

1.4 Characteristics under AC/DC Mixing Fault

Problems and Objectives

If a PV system has no isolation transformer, a DC current component may be injected

into the AC circuit of the power distribution system (DC injection), resulting in
magnetic saturation of utility transformer. Any magnetic saturation of the utility
transformer will cause current distortion and therefore harmonics are generated and

72
injected into the distribution system. The effect of DC injection could be examined by
more severe situation, such as an AC/DC mixing fault condition, in which the DC
circuit of the PV array is directly connected to the AC system. In this AC/DC mixing
fault condition, the effect of an AC current on the DC circuit of the solar cell array
can be also examined.

The propagation range of harmonics generated at the AC-DC mixing fault in the
power system, the effect on other transformers connected to the same high voltage
distribution line and the effect on other inverters for photovoltaic power generation
connected to the same low voltage distribution line are examined.

Findings and Conclusions

The exitation current of the utility transformer starts to increase immediately after
AC/DC mixing fault and becomes stabilised (saturated) after several seconds. At this
time, magnetic saturation occurs and harmonic current of even orders are generated on
the high voltage side of the utility transformer. Distortion of the current waveform was
also seen in other utility transformers connected to the same high voltage side of the
distribution line and the isolation transformers of other photovoltaic power generation
systems connected to the same low voltage distribution line.

However, even though the AC/DC mixing fault persisted for several minutes, no
overheating, vibration or sound was observed for the utility transformers. Also, no
effect was observed for the operation of PV systems connected to the low voltage side
of utility transformers located in the vicinity of the utility transformer generating
mixing fault. For conclusion, the effect of DC current injected into the AC system on
the utility's distribution transformer is negligible.

1.5 Output Fluctuation of PV systems

Problems and Objectives

The output of photovoltaic power generation fluctuates with solar irradiance. Solar
irradiance can vary from one second to the next owing to clouds passing overhead.
The fluctuation in output of the photovoltaic power generation causes fluctuations in
power flow or voltage in the connected distribution line. If many PV systems are
interconnected to a limited area, output fluctuation of the PV systems occur
simultaneously and voltage fluctuations in the distribution line increases, possibly
becoming of greater significance than load fluctuations. Moreover, considering that
the voltage fluctuations take places in a timeframe of seconds, it may cause flicker,
which may become a technological issue for the future introduction of photovoltaic
power generation.

Power fluctuation from large number of PV systems interconnected to one distribution

line within limited area was measured and the relationship between power fluctuation
for individual units and the whole system was obtained.

73
Findings and Conclusions

In the case that many PV systems are connected, even if the output fluctuation of each
PV system is large, both the magnitude and speed of fluctuation decreases as a whole.
Accordingly, distribution voltage fluctuations due to PV output fluctuations also
decreases.

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Appendix F: List of Task V Reports

The IEA PVPS Task V group has published the following reports

[1] “Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems: Status of existing guidelines and

regulations in selected IEA member countries”, Task V Internal Report, IEA-
PVPS V-1-01, July 1996.

[2] “Information on electrical distribution systems in related IEA countries”, Task

V Internal Report, IEA-PVPS V-1-02, July 1996.

[3] “Proceedings of the IEA Workshop on Existing and Future Rules and Safety
Guidelines for Grid Interconnection of Photovoltaic Systems”, Zurich,
September 1997.

[4] “Grid-connected photovoltaic power systems: Status of existing guidelines and

regulations in selected IEA member countries (Revised Version)”, Task V
Internal Report, IEA-PVPS V-1-03, March 1998.

[5] “Information on electrical distribution systems in related IEA countries

(Revised Version)”, Task V Internal Report, IEA-PVPS V-1-04, March 1998.

[6] “Utility Aspects of Grid Interconnected PV systems”, IEA-PVPS Report,

IEA-PVPS T5-01: 1998, December 1998.

[7] “Demonstration Tests of Grid Connected Photovoltaic Power Systems”, IEA-

PVPS Report, IEA-PVPS T5-02: 1999, March 1999.

[8] “Grid-connected Photovoltaic Power Systems: Summary of Task V Activities

from 1993 to 1998”, IEA-PVPS Report, IEA-PVPS T5-03: 1999, March 1999.

Note:

“Internal” Task V reports are available from the UK Task V representative

(Dr Alan Collinson, EA Technology, Capenhurst, Chester) and are available on
request, while stocks last.

“Official” Task V reports are available from the Task V Operating Agent (Mr Takuo
Yoshioka, NEDO, Sunshine 60, 29F, 1-1, 3-Chome, Higashi-Ikebukuro, Toshima-ku
City, Tokyo, Japan).

Once the existing stocks of reports has been depleted it may be necessary for a small
charge to be made to cover printing, packing, postage and administative costs.

There are plans in hand to make as many of the above reports as possible available on
the Internet, from the web site at:

http://www.iea.org/impagr/imporg/iadesc/pvps

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Appendix G: List of PV Systems Installed in the UK
Installation (Building Integrated) Installed Peak Power (kWp)

Riverside Housing Association <1kWp

Oxford Solar House 4kWp
Nottingham University Solar Building 65kWp
Northumbria University Solar Building 40kWp
Milton Keynes BP Petrol Station Retail 20kWp
Liverpool HAT <1kWp
Integer House <1kWp
Hometon Grove Adventure Playground <1kWp
Greenpeace Rooflight <1kWp
G8 Solar Pavilion 15kWp
Ford Factory <100kWp
Equinox Office <200kWp
Earth Centre Solar Canopy 110kWp
Doxford Solar Office 75kWp
Centre Alternative Technology PV Building <20kWp
Centre Alternative Technology Powerhouse <1kWp
Brighton Solar House <5kWp
BRE Environmental Office <5kWp
BP Sunbury Office 50kWp
Bowater House <10kWp
Bedford BP Petrol Station/ Retail 20kWp

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Installation (Building Attached) Installed Peak Power (kW )

The Greenhouse <4kWp

Southwall Autonomous house <3kWp
Solagen Unit <1kWp
Skelton PV <1kWp
Silvertown Solar Houses <2kWp
SERG Building Solar Façade <8kWp
Scolar Schools 1 to 10 <1kWp each
Sascombe Winery PV Unit <1kWp
Reading University PV Façade <8kWp
Portsmouth FOE Building <1kWp
Milton Keynes Shenley PV Conservatory <1kWp
Lakeland <1kWp
Jolly Gardeners <1kWp
Guardian Royal Exchange <4kWp
Giroscope PV Project <4kWp
East Anglia – House <5kWp
Dyfed Visitors Centre <1kWp
David’s House <3kWp
City Farm PV Unit <1kWp
Centre Renewable Technology EcoCabins <1kWp
Carters Vineyard PV Unit <1kWp
Cambridge County Hall <4kWp
Camberwell Solar House <2kWp
Centre Renewable Technology Tracking PV Array <1kWp
Browne Residence <2kWp
Beacon Energy PV Walkway <4kWp
Basingstoke Domestic PV <1kWp
Barking Energy House <1kWp
Antrim Domestic PV Unit <1kWp
CERST Loughborough University <3kWp

77