FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

UNIT 1:
Fundamentals of Computers: Introduction to Computers ,Computer
Definition, Characteristics of Computers, Evolution and History of
Computers, Types of Computers, Basic Organisation of a Digital
Computer. Computer Language and Software: Machine Language,
Assembly Language, High Level Language, Assembler, Compiler,
Interpreter. Software – System and Application Software. Algorithm,
Flowchart and Pseudo code with Examples. Introduction to Flowgorithm,
Flowgorithm Features.
WHAT IS COMPUTER?

Computer is an electronic machine that can store, recall and process the data. It can
perform tasks or complex calculation according to a set of instructions or programs.

The word “computer” is comes from the word “TO COMPUTE” means to calculate. A
computer is normally considered to be a calculation device which can perform the
arithmetic operations very speedily.A computer may be defined as a device which
operates upon the data.
Data can be in the form of numbers, letters, symbols, size etc. And it comes in
various shapes & sizes depending upon the type of computer application.A computer
can store, process & retrieve data as and when we desired.
The fact that computer process data is so fundamental that many people have
started calling as “Data Processor”.
A computer first it gets the Data, does Process on it and then produces
Information.

DEFINATION OF COMPUTER
o A computer is an electronic device which takes input from the user,
processes it and gives the output as per user’s requirement.
o So the main tasks of performed by the computer are:
 Input
 Process
 Output

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Some important characteristics of the computer are as follow:
1) Automatic:
Computers are automatic machines because it works by itself without human
intervention. Once it started on a job they carry on until the job is finished.Computer
cannot start themselves.They can works from the instructions which are stored
inside the system in the form of programs which specify how a particular job is to be
done.
2) Accuracy:
The accuracy of a computer is very high.The degree of accuracy of a particular
computer depends upon its design. Errors can occur by the computer. But these are
due to human weakness,due to incorrect data, but not due to the technological
weakness.
3) Speed:
Computer is a very fact device. It can perform the amount of work in few
seconds for which a human can take an entire year.While talking about computer
speed we do not talk in terms of seconds and milliseconds but in microseconds. A
powerful computer is capable of performing several billion (109) simple arithmetic
operations per second.
4) Diligence:
Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness & lack of
concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating any error & without
grumbling. If you give ten million calculations to performed, it will perform with
exactly the same accuracy & speed as the first one.
5) Versatility:
It is one of the most wonderful features about the computer. One moment it is
preparing the results of a particular examination, the next moment it is busy with
preparing electricity bills and in between it
may be helping an office secretary to trace an important letter in seconds.
5)Storage capacity
A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings. It can store large
amount of data. It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and
many others.
6)Automation
Computer is an automatic machine. Automation means ability to perform the given
task automatically. Once a program is given to computer that is stored in computer
memory, the program and instruction can control the program execution without
human interaction.
7)Flexibility
Computers can be programmed to perform a wide range of tasks, from simple
calculations to complex operations. They can also be easily reprogrammed to
perform new tasks, making them highly flexible We can do number of things with a
computer. While some are best used for simple business tasks, filing of tasks, others
are good for multimedia, gaming and so on.
8)Cost effectiveness
Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing
costs.

EVOLUTION AND HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

Abacus : An abacus is a first mechanical calculating device used by the Chinese
since about 1100 B.C. for the simplest of calculations: addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division as well as fractions and square roots. It is made up of a
wooden frame, metal rods and wooden beads. Today, the abacus is still used widely
in China and other Asian countries to count and calculate just as we use calculators.
ABACUS

Pascaline : In 1642, at the age of 19, the great French Scientist Blasé Pascal
invented the Pascaline. The Pascaline is known as the first mechanical and
automatic calculator. The Pascaline was a wooden box that could only add and
subtract by means of a series of gears and wheels. It had a box with eight movable
wheels called dials. When each wheel rotated one revolution, it would then turn the
neighboring wheel.

LEIBNIZ CALCULATING MACHINE

In 1671 Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented a calculating machine which was a
major advance in mechanical calculating that could add, subtract, multiply and divide
the numbers.

DIFFERENCE & ANALYTICAL ENGINE

In the early 1820s, an English mathematician by the name Charles Babbage
designed a computing machine called the Difference Engine. This machine was to
be used in the calculating and printing of simple math tables. In the 1830s, he
designed a second computing machine called the Analytical Engine. This machine
consigned five units, which became the basic principle for the development of
modern computer. Hence Charles Babbage is known as the ”Father of Computer”.

PUNCHED CARDS
The standard punched card invented by Herman Hollerith in 1880, A punched card
is a piece of card stock that stores digital data using punched holes. Punched cards
were once common in data processing and the control of automated machines. Data
can be entered onto a punched card using a keypunch.
HOLLERITH TABULATING MACHINE 1890 AD
In 1889, an American named Herman Hollerith invented a counting machine to count
the population of USA. This electronic machine able to read the information on the
punched cards and process it electronically. Herman Hollerith was the founder of the
company than became famous as IBM

VACCUM TUBES
The vaccum tubes technology was used by the first generation of the computers,
which was invented by John Ambrose Fleming in 1904.
MARK-I
A programmable, electromechanical calculator designed by Howard Aiken. Built by
IBM and installed at Harvard in 1944.

ENIAC
In 1946, John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert developed the ENIAC (Electrical
Numerical Integrator and Calculator).
EDSAC
In 1947, Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) was an early
British computer, Inspired by John von Neumann’s seminal First Draft of a Report on
the EDVAC. EDSAC was the second electronic digital stored-program computer to
go into regular service.

UNIVAC
In 1951, John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert developed the The UNIVAC
(UNIVersal Automatic Computer I) was the first commercial computer produced in
the United States.
TRANSISTOR
The transistor was used by the second generation of the computers, which was
invented by William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain in 1947.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)

The IC was used by the third generation of the computers, which was invented by
Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1960. An integrated circuit (IC) — commonly called a
chip, is made out of a semiconductor material called silicon, in which small electronic
components called transistors are formed within the silicon and then wired together
with interconnects layered on top of the silicon surface.
MICROPROCESSORS
The microprocessor was used by the fourth generation of the computers, which was
invented by Marcian Edward Hoff in 1970.A microprocessor is
a computer processor for which the data processing logic and control is included on
a single integrated circuit (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor
contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions
of a computer's central processing unit (CPU). The IC is capable of interpreting and
executing program instructions and performing arithmetic operations. The
microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock-driven, register-based, digital integrated
circuit that accepts binary data as input, processes it according to instructions stored
in its memory, and provides results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors
contain both combinational logic and sequential digital logic, and operate on
numbers and symbols represented in the binary number system.

ULSI
The ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) was used by fifth generation of the
computers, which was invented by Marcian Edward Hoff in 1980. These computers
combine hardware and software to produce Artificial Intelligence (AI).
HANDHELD COMPUTERS
In 1989, Atari Portfolio was developed first hand-held device compatible with desktop
IBM personal computers. It is also known as personal digital assistants (PDAs).
QUE:What are data and information?

Data- is raw, unorganized, and unrelated. Data is collection of unprocessed items,

which can include numbers, words, text, images, audio, videos etc. Its usability is
only after processing.
Example: “AMAR” 18

Information- It is the result of transforming data into a meaningful and useful form for
a specific purpose. When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a
given context to make it useful or meaningful is known as information OR The
computer processed data is called information, which gives particular meaning.
Example: Name= ”AMAR” Age=18

QUE:What is hardware?
The physical parts of a computer system called as hardware. The hardware
components can be seen, touch and feel.
Example: Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer, RAM, CPU etc.

GENERATION OF THE COMPUTERS.

In Computer language, “Generation” is a set of Technology. It provides a framework
for the growth of the computer technology. There are totally Five Computer
Generations
till today. Discussed as following.

First Generation:
 Duration: 1942-1955
Technology: vacuum tube
o Used as a calculating device.
o Performed calculations in milliseconds.
o To bulky in size & complex design.
o Required large room to place it.
o Generates too much heat & burnt.
o Required continuously hardware maintenance.
o Generates much heat so must air-conditioner rooms are required.
o Commercial production is difficult & costly.
o Difficult to configure.
o Limited commercial use.
o ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC are example of 1st generation computer.
Second Generation:
 Duration: 1955-1964
 Technology: transistor
o 10 times Smaller in size than 1st generation system.
o Less heat than 1st generation computers.
o Consumed less power than 1st generation system.
o Computers were done calculations in microseconds.
o Air-conditioner is also required.
o Easy to configure than 1st generation computers.
o More reliable in information.
o Wider commercial use.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 1st generation computers.

Third Generation:
 Duration: 1965-1975
 Technology: IC chip
o Smaller in size than 1st & 2nd generation computers.
o Perform more fast calculations than 2nd generation systems.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 2nd generation computers.
o Air –conditioner is required.
o Widely used for commercial applications.
o General purpose computers.
o High level languages like COBOL & FORTAN are allowed to write programs.
o Generate less heat & consumed less power than 2nd generation computer.
Fourth Generation:
 Duration: 1975-1989
 Technology: Microprocessor chip
o Based on LSI & VLSI microprocessor chip.
o Smaller in size.
o Much faster than previous generations.
o Minimum hardware maintenance is required.
o Very reliable as computer to previous generation computers.
o Totally general purpose computer.
o Easy to configure.
o Possible to use network concept to connect the computer together.
o NO requirement of air-conditioners.
o Cheapest in price.

Fifth Generation:
 Duration: 1989 to Present
 Technology: ULSI microprocessor chip
o Much smaller & handy.
o Based on the ULSI chip which contains 100 million electronic components.
o The speed of the operations is increased.
o Consumed less power.
o Air-conditioner is not required.
o More user friendly interface with multi-media features.
o High level languages are allowed to write programs.
o Larger & faster primary/secondary storage than previous generations.
o Notebook computers are the example of 5th generation computers.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
The computers are divided mainly three types on the based on data
processed(DATA HANDLING CAPABILITIES)
1. Analog computers
2. Digital computers
3. Hybrid computers
Analog computers:
In Analog Computers, data is represented as continuously varying voltage and
operate essentially by measuring rather counting.As the data is continuously
variable, the results obtained are estimated and not exactly repeatable.It can able to
perform multiple tasks simultaneously and also capable to work effectively with the
irrational number.
E.g. 1/8 = 0.125 and 1/6=0.1666 Voltage, temperature and pressure are measured
using analog devices like voltmeters, thermometers and barometers.

Digital Computers
The digit computer is a machine based on digital technology which represents
information by numerical digit. In Digital Computers data is represented as discrete
units of electrical pulses. The data is measured in quantities represented as either
the ‘on’ or ‘off’ state.Therefore, the results obtained from a digital computer are
accurate.Virtually all of today’s computers are based on digital computers.
Hybrid Computers
It combines the good features of both analog & digital computers. It has a speed of
analog computer & accuracy of digital computer. Hybrid Computers accept data in
analog form and present output also in digitally.The data however is processed
digitally.Therefore, hybrid computers require analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog
converters for output.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPUTER BY DATA PROCESSING(ON THE BASIS
OF SIZE)
The computers are classified in four types on the based on data processing.
 Micro computer
 Mini computer
 Mainframe computer
 Super computer
Embedded computer
Micro Computer:
 Micro computers are the computers with having a microprocessor chip as it central
processing unit.
 Originated in late 1970s.
 First micro computer was built with 8 bit processor.
 Microcomputer is known as personal computer.
 Designed to use by individual whether in the form of pc’s, workstation or
notebook computers.
 Small in size and affordable for general people.
 Ex: IBM PC, IBM PC/XT, IBM PC/AT

Mini Computer:
 Mini computers are originated in 1960s.
 Small mainframes that perform limited tasks.
 Less expensive than mainframe computer.
 Mini computers are Lower mainframe in the terms of processing capabilities.
 Capable of supporting 10 to 100 users simultaneously.
 In 1970s it contains 8 bit or 12 bit processor.
 Gradually the architecture requirement is grown and 16 and 32 bit.
 Minicomputers are invented which are known as supermini computers.
 Ex: IBM AS400
Mainframe Computer:
 A very powerful computer which capable of supporting thousands of user
simultaneously.
 It contains powerful data processing system.
 It is capable to run multiple operating systems.
 It is capable to process 100 million instructions per second.
 Mainframes are very large & expensive computers with having larger internal
storage capacity & high processing speed.
 Mainframes are used in the organization that need to process large number of
transaction online & required a computer system having massive storage &
processing capabilities.
 Mainly used to handle bulk of data & information for processing.
 Mainframe system is housed in a central location with several user terminal
connected to it.
 Much bigger in size & needs a large rooms with closely humidity &
temperature.
 IBM & DEC are major vendors of mainframes.
 Ex : MEDHA, SPERRY, IBM, DEC, HP, HCL
Super Computer:
 Most powerful & most expensive computer.
 Used for complex scientific application that requires huge processing power.
 Used multiprocessor technology to perform the calculation very speedy.
 They are special purpose computers that are designed to perform some specific
task.
 The cost of the super computer is depended on its processing capabilities
&configuration.
 The speed of modern computer is measured in gigaflops, teraflops and
petaflops.
o Gigaflops= 109 arithmetic operation per second.
o Teraflops=1012 arithmetic operation per second.
o Petaflops=1015 arithmetic operation per second.
 Ex: PARAM , EKA, BLUE GENE/P
Embedded Computers
Computers integrated into other devices (e.g., in cars, appliances).

Basic Organisation of a Digital Computer

‘A simple computer system comprises the basic components like Input Devices, CPU
(Central Processing Unit) and Output Devices as under:
Input Devices:
o The devices which are used to entered data in the computer systems are known as
input devices.
o Keyboard, mouse, scanner, mike, light pen etc are example of input devices.
FUNCTION OF INPUT DEVICES
o Accept the data from the outside worlds.
o Convert that data into computer coded information.
o Supply this data to CPU for further processing.
 Output Devices:
o The devices which display the result generated by the computer are known as
output devices.
o Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker etc are the example of output devices.
FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT DEVICES
o Accept the result form the CPU.
o Convert that result into human readable form.
o Display the result on the output device.
 Memory Unit:
o The data & instruction have to store inside the computer before the actual
processing start.
o Same way the result of the computer must be stored before passed to the output
devices. This tasks performed by memory unit.
FUNCTIONS OF MEMORY UNIT
o Store data & instruction received from input devices.
o Store the intermediate results generated by CPU.
o Store the final result generated by CPU.
Arithmetical & Logical Unit:
o The ALU is the place where actual data & instruction are processed.
o All the calculations are performed & all comparisons are made in ALU.
o Performs all arithmetical & logical operations.
o An arithmetic operation contains basic operations like addition,
subtraction,multiplication, division.
o Logical operations contains comparison such as less than, greater than, less than
equal to, greater than equal to, equal to, not equal to.
Control Unit:
o It controls the movement of data and program instructions into and out of the CPU,
and to control the operations of the ALU.
o In sort, its main function is to manage all the activities within the computer system.
o Controls the internal parts as well as the external parts related with the
computer.
CPU:
o The Unit where all the processing is done is called as Central Processing Unit.
o It contains many other units under it.
o Main of them are:- Control Unit And ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit)
COMPUTER LANGUAGE

A computer can only do what a programmer asks it to do. To perform a particular

task programmer writes a sequence, called the program. An instruction command
given to the computer to perform a certain specified operation on the given data.Now
as we know only human languages and computer knows only machine language, we
need some media through which we can communicate with thecomputer.So we can
complete our desired task. That media is Language.
Languages are tools human can use to communicate with the hardware of a
computer system.Each language has a systematic method of using symbols of that
language.In English, this method is given by the rules of grammar.Similarly, the
symbols of particular one computer language must also be used as per set of rules
which are known as the “Syntax” of that language, the language which you are
using.
 Computer Languages can be classified into three broad categories:

WHAT IS MACHINE LANGUAGE?

Computer programs are written using many different computer Languages but the
language which is understood by the computer without translating program is called
machine language.
 Machine language is normally written as string of binary 1s and 0s.
 A machine language instruction has two part format.

 The 1st part is the operation code which tells the computer what function to be
performed.
 The 2nd part is the operand which tells the computer where to find & store data to
be manipulated. So each instruction tells the computer what operation to perform &
the length &location of the data field which are involved in the operation.
Advantages
 Programs can be executed immediately upon completion because it doesn’t
require any translation.
 Now extra storage space is needed.
 Programmer has complete control over the performance of the hardware.
Disadvantage
 Tedious to program
 Difficult to program
 Difficult to modify
 Time consuming to code
 Error prone
 Operation codes have to be memorised
 Assignment of memory is done by programmer
 Time consuming for development
 Programs development are machine dependent
 Preparation of programs was slow and costly.

2. EXPLAIN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE.

 Assembly language is a language which allows instruction & storage location to be
represented by letters & symbols, instead of number.
 A program written in an assembly language is called assembly language program
or symbolic program.
 Assembly language was introduced in 1952.
 Machine language was tedious to code and errors were expected to arise in
bulk.To solve these problems mnemonic codes and symbolic addresses were
developed.
 It allows using alphanumeric mnemonic codes instead of numeric code for the
instructions in instruction set. For example using ADD instead of 1110 or 14 to add.
 The storage locations are to be represented in the form of alphanumeric
addresses instead of numeric address.
 Format of assembly language is similar to machine language:
MNEMONIC CODE SYMBOLIC ADDRESS
Example of Assembly language instruction:
 This instruction adds value of NUM1 to the AX (Accumulator Register).
 The symbolic language made program writing so much easier for the
Programmers but it must be translated into machine code before being used for
operation.
 The translation is actually done by a special translating program.
Assembler
 Assembler is a special program (translator) which translates symbolic operation
codes into machine codes, and symbolic address is addressed into an actual
machine address.
Advantage
 Easier to use, code and understand.
 Easier to correct error.
 Easier to modify.
 No worry about addresses.
 Easily relocatable.
 Efficiency of machine language.
 Can use Macros (Macro is a bunch of instruction referred as a single name)
Disadvantage
 Machine depended.
 Programs have to be translated before execution.
 Translation of programs takes up time.
 Knowledge of hardware is required.
 Additional storage area needed for the source programs and object code.
Examples of Assembly Language
 Microsoft Assembly Language (MASM), Turbo Assembler
3. WRITE A NOTE ON HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE.
 The machine language & assembly language requires a good knowledge of
internal structure of computer. The both languages are machine dependent & it is
difficult to solve error. To remove this limitation the high level language are
introduced.
 The high level languages machine independent so it can be easily ported &
executed on any computer. The high level language programs do not require any
knowledge of internal structure of computer so the programmer concentrate on the
logic of problem rather than internal structure of computer.
 It enables the programmer to write instructions using English words & familiar
mathematical symbols & expression so the program makes easier to code
&understand.It requires a translator program to convert high level program into
machinelanguage.
Compiler
 Compiler is a special program (translator) which translates high level programs
into machine codes.
Advantages:
 Machine independent.
 Easier to learn, use and understand.
 Easier to correct error.
 Easier to maintain.
 Less time & efforts.
 Easily relocatable.
 Program preparation cost is low.
 Few errors.
Disadvantages:
 Less flexible.
 Lower efficiency.
 Require more time & storage space.

SHORT NOTE: ASSEMBLER

A computer can directly execute only machine language programs so the
assembly language program must be converted into its equivalent machine
language program before can be executed.This translation is done with the help of a
translator program which is known as
assembler.
Assembler is a special program (translator) which translates symbolic operation
codes into machine codes, and symbolic address is addressed into an actual
machine address.
As shown in figure that the input to assembler is the assembly language program
(source program) and the output is the machine language program (object
program).
 Assembler translates each assembly language instruction into equivalent
machine language instruction.
 There is one to one correspondence between the assembly language instructions
of source program & the machine language instruction of its equivalent object
program.
 In case of assembly language program the computer not only has to run the
program but also must first run assembler program to translate the original
assembly language program into machine language program.
 So the computer has to spend more time in getting desired answer.
5. WRITE A NOTE ON COMPILER
 A computer can directly execute only machine language programs.So the high
level language program must be converted into its equivalent machine language
program before can be executed.
This translation is done with the help of a translator program which is known as
compiler.
A compiler is a translator program which translates a high level language program
into equivalent machine language program.The process of translating is shown in
below figure:

As shown in figure that the input to compiler is the high level language program
(source program) and the output is the machine language program
(objectprogram).High level language instructions are macro instructions.
The compiler translates each high level language instruction into set of machine
language instructions rather than a single machine language instruction.There is one
to many correspondence between high level language instructions of source
program into equivalent object program. During the translation the source program
is only translates not executed.
 A compiler can translates only those source programs which have written in the
language for which compiler is designed. A compiler can also detect & indicates the
syntax errors during the compilation process but cannot able to detect logical errors.
6. WRITE A NOTE ON INTERPRETER.
 An interpreter is another type of translator which is used for translating program
written using high level languages.
 It takes one statement of high level language, translates into machine language
& immediately executes the resulting machine language instructions.
 The main difference between compiler & interpreter is that compiler can
translates the entire code but not involve in execution.

As shown in figure that the input to an interpreter is a source program & the
output is the result of an execution program.
 Interpreter translates & executes a high level language program statement-
bystatement.
 A program statement is reinterpreted every time it is encountered during
program execution.
 The main advantage of interpreter is that interpreter makes it easier & faster to
correct programs.
 The main disadvantage is that interpreter is slower than compilers when running
a finished program.

Define the term hardware and software.

Software is the programs and routines for a computer or the program material for an
electronic device which make it run. An example of software is Excel or Windows or
iTunes. Word processing programs and Internet browsers are examples of software.
Hardware refers to the physical elements of a computer. Also referred to asthe
machinery or the equipment of the computer. Examples of hardware in a computer
are the keyboard, the monitor, the mouse and the processing unit However, most of
a computer’s hardware cannot be seen; It’s inside the computer case.
The two main categories of software are:
a)System software
b)Application software

System software: System software refers to the collection of programs and software
components that enable a computer or computing device to function properly. It acts
as an intermediary between the user and the computer hardware, allowing the user
to interact with the hardware and
use various applications and programs.
Application software:
Application software is designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. Application software may consist of a single program or collection of
programs.
Some commonly known application software are: Spreadsheet Software:, Word
Processing Software:

Difference between system and application software

System software Application software
System Software maintains the system Application software is built for
resources and gives the path for specific tasks.
application software to run.

Low-level languages are used to write While high-level languages are

the system software. used to write the application
software.

It is general-purpose software. While it’s a specific purpose

software.

Without system software, the system While Without application

stops and can’t run. software system always runs.

System software runs when the system While application software runs as
is turned on and stops when the system per the user’s request.
is turned off.

Example: System software is an Example: Application software is

operating system, etc. Photoshop, VLC player, etc.
 System Software programming is more Application software programming
complex than application software. is simpler in comparison to system
software.

The Software that is designed to A set of computer programs

control, installed in the user’s system and
integrate and manage the individual designed to perform a specific task
hardware components and application is known as application software.
software is known as system software.

A system software operates the system Application software runs in the

in the background until the shutdown of front end according to the user’s
the computer. request.

The system software has no interaction Application software connects an

with users. It serves as an interface intermediary between the user and
between hardware and the end user. the computer.

System software runs independently. Application software is dependent

on system software because they
need a set platform for its
functioning.

Algorithm
Algorithm is a step by step procedure to solve a given problem.It is a finite sequence
of instructions required for producing the desired result finite sequence of
instructions each of which has a clear meaning and can be performed with a finite
amount of time.
Characteristics
• The step in the algorithm must be unambiguous.
• It should be written in the sequence.
• Ensure that the algorithm will terminate
• It should conclude after a finite number of steps.
Example 1: Finding the Sum of Two Numbers ?
Algorithm:
•Step 1: Start
•Step 2: Input two numbers
 •Step 3: Add the numbers
•Step 4: Output the result
•Step 5: End
Example 2: Finding the Largest of Three Numbers?
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input three numbers (let's call them num1, num2, and num3)
Step 3: Compare num1 with num2 and num3
If num1 is greater than both num2 and num3, then num1 is the largest
Step 4: If not, compare num2 with num3
• If num2 is greater than num3, then num2 is the largest
• Otherwise, num3 is the largest
Step 5: Output the largest number
Step 6: End
Example 3:Finding the Area of a Triangle
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input the base of the triangle (let's call it base)
Step 3: Input the height of the triangle (let's call it height)
Step 4: Calculate the area using the formula: area=1/2×base×height
Step 5: Output the area
Step 6: End
Example 4: Finding the Area of a Square

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input the length of one side of the square (let's call it side)
Step 3: Calculate the area using the formula: area=side×side
Step 4: Output the area
Step 5: End
Example 5: Finding the factorial of a number(N)?
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input N
 Step 3: [INITIALIZE FACTORIAL TO 1]
Fact=1
Step 4: repeat for I=1 to n
Fact=Fact*1
[end of step 4for loop]
Step 5:[print factorial of given number]
Output Fact
Step 6: End
Flowchart
• A flowchart is a pictorial representation of an algorithm
• It plays an important role in thr programming of a problemand helpful in
understnding the logic of program.
• Once the flow chart is drawn,it becomes easy to write program in nay high
level language
Importance of flowchart
1)communication-flowcharts are better way of communication of the logic of a
program.
• 2)Effective analysis:with the help of flowchart,problem can be analysed in
more effective way.
• 3)Proper documentation:program flowcharts serve as good program
documentation,which is needed for various programs.
• 4)Efficient coding:the flowchart act as a guide or blueprint duringthe system
analysis and program development phase
• 5)Proper debugging:it helps in debugging process
• 6)Efficient program maintenance:the maintenance of a program become easy
with the help pf flowchart

Pseudocode
A Pseudocode is defined as a step-by-step description of an algorithm. Pseudocode
does not use any programming language in its representation instead it uses the
simple English language text as it is intended for human understanding rather than
machine reading.
Pseudocode is the intermediate state between an idea and its implementation(code)
in a high-level language.
Advantages of pseudocode:
It allows the designer to focus on main logic without being distracted by
programming languages syntax.
Since it is language independent, it can be translated to any computer language
code.It allows designer to express logic in plain natural language.
It is easier to write actual code using pseudocode.
Unlike algorithms, pseudocodes are concise so pseudocodes are more readable and
easier to modify.
Disadvantages of pseudocode:
There are no accepted standards for writing pseudocodes and designer use their
own style while writing pseudocodes.
Pseudocode cannot be compiled and executed so its correctness cannot be verified
by using computers.

Que:difference between hardware and software

Physical components of a computer set of programs is called Software.
are called Hardware.
Hardware can touch, see and feel The software cannot touch and feel.
Constructed using physical Developed by the programming
materials or components. language.
Not affected by computer viruses. Affected by computer viruses.
User cannot make copies. User can make copies.
Example: Monitor, Keyboard, RAM. Example: OS, Text Editor, Nudi.
Important questions

1. (a) Define Computer? Also explain the various features of computer system.
(b) Explain in detail the history of computer; also explain the evolution process of
it.
2. (a) Draw a block diagram of basic components of a computer system. Explain
each component in detail.
(b) Explain the various characteristics of computer system?
3. Explain the input and output devices with their full description.
4. Explain the types of various computers.
5.Define the terms: Compiler, interpreter, Assembler, ?
6. Differentiate between High level , Machine & Assembly level language. ?
7. What is Algorithm define it? Write algorithm for find factorial of a given number?
8. What is flow chart? Draw a flow chart for find out maximum no. among three
numbers.
9.Define the software. List and explain the types of software. Give two example of
each category.