Traffic control

Written By:

 Paul P. Jovanis
 F.D. Hobbs

See Article History

Traffic control, supervision of the movement of people, goods, or vehicles to ensure efficiency
and safety.

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roads and highways: Traffic control
The marking of roadway surfaces with painted lines and raised permanent markers is
commonplace and effective, despite high maintenance costs…

Traffic is the movement of people and goods from one location to another. The movement
typically occurs along a specific facility or pathway that can be called a guideway. It may be a
physical guideway, as in the case of a railroad, or it may be an agreed-upon or designated route,
marked either electronically (as in aviation) or geographically (as in the maritime industry).
Movement—excepting pedestrian movement, which only requires human power—involves a
vehicle of some type that can serve for people, goods, or both. Vehicle types, often referred to as
modes of transportation, can be broadly characterized as road, rail, air, and maritime (i.e., water-
based).

Traffic evolves because of a need to move people and goods from one location to another. As
such, the movement is initiated because of decisions made by people to transport themselves or
others from one location to another to participate in activities at that second location or to move
goods to a location where they have higher value. Traffic flows thus differ fundamentally from
other areas of engineering and the physical sciences (such as the movement of electrons in a
wire), because they are primarily governed and determined by laws of human behaviour. While
physical attributes are critical in the operation of all modes (e.g., to keep airplanes in the air), the
demand or need to travel that gives rise to traffic is derived from the desire to change locations.

One of the principal challenges in traffic control is to accommodate the traffic in a safe and
efficient way. Efficiency can be thought of as a measure of movement levels relative to the
objectives for a particular transportation system and the finances required for its operation. For
example, a railroad can be thought of as efficient if it can accommodate the travel requirements
of its customers at the least cost. It will be thought of as inefficient if an alternative (e.g., a
trucking service) can also meet customer needs but at a lower cost.

Safety, the management of traffic to reduce or eliminate accidents, is the other critical reason for
traffic control. An airline pilot needs to be warned of high winds at the destination airport just as
an automobile driver needs to be warned of a dangerous curve or intersection ahead. Traffic
control has as its principal objective to manage the movement of people and goods as efficiently
and safely as possible. The dual objectives, however, frequently conflict or, at least, compete.
For example, there are frequent cases in which commercial airlines are held on the ground at
their originating airport until they receive a clearance to land at a destination. The clearance is
given only when the destination airport determines that the number of airplanes expected to
arrive at a particular time is small enough that local air traffic controllers can assist the plane in
landing without overtaxing their human limitations and compromising safety.

In road traffic, intersections with traffic lights (i.e., green, amber, and red indications) will often
add a separate lane with a lighted green arrow to allow left turns with no opposing traffic. This
frequently results in longer nongreen periods at the intersection, causing an increased delay and a
reduction in efficiency and mobility. Traffic control will always be burdened with seeking to
satisfy the frequently conflicting goals of safety and mobility.

Safety is not the exclusive concern of the traffic control community. Nearly every transportation
mode has organizations that regulate operators through a series of licensing procedures,
sanctions for inappropriate operating practices, and requirements for continuing training to retain
certification to operate. Examples include federal aviation authorities that oversee pilot training
(e.g., the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration); road agencies that administer driver’s licenses
may exist at the provincial level (as in Canada) or at the national level (as is more common in
Europe). Transportation safety management is thus accomplished through a complex set of
interactions between different agencies at different levels (e.g., national, regional or state, and
local) using both formal legal requirements and administrative actions. The following discussion
will necessarily focus on safety concerns that evolve from and are a component of the traffic
control function.

Overview
Traffic control is a critical element in the safe and efficient operation of any transportation
system. Elaborate operational procedures, rules and laws, and physical devices (e.g., signs,
markings, and lights) are but a few of the components of any traffic control system. At the centre
of any system is the operator: a driver or pedestrian in a roadway system, a pilot in aviation or
maritime systems, and a locomotive engineer in railway systems. While traffic control can be
considered initially as a need to control or influence large numbers of vehicles, it is important to
realize that traffic is made up of a large number of individual operators who collectively must
make consistent decisions in order for the systems to work safely and efficiently.
The operator is the principal decision-making unit in any traffic control system. As such, the
entire system is organized to assure the safe and efficient movement of vehicles along a
guideway or separational infrastructure by providing adequate, accurate, timely information to
the operator. The operator accepts inputs from a variety of sources, enters into a decision-making
process, and determines the appropriate control actions to maintain vehicle operation.

The operator receives most immediate and direct information from the vehicle. In addition to
visual inputs regarding vehicle status that are provided by instrumentation (e.g., speed,
direction), the operator receives information through physical sensation of movement (i.e.,
through forces acting on the muscles and sensory organs). The slowing and turning of a vehicle,
for example, are sensed not only visually but also physically by the operator’s body as the
vehicle decelerates and changes course. Different vehicles have vastly different performance
characteristics that directly affect the physical forces acting on an operator. An automobile is
highly responsive and gives virtually immediate response (certainly less than a second) to
braking or steering inputs. A large vessel or airplane, because of its design and the “guideway” in
which it operates, is slow (on the order of minutes) to respond to steering or speed change inputs.
Small aircraft and boats, however, have response attributes much more similar to an automobile
than to their larger counterparts.

In addition to vehicle inputs, the operator’s decision making is influenced by the information
provided by the guideway and its associated infrastructure. Because infrastructure is man-made,
it is one of the places where proper design and procedures provide an important foundation for
operating safety. For example, roadway systems set precise standards for the size, shape, colour,
and use of road signs and markings. These standards have the goal of improving road safety and
efficiency by providing the driver with consistent information regarding hazards, control of
right-of-way (e.g., stop signs or signals), and direction guidance (e.g., “Highway 66 next left”).
Aviation, maritime, and rail systems also have elaborate standards, all with one goal in mind: to
reduce accidents and increase efficiency through the consistent and effective use of standard
traffic control devices. Clearly aviation, and to some degree maritime, systems cannot place
physical signs in the sky or sea. Electronic signs or signals, particularly communication devices,
are used instead to guide the vehicle and operator.

The guideway includes the attributes of the physical infrastructure upon which the vehicle
operates (e.g., a roadway for automobiles, trucks, bicycles, and pedestrians or a set of rails for
trains). There are similar corridors within which planes and ships operate, although they are not
defined by physical elements so much as geographic location (i.e., longitude and latitude, and
altitude for aviation). The ambient environment poses both direct and indirect limitations on an
operator’s ability to control a vehicle. Snow, rain, sleet, fog, and darkness all serve to limit
visibility. Electronic devices such as radar are particularly helpful in aviation and marine
contexts in providing supplementary information that allows operators to make safe and efficient
control decisions.

Road traffic control

At the broadest level, road traffic control includes the layout of streets to serve a variety of travel
needs in a region. Highways or expressways carry through traffic at high speed; arterial streets
carry traffic within and across urban areas; and local streets provide low-speed travel but access
to many local destinations. The hierarchy of streets that perform at different levels of speed and
provide different levels of access form the foundation upon which traffic control problems
evolve. Long delays and frequent accidents are common outcomes of inadequate road planning,
which results in an insufficient number of roads to meet travel needs. While traffic control may
help, it is not a substitute for adequate provision of transportation supply.

History
Traffic congestion, often bad enough to require drastic control measures, was a feature of city
life at least as early as Roman times. A basic cause, then as now, was poor city planning, with
roads laid out in such a way as to bring traffic from all quarters to a central crossing point. In the
1st century bc Julius Caesar banned wheeled traffic from Rome during the daytime, a measure
gradually extended to cities in the provinces. Late in the 1st century ad the emperor Hadrian was
forced to limit the total number of carts entering Rome.

About 1500 Leonardo da Vinci, envisioning a revolutionary solution to urban traffic problems—
then acute in the crowded and busy Italian cities—proposed separating wheeled and pedestrian
traffic by creating routes at different levels. Except for the railway, however, few segregated
route systems were established before the 20th century.

Congestion was severe enough in European cities of the 17th century to require ordinances
prohibiting parking on certain streets and establishing one-way traffic. The advent of the railroad
brought temporary relief to the growing problem of road traffic control, though it created
congestion at terminals inside cities. The automobile, with its increase first in speed and then in
numbers over horse-drawn transport, rapidly created a new situation that was to become one of
the characteristic problems of urban industrialized society in the 20th century.

Mexico City: traffic congestionLearn how traffic congestion is measured and why Mexico City
ranked as the most congested city in the world, 2017.© CCTV America
Traffic elements
Road traffic control at its most elemental level is achieved through the use of a system of signs,
signals, and markings. Elaborate engineering standards are used to assure that the traffic control
devices convey a clear and simple meaning to the motorist. A comparable and matching
education program is needed, through driver-licensing authorities, to assure that those who
operate motor vehicles understand the rules of the road and the actions that they are required or
advised to take when a particular control device is present.

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Each traffic control device is governed by standards of design and usage; for example, stop signs
always have a red background and are octagonal in shape. Design standards allow the motorist to
quickly and consistently perceive the sign in the visual field along the road. Standard use of
colours and shape aids in this identification and in deciding on the appropriate course of action.

Standards also exist on the use of the control device, such as guidelines as to when circumstances
warrant the use of two-way stop signs or traffic signals. Standards also are used to locate control
devices in a particular circumstance. For example, signs on high-speed expressways or
motorways need to be placed well in advance of exits to allow sufficient time for drivers to
choose a course of action. Standards for location allow drivers to expect and anticipate these
devices at certain distances from decision points. Adhering to these standards promotes safety;
failure to adhere increases the risk of driver error and, ultimately, accidents.

The design and use of traffic control devices must also recognize the tremendous mix of vehicles
that use highway systems. The devices must be useful for pedestrians and bicyclists as well as
drivers of 80,000- to 120,000-pound trucks that are up to 100 feet long. It is not the size and
weight differences per se that are important but what they imply for vehicle performance. On a
road that is heavily used by trucks, for example, the location of warning signs for a dangerous
intersection must be placed sufficiently in advance to compensate for a truck’s longer stopping
distance (as compared to that of a car). Design of devices such as guardrails must take into
account the larger mass and higher centre of gravity of trucks as well. Because trucks serve so
many purposes, highly specialized vehicles have evolved to meet different needs. While
principles of standardization would indicate a desire to limit the type and configuration of trucks
in use, characteristics of transportation markets often lead to specialized vehicle developments.
The conflict between standardization and market need, and the sheer size and bulk of many
trucks, has led to a series of controversies concerning their safety performance. As long as
private, personally owned automobiles must share roadway space with very large commercially
owned trucks, the conflicts and controversy are likely to continue.

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Common control techniques
Traffic signal controllers are electronic devices located at intersections that control the sequence
of the lights. Along with computers, communications equipment, and detectors to count and
measure traffic, the controllers are frequently grouped together to control large numbers of traffic
signals, either at intersections in a city or on ramps approaching expressways and motorways.
While the detailed brand and type of equipment vary greatly, the functions performed by the
systems are generally consistent.

There are four basic elements in a computerized traffic control system: computer(s),
communications devices, traffic signals and associated equipment, and detectors for sensing
vehicles. Traffic flow information is picked up by the detectors from the roadway and
transmitted to the computer system for processing. The detectors are normally embedded in or
suspended above the roadway. Vehicle counts and speeds are typically measured; vehicle type
(e.g., auto or truck) also may be obtained. The computer processes the traffic flow data to
determine the proper sequence for the lights at the intersections or ramps. The sequencing
information is transmitted from the computer through communications equipment to the signals.
In order to assure safe and proper operation, information is also transmitted from the traffic
signals to the computer, confirming proper operation. Humans can interact with the system by
accessing the computer system in some way.

While these are the general principles, important variations are possible. First, it is common to
find some form of computer as part of the traffic signal at the intersection or ramp to be
controlled. This allows the local computer to process traffic flow data directly, reducing
communications needs and costs. Another variation is that selected vehicles themselves may
transmit traffic data directly to the computer system. This is frequently combined with the ability
to receive information in the vehicle regarding points of congestion, so the driver can choose to
avoid them. If the two-way communication exists between the vehicles and computer system, it
may not be necessary to have separate physical detectors.

Another area of application for traffic control devices is their use in traffic restraint (often called
traffic “calming”). Rather than use traffic control to increase efficiency of movement, controls
are used to create impediments that restrain traffic from sensitive areas. Most commonly applied
in older cities whose road network does not match current needs, traffic restraint seeks to funnel
traffic onto particular routes by creating impediments to movement on others. These other routes
typically have some special value—a historic site or a residential character—that requires
protection. Devices typically used include speed bumps, barricades to block streets, turn
prohibitions, stop signs, and raised pavement markers.

Traffic restraint also includes programs to foster bicycle and pedestrian travel. Wider sidewalks,
sometimes including tables and benches, and bicycle lanes frequently accompany restraint
actions. These programs recognize that what is good for vehicular travel may not necessarily be
positive for other road users, the environment, or the neighbourhood. An unfortunate aspect of
these programs is that their benefits and costs are highly localized. Those living on the “right”
side of the restraint device generally experience slow speed and lower traffic volume. Those
living along the routes onto which the traffic is funneled must endure increased vehicle volumes
and speeds.

Traffic control also can be used to give priority to high-occupancy passenger modes. The
objective of such actions is to emphasize people rather than vehicle movement. A variety of
techniques are available and are employed in priority treatment approaches. The most common is
the dedication of special lanes to the use of priority, or high-occupancy, vehicles. Buses and car
pools can use the lanes to move at high speeds along congested expressways and motorways,
bypass queues at expressway ramps, and move along congested arterial streets. Because these
special lanes are designed to operate uncongested, they provide an incentive, through reduced
travel times, for travelers to leave private single-passenger automobiles and travel by
multipassenger modes. Buses also may be given priority by allowing only them to turn at
intersections and to be provided with extra green time at a traffic signal. The undesirable feature
of such systems is that they provide improved service to high-occupancy modes while sustaining
or increasing congestion for others. The residual congestion for other road users may result in
continued wasteful fuel consumption and high vehicle pollutant emission.

New concepts
Rapid and continuous advances in communications and computer technology are spurring a host
of new concepts in road traffic control. Automobiles equipped with on-board computers, driver
displays, and communications devices will receive instructions about the optimal path to a
destination from a traffic control centre. The vehicle also will periodically report its travel time
and speed to be used as part of the information for the computer to give advice. In more
advanced systems, the timing of traffic signals at intersections and ramps will be coordinated
with the routing advice. Rather than simply accommodating vehicles that travel through the
network, the system will cause patterns of travel to be altered. Computers and sensors within the
vehicle will monitor the operation of critical safety systems (e.g., brakes, steering), warning the
driver when conditions exceed nominal values.

Communications and computers also will aid the movement of trucks and other commercial
vehicles in urban areas. A dispatcher will be able to alter the schedule while the driver is on the
road. For these companies, this means reduced costs, and for their customers, improved service.
Drivers on long-distance intercity trips can be warned of impending bad weather. They also can
receive warnings if they are entering a curve too quickly or an intersection too fast. Road safety
should be greatly enhanced by such systems.

Public transit users should be able to receive more accurate information concerning travel time
and seat availability on buses and trains. If accurate information can be provided in the home or
office, the systems can spread peak loads, making service less expensive to provide and the trip
more comfortable for the traveler. Those who are informed of congestion or uncomfortable
conditions can use another system to find a match for a car pool participant. Alternatively,
individuals may “telecommute,” staying at home and working with their office electronically.
Lastly, the ultimate system is viewed as an automatic vehicle-control system in which a driver’s
vehicle is checked at an authorized station, then proceeds on a highway, lane, or local street. The
spacing to the vehicle ahead and lateral control within the lane are determined by on-board
computers. Maximum flows are expected to increase from 2,000 vehicles per hour per lane to as
many as 10,000 to 20,000. The increased flows will mean substantial reductions in congestion
and, because vehicles are automatically controlled, improvements in road safety through the
elimination of accidents due to driver error.

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The purpose of making this paper is to discuss the solution of problem that we face with conventional
traffic light system. In conventional traffic light system, we need to wait for more times even if there is
no traffic in other sides of junction. To solve this problem I propose the idea of video processing for
detecting traffic congestion and framework of traffic control system. This proposed idea has many
applications in real day-to-day life. It can used to reduce traffic accident by controlling the traffi c across
the signal. Smart traffic light is smart enough to reduce waiting time at the signal by allowing green
signal only when there is traffic in the road.