TESOL 3 AREAS:

1. L2 Pedagogy
2. Second Language Development
3. Language in use

L2 Pedagogy:Approaches in ESL/EFL; Teaching ESL/EFL,

Reading/writing/Listening/Speaking/Vocabulary; ESL/EFL Curriculum and Materials;
Assessment of Second Language Learners; Fieldwork in TESOL; Bilingual Education;
Creative Arts in L2 Teaching

- Approaches in ESL/EFL:

1. Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

a. Focus: Emphasizes learning grammar rules and vocabulary, often through translation
exercises between the native language (L1) and the target language (L2).
b. Key Features:
i. Focus on reading and writing
ii. Little emphasis on speaking or listening.
iii. Accuracy in grammar and translation is prioritized.

2. Direct Method (DM)

a. Focus: Language is taught directly in the target language without translation. The
goal is to develop communicative competence.
b. Key Features:
i. Immersive language environment with no use of L1.
ii. Focus on speaking and listening.
iii. Inductive teaching of grammar (learners infer rules from examples).

3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

a. Focus: Language is taught as a tool for communication, prioritizing the ability to use
language in real-life contexts over the mastery of isolated grammar rules.
b. Key Features:
i. Emphasis on interaction and communication.
ii. Task-based and student-centered activities.
iii. Focus on fluency over accuracy, though both are important.

4. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

 a. Focus: Learning occurs through engaging students in meaningful tasks where
language is a tool to achieve specific goals (e.g., solving problems, completing
projects).
b. Key Features:
i. Real-world tasks as the core of learning activities.
ii. Focus on meaningful use of language.
iii. Tasks are sequenced from simple to complex.

5. Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

a. Focus: English is taught through subject matter (e.g., history, science) rather than as
an isolated subject. Language is learned as students focus on meaningful content.
b. Key Features:
i. Integration of content and language learning.
ii. Authentic materials and tasks.
iii. Scaffolding to support language and content understanding.

6. Total Physical Response (TPR)

a. Focus: Learners acquire language by connecting language with physical movement.
This method is particularly effective with beginners and young learners.
b. Key Features:
i. Emphasis on listening and responding with physical actions.
ii. Low stress, engaging, and kinesthetic learning environment.
iii. Language comprehension precedes production.

7. Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT)

a. Focus: This approach is centered on teaching the skills and knowledge needed to
perform specific tasks in real-world contexts. It is often used in vocational and
professional ESL settings.
b. Key Features:
i. Focus on functional language and job-related competencies.
ii. Clear, measurable outcomes.
iii. Emphasis on practical, task-based language skills..

8. Community Language Learning (CLL)

a. Focus: In this method, learners work together in groups, with the teacher acting as a
facilitator and counselor. It is based on humanistic psychology.
b. Key Features:
i. Collaborative and supportive learning environment.
ii. Emphasis on group work and peer interaction.
iii. Teacher as a guide, providing support and feedback.
- Teaching ESL/EFL

1. Understanding Learner Contexts

a. ESL vs. EFL:
i. ESL learners are in an English-speaking environment, and they often need
the language for survival, work, or social integration.
ii. EFL learners are usually in their home countries where English is not
widely spoken and may need English for academic, professional, or travel
purposes.
iii. Learner Needs: It's essential to understand why learners are studying
English (e.g., academic, professional, or general use) and adjust lessons
accordingly.

2. Lesson Planning
a. SMART Objectives: Each lesson should have a clear language objective, whether
it's learning vocabulary, practicing grammar, or developing conversational skills.
b. Skill Integration: Lessons should often integrate multiple skills (e.g., reading with
a follow-up speaking activity).
c. Task-Based Learning: Use real-life tasks, such as ordering food or giving
directions, that engage students in using the language in practical ways.

3. Communicative Approach
a. Focus on Communication: Emphasizing communication rather than just learning
grammar rules is key. This can be achieved through interactive activities like role
plays, group discussions, and problem-solving tasks.
b. Fluency and Accuracy: While fluency (speaking without hesitation) is often
prioritized in communicative activities, accuracy (correct grammar,
pronunciation) should not be neglected.

4. Cultural Competence
a. Cultural Awareness: ESL/EFL teaching involves more than just language; it
includes teaching about cultural norms, idiomatic expressions, and how language
is used in different contexts (e.g., formal vs. informal settings).
b. Avoiding Cultural Bias: In an EFL context, materials and lessons should be
culturally relevant and not solely centered on English-speaking countries.

5. Classroom Interaction
a. Student-Centered Learning: Shift the focus from the teacher to the students by
encouraging more peer interaction, group work, and collaborative learning.
 b. Pair and Group Work: These activities increase student talking time and help
learners practice language with peers in a less formal, supportive environment.

6. Differentiating Instruction
a. Mixed Proficiency Levels: ESL/EFL classes often contain learners with varying
levels of proficiency. Differentiating instruction involves tailoring activities to
meet the needs of different learners within the same class, such as offering easier
tasks for beginners or challenging tasks for advanced students.
b. Learning Styles: Some learners may prefer visual aids, while others might benefit
more from auditory or kinesthetic learning. Varying teaching materials to cater to
different learning styles is important.

- Reading/Writing/Listening/Speaking
1. Speaking: Use dialogues, role-playing, and conversation practice to build confidence in
spoken English. Emphasize real-life conversational skills and pronunciation.
2. Listening: Use authentic materials such as podcasts, interviews, and songs. Help students
develop the ability to understand various accents and speeds of speech.
3. Reading: Encourage extensive reading (reading for pleasure) as well as intensive reading
(reading for comprehension). Select texts that are appropriate to the learners' level and
interests.
4. Writing: Teach different types of writing (e.g., narrative, argumentative, formal emails).
Focus on structure, coherence, and correct grammar usage in written assignments.
5. Grammar and Vocabulary: While communicative language use is a priority, explicit
grammar instruction is still necessary, especially in EFL contexts. Teach vocabulary in
context, emphasizing collocations (word combinations) and usage.

- Assessment of Second Language

1. Formative Assessment: Provide continuous feedback during the learning process through
quizzes, speaking activities, and peer evaluations to monitor student progress.
2. Summative Assessment: At the end of a unit or course, use tests or projects to evaluate
students' mastery of the material.
3. Feedback: Give constructive feedback that focuses on improvement, using praise and
suggestions to guide learners rather than simply pointing out mistakes.

- Challenges in ESL/EFL
1. Overcoming L1 Interference: Learners often transfer rules from their native language,
leading to errors in English. Address these through targeted instruction and awareness of
common mistakes.
2. Fossilization: In some learners, mistakes may become ingrained (fossilized) over time.
Regular correction and focused practice can help mitigate this.
 3. Motivation: EFL learners may struggle to stay motivated if they do not have regular
exposure to English outside the classroom. Integrating technology, media, and real-life
examples can help sustain interest.

- Classroom Management
1. Creating a Positive Learning Environment: Establishing a supportive, respectful
classroom atmosphere encourages participation and reduces anxiety about making
mistakes.
2. Clear Expectations: Set clear guidelines and expectations for behavior, participation, and
homework to create an organized and productive classroom setting.

Second Language Development: Educational Linguistic; Classroom Discourse; Second

language Acquisition; Structure of English; Corpus Linguistics; Vocabulary Research and
Teaching; Language for Specific-Purpose; Second language Research

1. Feedback

1. Universal Grammar (UG)

● Definition: Associated with Noam Chomsky, Universal Grammar suggests that all
humans are born with an innate knowledge of the basic structure of language, which
helps them learn any language.
● Key Features:
○ Innate linguistic knowledge: Humans are pre-programmed to acquire language.
○ Debate exists about how much UG applies to second language acquisition.
○ Learners may rely on this innate knowledge to acquire certain aspects of L2,
though this is more apparent in first language acquisition.

2. Interlanguage(Impact of L1)
● Definition: Interlanguage refers to the evolving linguistic system that L2 learners create
as they move toward full proficiency. It is influenced by the learner’s native language
(L1), the target language (L2), and the learner’s cognitive strategies.
● Key Features:
○ Contains features of both L1 and L2.
○ Systematic, though it may include non-native forms.
○ Can lead to fossilization, where errors become permanent.
 3. Cognitive Approaches (Skill Acquisition Theory)
● Definition: Cognitive approaches, such as Skill Acquisition Theory, view second
language development as a gradual process of acquiring skills, moving from declarative
knowledge (knowing about language rules) to procedural knowledge (using language
automatically in communication).
● Key Features:
○ Emphasis on practice and repeated exposure to develop automaticity.
○ Involves explicit instruction followed by practice until learners can use language
effortlessly.
○ Focuses on the transition from controlled to automatic processing.

4. L1 Transfer
● Definition: Transfer occurs when learners apply knowledge from their native language
(L1) to the second language (L2). This can result in both positive transfer (when
similarities between L1 and L2 facilitate learning) and negative transfer (when
differences cause errors).
● Key Features:
○ Positive transfer helps learners pick up similar language structures in L2.
○ Negative transfer (or interference) leads to errors, such as applying L1 grammar
rules incorrectly to L2.
○ Common in the early stages of L2 development but may persist.

5. Input Hypothesis (Krashen)

● Definition: Proposed by Stephen Krashen, this hypothesis emphasizes the importance of
comprehensible input—language input that is slightly above the learner’s current level
(i+1)—as essential for language acquisition.
● Key Features:
○ Learners acquire language naturally when exposed to input they can understand.
○ Minimal focus on explicit grammar instruction.
○ Emphasis on meaning rather than form.

6. Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt)

● Definition: Richard Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis suggests that learners must notice
features of the target language (such as grammar rules, vocabulary, or pronunciation) in
order to acquire them.
● Key Features:
○ Conscious awareness of language forms is necessary for acquisition.
○ Attention to specific language structures during input is crucial.
○ Encourages the use of input enhancement techniques, like highlighting grammar
forms in texts.

7. Output Hypothesis (Swain)

● Definition: Merrill Swain’s Output Hypothesis argues that producing language
(speaking or writing) is just as important as receiving input. Output forces learners to
process language at a deeper level and helps them notice gaps in their knowledge.
● Key Features:
○ Learners benefit from opportunities to produce language.
○ Output promotes noticing errors and gaps in grammar or vocabulary.
○ Encourages interaction and negotiation of meaning.

8. Interaction Hypothesis (Long)

● Definition: Michael Long’s Interaction Hypothesis highlights the role of interaction in
second language acquisition. Language learning is facilitated through conversational
interaction where learners negotiate meaning and receive feedback.
● Key Features:
○ Conversational adjustments (recasting, clarification requests) help learners
process input.
○ Negotiation of meaning (e.g., asking for clarification) enhances comprehension.
○ Interaction promotes both input and output.

9. Sociocultural Theory
● Definition: Sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural
context in language development. Language learning occurs through social activities and
interaction with more knowledgeable peers or teachers.
● Key Features:
○ Learners co-construct knowledge through dialogue and collaboration.
 ○ Emphasizes mediation through tools such as language, technology, or peer
support.
○ Focus on how social interaction helps learners internalize language.

10. The Role of Motivation

● Definition: Motivation is a critical factor in second language development. It influences
how much effort learners put into acquiring the language, the strategies they use, and
their long-term success.
● Types of Motivation:
○ Integrative Motivation: Desire to learn the language to integrate into a
community or culture.
○ Instrumental Motivation: Learning the language for practical reasons, such as
career advancement or passing exams.
○ Intrinsic Motivation: Learning for personal satisfaction or enjoyment.
○ Extrinsic Motivation: Learning due to external rewards or pressures.

11. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) & Scaffolding (Vygotsky)

● Definition: Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) refers to the gap
between what learners can do independently and what they can do with assistance.
Scaffolding is the support provided by teachers or peers to help learners perform tasks
they could not do alone.
● Key Features:
○ Learners need support (scaffolding) to move through their ZPD.
○ Scaffolding is gradually withdrawn as learners become more proficient.
○ Emphasizes social interaction and collaboration in learning.

12. Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen)

● Definition: Part of Krashen’s theory, the Affective Filter Hypothesis proposes that
emotional factors, such as motivation, anxiety, and self-confidence, affect language
acquisition. A high affective filter (high anxiety, low confidence) can block input from
being processed effectively.
● Key Features:
○ Lowering the affective filter (e.g., reducing anxiety, increasing motivation)
facilitates language acquisition.
○ A low-stress environment supports more effective learning.
 ○ Teachers should promote positive attitudes toward learning.

13. Implicit vs. Explicit Learning

● Definition: Implicit learning refers to unconscious language acquisition through
exposure and interaction, while explicit learning involves conscious study and
awareness of language rules.
● Key Features:
○ Implicit learning: Learners acquire language subconsciously, often through
immersion, similar to how children learn their first language.
○ Explicit learning: Involves deliberate study, such as grammar explanations and
vocabulary memorization.
○ A balance between both types is often seen as beneficial, with explicit learning
supporting implicit acquisition.

Language in use :Sociolinguistics; Multilingualism; Sociology of Language; Language and

gender; Intercultural Communication; World Englishes; Multicultural Education;
Language Policy; Language Diversity; Communication and Culture in Context;
Microethnography

1. Sociolinguistics
● Definition: Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society,
focusing on how language varies across different social groups and contexts.
● Key Features:
○ Language variation: Examines how dialects, accents, and language use differ
based on factors such as region, class, gender, and age.
○ Language and identity: Investigates how individuals use language to signal their
social identity.
○ Code-switching: The practice of switching between languages or language
varieties in different social settings.
○ In TESOL: Understanding sociolinguistic factors can help teachers appreciate the
linguistic diversity in their classrooms and tailor their instruction accordingly.

2. Multilingualism
● Definition: Refers to the ability to use multiple languages fluently, and the study of how
individuals and societies manage more than one language.
● Key Features:
○ Bilingualism: Often considered a subset of multilingualism, dealing specifically
with the use of two languages.
○ Cognitive advantages: Research suggests that multilingual individuals may have
cognitive benefits, such as better problem-solving and multitasking abilities.
○ Language maintenance and shift: Concerns how communities maintain their
languages or shift to dominant ones over time.
○ In TESOL: Multilingual learners bring rich linguistic resources to the classroom,
and teachers need to support both their L2 development and their L1 maintenance.

3. Sociology of Language
● Definition: A field that examines the social functions of language, focusing on how
language shapes and is shaped by social institutions.
● Key Features:
○ Language and power: Investigates how language can reinforce or challenge
power structures (e.g., language use in legal or educational systems).
○ Language ideologies: Explores beliefs and attitudes about languages, such as
what is considered "standard" or "prestigious."
○ Language planning and policy: Looks at how governments and institutions
regulate language use.
○ In TESOL: Teachers can become aware of how societal views on language impact
their students' learning experiences and opportunities.

4. Language and Gender

● Definition: Explores how language use differs between genders and how language
reflects and reinforces gender roles and identities.
● Key Features:
○ Gendered language: Studies differences in how men and women use language,
such as politeness strategies or conversational styles.
○ Language and power dynamics: How language can be used to assert dominance
or show deference in gendered interactions.
○ Gender-neutral language: The movement toward using language that avoids
bias or discrimination based on gender.
○ In TESOL: Awareness of gendered language use can help teachers address
potential inequalities in classroom interactions and material design.
5. Intercultural Communication
● Definition: The study of how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate,
and how cultural differences affect communication.
● Key Features:
○ Cultural competence: The ability to communicate effectively and appropriately
in intercultural situations.
○ Non-verbal communication: Examines differences in gestures, body language,
and other non-verbal cues across cultures.
○ High-context vs. low-context cultures: High-context cultures rely more on
implicit communication and non-verbal cues, while low-context cultures focus on
explicit, direct communication.
○ In TESOL: Teachers need to help students navigate not only the linguistic but
also the cultural aspects of communication in a globalized world.

6. Multicultural Education
● Definition: A pedagogical approach that seeks to recognize and respect cultural diversity
within the classroom and curriculum.
● Key Features:
○ Culturally responsive teaching: Teaching that incorporates students' cultural
backgrounds into the learning process.
○ Equity in education: Ensuring that students from all cultural backgrounds have
access to the same opportunities and resources.
○ Curriculum inclusivity: Using texts and materials that reflect a wide range of
cultural perspectives.
○ In TESOL: Multicultural education encourages teachers to address the cultural
needs of their students, which is especially important in diverse ESL/EFL
classrooms.

7. World Englishes
● Definition: Refers to the different varieties of English spoken around the world, shaped
by local languages, cultures, and identities.
● Key Features:
○ Varieties of English: Recognizes that English is not uniform but exists in many
forms (e.g., Indian English, Nigerian English, Singaporean English).
○ Global English: The role of English as a global lingua franca in international
communication.
 ○ In TESOL: Understanding World Englishes allows teachers to embrace linguistic
diversity and avoid enforcing a narrow "standard" English that may marginalize
non-native varieties.

8. Communication and Culture in Context

● Definition: The study of how communication practices are shaped by cultural contexts,
focusing on how meaning is negotiated and constructed across cultures.
● Key Features:
○ Contextual meaning: How cultural norms and values influence what is
considered appropriate communication in different settings.
○ Cultural misunderstandings: How misinterpretations can occur when
communicators from different cultures interact.
○ Cultural adaptation: How individuals learn to adjust their communication styles
to different cultural contexts.
○ In TESOL: Teachers must prepare students to communicate effectively in diverse
cultural contexts, understanding the nuances of both verbal and non-verbal
communication.

9. Microethnography
● Definition: A research method that involves the close, detailed study of language use in
small, specific social interactions within a community or setting.
● Key Features:
○ Focus on everyday language use: Examines how individuals use language in
specific, often mundane, social interactions.
○ Contextual analysis: Microethnography considers the influence of cultural and
social factors on communication.
○ Participant observation: Researchers immerse themselves in the community to
observe and document language use.
○ In TESOL: Microethnography can inform teachers about the specific
communicative practices of their students' communities, leading to more
culturally relevant instruction.

10. Pragmatics
● Definition: Pragmatics deals with how language is used in social contexts and how
meaning is interpreted beyond the literal meaning of words.
● Key Features:
○ Speech acts: Acts performed through language (e.g., apologizing, requesting,
commanding).
○ Politeness strategies: Ways of maintaining social harmony through language
(e.g., using indirect requests to sound more polite).
○ Context: Understanding that meaning is influenced by context (e.g., who is
speaking, the relationship between speakers, the setting).
○ Pragmatic competence: The ability to use language appropriately in different
situations.

11. Conversation Analysis

● Definition: Conversation analysis studies the structure and organization of talk in
interaction, examining how participants manage communication in real-time.
● Key Features:
○ Focus on turn-taking: How speakers manage when to speak and when to listen.
○ Adjacency pairs: Pairs of utterances that are logically connected (e.g., question
and answer, greeting and response).
○ Repair strategies: How speakers fix misunderstandings or errors in conversation.
○ Back-channeling: Listener responses (e.g., "uh-huh," "yeah") that show attention
or agreement.