Tribhuvan University

Amrit science Campus (ASCOL)

Lainchaur, Kathmandu

Submitted By Submitted To:

Manjil Gautam Chaturbhuj Bhatta
Date: 2079-04-15 Department of CSIT
1. What is computer network? Explain different types of computer network?
A computer network is an interconnection among two or more computers or
computing devices. Such interconnection allows computers to share data and
resources among each other. A basic network may connect a few computers placed in
a room. The network size may vary from small to large depending on the number of
computers it connects. A computer network can include different types of hosts (also
called nodes) like server, desktop, laptop, cellular phones etc.
In general, A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing
hardware devices that are linked together through communication channels to
facilitate communication and resource sharing among a wide range of user.

Types of Computer Network

Computer network is broadly classified into three types: 1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2.Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) 3.Wide Area Network (WAN). The different
network types are distinguished from each other based on the following characteristics:
 Size of network
 Transmission Technology
 Networking Topology
Local Area Network (LAN)
It is the computer network within a very limited area and connected in a way that
enables them to communicate with one another. It is confined with small geographical
area like exits in a single building or extended up to group of adjacent buildings. It is
simple and cheaper than other networking system, security is provided because no any
outsider can access the resources of a private network. Star, Bus, and Ring are some
of the common LAN networking topologies.
Features:
 It covers small geographical area
 It uses guided transmission media.
 All the components share common protocol.
 Communication cost is low and speed is 1mbps to 100mbps.
 It is private and ownership is of single organization.
Metropolitan Area Network
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which covers a larger
geographical area like a city or a town. Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps,
but it is considerably less as compared to LAN. Cable TV network or cable based
broadband internet services are examples of MAN. This kind of network can be
 extended up to 30-40 km. Sometimes, many LANs are connected together to form
MAN.
Features:
 Network size generally ranges from 5 to 50 km. It may be as small as a group of
buildings in a campus to as large as covering the whole city.
 Data rates are moderate to high.
 In general, a MAN is either owned by a user group or by a network provider who sells
service to users, rather than a single organization as in LAN.
 It facilitates sharing of regional resources.
 They provide uplinks for connecting LANs to WANs and Internet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network connects computers and other LANs and MANs, which are spread
across different geographical locations of a country or in different countries or continents.
A WAN could be formed by connecting a LAN to other LANs via wired/wireless media.
Large business, educational and government organizations connect their different
branches in different locations across the world through WAN. The Internet is the largest
WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones and millions of LANs from
different continents.
Features:
 It can support large geographical area.
 Wireless media, especially communication satellite is used.
 Different types of protocol can be used.
 Communication cost is high.
 Special security is needed.
 WAN has less speed i.e upto 150 mbps
 Maintaining WAN is difficult because of its wider geographical coverage and higher
maintenance costs.
 WAN experiences more data transmission errors.
 Best Example: Internet.

Metropolitan Area Network MAN

Figure: Types of Computer Networks

2. What is network topology? Explain different types of network topologies with its
advantages and disadvantages?
A network topology is the arrangement of computers, cable, and other components on
a network or a map of geometrical shape of physical network of computer is network
topology. The term topology refers to the manner and complexity of interconnections
between nodes on the network. It is the logical way of explaining how computers are
connected each other and show physically how they are linked.
The different types of network topologies that are used in network are generally Bus
topology, Star topology, and Ring topology.

 Bus Topology
A topology in which all of the computers in a network are attached to the continuous
cable or segments that are connects them in a straight line is called bus topology. In a
bus topology a set of clients are connected through a shared communication line called
bus. Terminators are used at the both end of cable to absorb the singles so it doesn’t
reflect back across the bus.

Advantages:
 It is simple, reliable, and easy to use and understand.
 The bus requires least amount of cabling to connect the computer together
therefore less expensive than other cabling arrangement.
 It is easy to extend a bus, two cable can be joined into one long cable with a BNC
barrel network connector, making a longer cable and allowing more computer to
join the network.
 Failure of one computer does not affect other.
 Easiest network topology for connecting computer or peripherals in a linear
fashion and required less cable then star topology.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to identify the problems of the whole network goes down.
 Not great for large network as additional devices slow down the network.
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminator are required for both ends of the main cable.

 Ring topology
Ring topology, also known as ring network, is the type of network topology where each
node exactly connected to two other nodes, forward and backward, thus forming a
single continuous path for signal transmission. In this topology computers are arranged
 In a circle and data moves around the ring in one direction. It has token passing method
to provide access to the devices in the network. The protocols used to implement ring
topology are token ring.
Advantages
 All the data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
 A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each
workstation.
 Data can transfer between workstation at high speed.
 Additional workstation can be added without impacting performance of the
network.
 Because of every computer is given equal access to the token, no one computer
can monopolize the network.
Disadvantages
 All data being transferred over the network must pass through each
workstation on the network, which can make it slower than star topology.
 The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
 The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more
expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.
 More cabling is needed than a bus network.
 Very hard to find out error.

 Star topology
A network topology in which each of the devices and computers on a network connect
to a central hub or switch is called star topology. In a star topology network all cables
run from the computer to central location, where they are all connected by a device
called hub. Stars are used in concentrated network, where the end points are directly
reachable from the central location. A star network is best suited for smaller network
and work efficiently when there are a limited number of nodes. The common protocol
used in star topology are Ethernet, Token Ring, and LocalTalk.

Advantages
 It is easy to remove and add new computers to star network without disturbing
the rest of the network.
 Single computer failure does not necessarily bring down the whole star
network. The hub can be detect the problematic computer or network cable
and allow the rest of the network to continue functioning.
 Centralized control.
 Higher security.
Disadvantages
  If the central hub fails, the whole network fails or stop.
 It costs more to cable a star network because all network cable must be pulled
to one central point requiring more cable than other network topologies and
cost of hub.
 Data collision rate is high.

Figure: Types of network topology

3. What is transmission media? Explain different types of transmission media?

Transmission media is the pathway networked entities use to contact or connect each
other. Computer transmission media includes cable and wireless technologies that allow
network devices to contact one another. Transmission media carry the physical signals
corresponding to data from the sender to the receiver. Transmission media can be
classified into two categories.
 Guided Media:
Guided media transmits signals by sending electricity or light over a cable or wire. It
uses a cabling system that guided the data signals along a specific path. The data
signals are bounded by the cabling system so it is also called bounded media. Copper
 wire and optical fibers are most commonly used guided media. Copper wires offer
low resistance to current signal, facilitating signals to travel longer distance. Eg.
Twisted pair cable, co-axial cable, fiber-optic cable etc.

 Unguided media:
Unguided transmission media consist of a means for the data signals to travel but
nothing to guide them along a specific path. I.e. the data signals are not bound to a
cabling media so it is also called unbounded media. Unbounded media transmit data
through the open air. Radio waves, infrared signals and earth and satellite based
microwaves are all unbounded media.

4. Explain different types of Transmission mode.

Communication of data between more than one terminals is called transmission. Data
Transmission mode defines the direction of the flow of information between two
communication devices. It is also called Data Communication or Directional Mode. It
specifies the direction of the flow of information from one place to another in a
computer network. Communication can be simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.

Simplex:
The simplex transmission is the one that travels in only one direction. Out of the two
linked devices, only one of them can send data and the other one can only receive
data. This way of transmission can be also called unidirectional or one-way
transmission.
For example:
◦ Radio broadcasts
◦ Television broadcasts
◦ Internet streaming

Half duplex:
Half-duplex is a type of communication in which data can flow back and forth between
two devices but not simultaneously. Each device in a half-duplex system can send and
receive data but only one devices can transmit at a time.
 For example:
◦ Walkie-talkie
◦ Fax machines
◦ Automatic teller machine

Full duplex
In the full duplex mode of transmission, the communication is bi-directional, and the
channel is used by both the connected devices simultaneously. If the transmission is
possible in two ways at a time then it is called full duplex transmission. In this
transmission signal going in either direction share the capacity of link.
Example:
◦ Telephone network
◦ Mobile communication
◦ Satellite communication

5. What is switching? Explain different types of switching.

The controlling or routing of signals in circuits to transmit data between specific points
in a network is called switching. Network allow sharing of communication medium
using sharing. It sets up temporary connections between the network nodes to
facilitate sending of data. Switching allows different users, fair access to the shared
communication medium.
There are three kinds of switching techniques - (1) Packet switching, (2) Circuit
 switching, and (3) Message switching

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a method of implementing a telecommunication network in which
two network nodes establish a dedicated communication cannel (circuit) route
network before the nodes may communicate. The circuit guarantees the full
bandwidth of cannel remains connected for duration of communication. The path gets
reserved during the duration of the connection. Circuit switching is commonly used in
the telephone communication network.

Message Switching
Message switching is a network switching technique in which data is routed in its
entirety from the source node to the destination node, one hope at a time. In this
switching, every intermediate switch in the network stores the whole message. If the
entire network's resources are engaged or the network becomes blocked, the
message-switched network stores and delays the message until ample resources
become available for effective transmission of the message.

Packet Switching
Packet switching is a digital network transmission process in which data is broken into
suitably- sized pieces or blocks for fast and efficient transfer via different network
devices. When a computer attempts to send a file to another computer, the file is
broken into packets of defined size so that it can be sent across the network in the
most efficient way. These packets are then routed by network devices to the
destination. Each packet is numbered.

A packet is a self-contained part of data that can be sent over the network. It contains
the data to be transmitted and a header that contains information about the packet,
like the source and destination addresses, size of packet, error checking bytes etc.
Since the path through which the packets travel is not reserved, the packets may travel
through different paths in the network and may not reach the destination in order. At
the destination, the received packets are reassembled (according to the packet
number), and the complete message is constructed. Packet switching is suited for
interactive traffic. Packet switching limits the size of the packet and does not block a
network node for a long Time. Moreover, a node can transmit a packet before the
arrival of another full packet, thus reducing the delay. Packet switching is commonly
used for computer networks, including the Internet.

6. Explain different types of open system interconnection (OSI) model.

The International Standards Organization (ISO) has developed a seven-layer reference
model for data networks, known as Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The
model is called OSI reference model because it deals with connecting open systems-
that is the systems that are open for communications with other systems. It is
independent of the underlying architecture of the system and is thus an open system.
It is a standard description or reference model for how messages should be
transmitted between any two communicating parties in telecommunication network.
The OSI model describes how information from a software application in one
computer (source) moves through a network medium to a software application in
another computer (destination). The SI reference model is a conceptual model
composed of seven layers; each layer has the particular network functions or task. The
OSI model divides the task involved with moving information between networked
computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups.
The seven layers of the OSI model are:
The Seven layers of OSI model are
Layer 7: Application layer
Layer 6: Presentation layer
Layer 5: Session layer
Layer 4: Transport layer
Layer 3: Network layer
Layer 2: Data link layer
Layer 1: Physical layer
The top three layers of the OS model deal with application issues and generally are
implemented only in software. The bottom four layers of OSI model handle data
transport issues.

Physical Layer:
The physical layer is primarily concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel and other physical aspects of media being used to transmit
the data. This layer specifies the basic network hardware. Some of the characteristics
defined in the specification are - interface between transmission media and device,
encoding of bits, bit rate, error detection parameters, network topology, and the mode
of transmission (duplex, half-duplex or simplex).

Data Link Layer:

It provides access to the networking media and physical transmission across
the media. This layer specifies the functions required for node-to-node transmission
without errors. It uses MAC (medium access control) address to define hardware in
order to control access to media by multiple stations. It specifies the organization of
data into frames, error detection in frames during transmission, and how to transmit
frames over a network.

Network Layer:
This layer is responsible for source to destination delivery of a packet across
the multiple networks. It is responsible for providing connections and for routing
packets in the communication network. It ensures that each packet gets from its point
of origin to its final destination. The network layer specifies the assignment of IP
addresses (address structure, length of address etc.) to the packets and forwarding of
packets to the destination i.e. routing.

Transport Layer:
 The transport layer is responsible for process to process delivery, which is source to
destination delivery of the entire message. This layer is also responsible for the
ordering and reassembly of packets that may have been broken up to travel across
certain media. It specifies the details to handle reliable transfer of data. It handles end-
to-end error control and flow control, breaking up data into frames and reassembling
the frames.

Session Layer:
The session layer allows the user on separate machines to establishes, manages,
maintains and terminates communication channels between software programs on
network nodes. Communication sessions consist of service a request and service
response that occurs between applications located in different network devices. The
session layer maintains a session between the communicating devices. It includes
specifications for password and authentication, and maintaining synchronization
between the sender and the receiver.

Presentation Layer:
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted. It also concerned with other aspects of information representation such
as data compression which can be used to reduce the size of information that have to
be transmitted. This layer specifies the presentation and representation of data. Its
functions include translation of the representation of the data into an identifiable
format at the receiver end, encryption, and decryption of data etc.

Application Layer:
The application layer is closest to the end users and it provides application services for
remote login, file transfer, electronic mail. The application layer is used when
application on one machine starts communicating with another machine. This layer
specifies how an application uses a network. It deals with the services attached to the
data. It contains the protocols used by users like HTTP, protocol for file transfer and
electronic mail.

7. Explain any five network devices?

The devices having two or more ports to which the computers and other devices can
be connected are called network devices. Network devices has two main functions –
(1). It amplifies the signal to restore the original strength of the signal,
(2). It provides an interface to connect multiple computers and devices in a network.
Repeater, hub, switch, bridge, and gateway are examples of network connecting
devices.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

A Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware device through which the computer
connects to a network. NIC is an expansion card it can be either ISA or PCI, or can be
on-board integrated on a chipset. NIC work at both the data link layer and physical
layer of the OSI reference model. At the data link layer, NIC converts the data packets
into data frames, adds the Media Access address (MAC address) to data frames. At the
physical layer, it converts the data into signals and transmits it across the
communication medium. The MAC address is a globally unique hardware number
present on the IC and is specified by the NIC manufacturer. NIC depends upon the
configuration of the computer, unlike hub or switches that perform independently.

Bridge

Bridge is used to connect two LAN segments like a repeater; it forwards complete and
correct frames to the other segment. It does not forward any electrical interference
signals to the other segment. Bridge forwards a copy of the frame to the other
segment, only if necessary. If a frame is meant for a computer on the same segment,
then bridge does not forward a copy of the frame to other Bridge connects networks
that use different protocol at the Data Link Layer. The frame format or data in the two
networks is different. A bridge is also used to divide a network into separate broadcast
domains to reduce network graphic while maintaining connectivity between the
computers.

Switch

Switch also connects multiple computers in a network or different segments of the

same network. A hub simulates a single segment that is shared by all computers
attached to it (hub transmits the data to all computers attached to it). In a hub, at
most two computers can interact with each other at a given point of time. However, in
a switch each computer attached to a switch has a simulated LAN segment.
Switches work at the Data Link Layer of the OSI reference model. Hence, switches
consider data as frames and not as signals.

A data frame contains the MAC address of the destination computer. A switch receives
a signal as a data frame from a source computer on a port, checks the MAC address of
the frame, forwards the frame to the port connected to the destination computer
having the same MAC addresses, reconverts the frame back into signal and sends to
the destination computer. (Switching is a technique that reads the MAC address of the
data frame and forwards the data to the appropriate port). Switches, thus, regenerate
the signals.

Router

Router is used to connect heterogeneous networks. A router has a processor, memory,

and I/O interface for each network to which it connects. A router connects networks
that use different technologies, different media, and physical addressing schemes or
frame formats. A router can connect two LANs, a LAN and a WAN, or two WANs.
A router is used to interconnect the networks in the Internet. Router operates at the
Network layer of the OSI model (layer 3). Physically, a router resembles a bridge, but is
different from a bridge. A router determines which way is the shortest or fastest in a
network, and routes packets accordingly. Since it works at the Network layer, it moves
packets based on the IP addresses etc. In contrast, a bridge connects two LANs almost
permanently.

Hub:

It is like a repeater with multiple ports. But, hub does not amplify the incoming signal.
Hub operates at the Physical layer of OSI reference model, hence treats data as a
signal. Hubs are used to connect multiple segments of the same network. Hubs are
also used to connect computers to network that use Star topology. The port on the
hubs can also be used to connect another hub, switch, bridge or router. Hubs increase
the network traffic because they broadcast data to all the device connected all the
ports of the hub. It is preferable to use a hub in a small LAN having about 8-10
computers connected to it.