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UNIT 3 CN - Unit 3 of computer network complete note 3rd

year
B.tech (Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University)

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B.TECH
COMPUTER SCIENCE ENGINEERING
MCA/ BCA/ Polytechnic CS/ B.Sc. IT/CS
(AKTU, Lucknow)
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University
University, Uttar Pradesh

SUBJECT – Computer Network

UNIT 3- MOST EXPECTED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

By Vishal Dhiman

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Que 1.1. What is meant by unicast and multicast routing with suitable diagrams?
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
Unicast routing:
1. In unicast routing, there is one-to-one relation between the source and the
destination. That means only one source sends packets to only one destination.
2. The type of source and destination addresses included in the IP datagram are unicast
addresses assigned to the hosts as shown in Fig. 1.1.1.
3. In unicast routing, when a router receives a packet, it forwards that packet through
only one of its ports which corresponds to the optimum path.

Fig. 1.1.1.

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Broadcast routing
Broadcasting in computer network is a group communication, where a sender sends
data to receivers simultaneously. This is an all − to − all communica on model where
each sending device transmits data to all other devices in the network domain.
Broadcasting is shown in the following figure −

Multicast routing:
1.In multicasting, a message from a sender is to be sent to a group of destinations but
not all the destinations in a network.
2.A process has to send a message to all other processes in the group. For a small group
it is possible to send a point-to-point message.

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3.But this is expensive if the group is large. So, we have to send messages to a well
defined group which are small compared to the network size.
4.Sending message to such a group is called multicasting and the routing algorithm
used for multicasting is multicast routing.
5.Multicast routing is a special class of broadcast routing as shown in
Fig. 1.1.2.

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Que 1.2. What is unicast routing? Discuss unicast routing protocols.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
OR
Explain path vector routing protocol.
Answer
Unicast routing: Unicast routing:
1. In unicast routing, there is one-to-one relation between the source and the
destination. That means only one source sends packets to only one destination.
2.
The type of source and destination addresses included in the IP datagram is unicast
addresses assigned to the hosts.
3. In unicast routing, when a router receives a packet, it forwards that packet through
only one of its ports which corresponds to the optimum path.

Unicast routing protocols are:

i. Distance vector routing protocol:
1. In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table.
2. Routing table contains one entry for each router in the subnet.

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3. This entry has two parts:

а. The first part shows the preferred outgoing line to be used to reach the specific
destination.
b. The second part gives an estimate of the time or distance to that destination.
4. In distance vector routing, we assume that each router knows the identity of every
other router in the network, but the shortest part to each router is not known.
5. A distance vector is defined as the list of <destination, cost> tuples, one tuple per
destination. Each router maintains a distance vector.
6. The cost in each tuple is equal to the sum of costs on the shortest path to the
destination.
ii. Link state routing protocols:
1. The link state routing is simple and each router has to perform the following five
operations:
a. Discover its neighbours and learn their network address.
b. Measure the delay or cost to each of its neighbours.
c. Construct a packet containing the network addresses and the delays of
neighbours.
d. Send this packet to all other routers.
e. Compute the shortest path to every other router.
2. The complete topology and all the delays are experimentally measured and this
information is conveyed to each and every router.

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3. Then, a shortest path algorithm such as Dijkstra's algorithm can be used to find
the shortest path to every other router.
iii. Path vector routing protocols:
1. Path vector routing is useful for inter domain routing.
2. In path vector routing, there is one node in each Autonomous System (ASs) that acts
on behalf of the entire ASs.
3. This single node is called the speaker node. The speaker node in an authentication
server creates a routing table and advertises it to speaker nodes in the neighboring
ASs.
4. The principle of path vector routing is same as for distance vector routing except that
only speaker nodes in each AS can communicate with each other.
5. A speaker node advertises the path, not the metric of the nodes, in its autonomous
system, or other autonomous systems.

Que 1.3. Describe the problem of count-to-infinity associated with distance vector
routing technique.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
Count-to-infinity problem:
1. The main issue with Distance Vector Routing (DVR) protocols is routing loops.
2. This routing loops in DVR network causes count-to-infinity problem.

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3. In distance vector routing, routing loops usually occur when an interface goes down.
4. Routing loops usually occur when any interface goes down or two routers send
updates at the same time.
Explanation:
1. Consider a network connected with thr three routers as shown in Fig. 1.3.1.
1.

2. Let the matrices (weight or cost) between the routers is the number of jumps to
reach the neighbor router.
3. In the Fig. 1.3.1. cost between B and C is 1 and cost between A and C is 2.
4. Now suppose the link between B and C is disconnected, then B will know that it can
no longer get to C via that link and will remove it from its table.
5. Before it can send any updates, it may be possible that it will receive an update
from A which will be advertising that it can get to C at a cost of 2.
6. B can get to A at a cost of 1, so it will update a route to C via A at a cost of 3.
7. A will then receive updates from B later and update its cost to 3.
8. This will slowly propagates through the network until it reaches in infinity.
finity.
This will cause count-to-infinity
infinity problem.

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Que 1.4. What is congestion and congestion control? Discuss open-loop congestion
control techniques.
OR
What is congestion? Name the techniques that prevent congestion.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
OR
What is congestion? Briefly describe the techniques that prevent congestion.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Congestion: Congestion is a situation which may occur if users send data into the
network at a rate greater than that allowed by network resources.

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Congestion control: Congestion control refers to techniques and mechanisms that can
either prevent congestion, before it happens, or remove congestion, after it has
happened.

Techniques to prevent congestion:

1. Open-loop congestion control: In open-loop congestion control, policies are applied
to prevent congestion before it happens. In these mechanisms, congestion control is
handled by either the source or the destination. Following are the policies that can
Prevent congestion:
i. Retransmission policy: The retransmission policy is designed to optimize
efficiency and at the same time prevent congestion.
ii. Window policy: The type of window at the sender may also affect congestion.
The selective repeat window is better than the Go-Back-N window for
congestion control.
iii. Acknowledgement policy: The acknowledgement policy imposed by the
receiver may also affect congestion. If the receiver does not acknowledge every
packet it receives, it may slow down the sender and help to prevent congestion.

2. Closed-loop congestion control: Closed-loop congestion control mechanisms try to

reduce congestion after it happens. Several mechanisms have been used by different
protocols which are as follows:

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i. Back pressure: The technique of backpressure refers to a congestion control

mechanism in which a congested node stops receiving data from the immediate
upstream node or nodes.

ii. Choke to inform about congestion. In the choke packet method the warning is
from the router, which has encountered congestion. to the source station
directly.

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iii. Implicit signaling: In implicit signaling, there is no communication between the

congested node or nodes and the source
iv. Explicit signaling: The node that experiences congestion can explicitly send a
signal to the source or destination.

Que 1.5. What is the difference between open-loop congestion control and closed-
loop congestion control?

Answer
S.no. Open-loop congestion control Closed-loop congestion control

1. Open-loop congestion control is based Closed-loop congestion control is based

on prevention of congestion. on the solution for removing the
congestion.
2. It prevents the congestion from It removes the congestion after it took
happening. place.
3. It does not need end to end feedback. It adjusts its data rate depending on
some kind of feedback.
4. Mechanisms are as follow : Mechanisms are as follow:
i. Retransmission policy i. Back pressure
ii. Window policy ii. Choke packet

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iii. Acknowledgement policy iii. Implicit signaling

iv. Admission policy iv. Explicit signaling

Que 1.6. Define traffic shaping. Elaborate leaky bucket algorithm used for congestion
control.
OR
What is the congestion in network layer? Discuss at least one algorithm used for
congestion control.
OR
Write a short note on leaky bucket algorithm.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
Traffic shaping: Traffic shaping is a mechanism to control the amount and the rate of
the traffic sent to the network.

Leaky bucket algorithm:

1. If a bucket has a small hole at the bottom, the water leaks from the bucket at a
constant rate as long as there is water in the bucket.
2. The rate at which the water leaks does not depend on the rate at which the water
is input to the bucket unless the bucket is empty.

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3. The input rate can vary, but the output rate remains constant. Similarly, in
networking, a technique called leaky bucket which can smooth out bursty traffic.
4. Bursty chunks are stored in the bucket and sent out at an average rate.
5. A simple leaky bucket implementation is shown in Fig. 1.6.1, a FIFO queue holds
the packets. If the traffic consists of fixed size packets the process removes a fixed
number of packets from the queue at each tick of the clock.

Fig. 1.6.1.

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6. If the traffic
affic consists of variable length packets, the fixed output rate must be
based on the number of Bytes or bits.
7. The following is an algorithm for variable length packets:
i. Initialize a counter to n at the tick of the clock.
ii. If n is greater than the size of the packet, send the packet and decrement the
counter by the packet size. Repeat this step until n is smaller than the packet size.
iii. Reset the counter and go to step (i).

Que 1.7 Explain IP addressing.

Answer
1. IP addressing stands for internet protocol addressing. An IP address is a unique
number provided to each an every devices
devices.
2. It is in the form of integric number which is separated by dot(.)
3. Example – 192.168.10.26
168.10.26
4. Each IP address includes a networkID and a hostID.

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Que 1.8. Give the classification of different IP address.

OR
What is IP addressing? How it is classified? How is subnet addressing is performed?
AKTU 2015-16, 2017-18; Marks 10

Classification of IP address:
1. Class A:
i. Class A addresses are assigned to networks with a very large number of hosts.
ii.The high-order bit in a class A address is always set to 0.
ii. The next seven bits (completing the first octet) complete networkID. The
remaining 24-bits (the last three octets) represent the hostID.
Classes of IP
Class A – 0 to 126 – (125.255.23.17)

IP- 127.0.0.1 (Local Server) – hacking (for Experiments)

2. Class B:
i. Class B addresses are assigned to medium-sized to large-sized networks.
ii. The two high-order bit in a class B address are always set to binary 10.
iii. The next 14-bits (completing the first two octets) complete the networkID. The
remaining 16-bits (last two octets) represent the hostID.

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Classes of IP
Class B – 128 to 191 – (191.23.28.147)

3. Class C:
i.Class C addresses are used for small networks.
ii. The three high-order bits in a class C address are always set to binary 110.
iii.The next 21-bits (completing the first three octets) complete the networkID. The
remaining 8-bits (last octet) represent the hostID.

Classes of IP
Class C – 192 to 233 – (192.203.28.117)

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4. Class D:
i. Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses.
ii. The four high-order bits in a class D address are always set to binary 1110.
iv. The remaining bits are for the addresses that interested hosts will recognize.

Classes of IP
Class D – 224 to 239 – (used for multicasting)

5. Class E:
i. Class E addresses are experimental addresses reserved for future use.
ii.The high-order bits in a class E address are set to 1111.
Classes of IP
Class E – 240 to 255 – (used for Research)

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Que 1.8.. Explain the types of IP address.

Answer: There are two types of IP addresses:

1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) :

 Length- 32bits
 Octet- 4
 0 to 255
 4 billion (232)
 192.168.10.26
IPv4 address format :
i. The 32-bit
bit IPv4 address is grouped into groups of 8
8-bits,
bits, separated by dots. Each 8-bit
8
group is then converted into its equivalent binary number as shown in Fig. 1.8.1
ii. Thus each octet (8-bit)
bit) can take value from (0 to 255). The IPv4 in the dotted decimal
notation can range from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

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2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) :

 Length 128 bits
 Octet- 8
 0 to FFFF (65535)
 340 trillion (2128)
 3FBB:1806:4545:2:100:L8FF:FE21:97EF
4545:2:100:L8FF:FE21:97EF

An IPv6 address is 128-bit

bit long as shown in Fig. 1.8.2.

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Hexadecimal colon notation :

IPv6 uses a special notation called hexadecimal colon no notation. In this,
1. the total 128-bits
bits are divided into 8 sections, each one 16
16-bits or 2-bytes
bytes
long.
2. The 16-bits or 2-bytes
bytes in binary correspond to four hexadecimal digits of bits each.
3.Hence, the 128-bits
bits in hexadecimal form will have 8 × 4 = 32 hex
hexadecimal
adecimal digits.
These are in groups of 4 digits and every group is separated by a colon as shown in Fig.
1.8.3.
4. In IPv6, about 15% of the address space is initially allocated, the remaining 85% being
reserved for future use.

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