MATHEMATICS

CALCULUS FOUNDATION
Limits and Continuity
Evaluating Limits
Definition of a Limit:
The limit of a function f(x)f(x) as xx approaches a value cc is the value
that f(x)f(x) gets closer to as xx gets nearer to cc.
Notation:
• We write lim⁡x→cf(x)=Llimx→cf(x)=L
• This means as xx approaches cc, f(x)f(x) approaches LL.
Techniques to Evaluate Limits:
1. Substitution:
• If f(c)f(c) is defined, simply substitute cc into ff.
• Example:

• If f(x)=3x+4f(x)=3x+4,
then lim⁡x→2f(x)=3(2)+4=10limx→2f(x)=3(2)+4=10.
2. Factoring:
• If direct substitution results in an indeterminate form like 0000, factor the
expression:
• Example:

• lim⁡x→3x2−9x−3limx→3x−3x2−9
• Factor to get (x−3)(x+3)x−3x−3(x−3)(x+3) and simplify.
• Now substituting x=3x=3 yields 66.
3. Rationalization:
• For limits involving roots, multiply by a conjugate.
• Example:

• lim⁡x→0x+4−2xlimx→0xx+4−2
• Multiply by the conjugate: (x+4−2)(x+4+2)x+4+2x+4+2(x+4
−2)(x+4+2) and simplify.
4. Special Limits:
• For functions like sin⁡(x)/xsin(x)/x as x→0x→0, remember:
• lim⁡x→0sin⁡xx=1limx→0xsinx=1.
Continuity
Definition of Continuity:
A function f(x)f(x) is said to be continuous at a point cc if:
1. f(c)f(c) is defined.
2. lim⁡x→cf(x)limx→cf(x) exists.
3. lim⁡x→cf(x)=f(c)limx→cf(x)=f(c).
Types of Continuity:
 1. Continuous on an Interval:
• A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point in
that interval.
2. Types of Discontinuities:
• Point Discontinuity: the limit exists, but does not equal the function
value.
• Jump Discontinuity: the left-hand limit and right-hand limit exist but are
not equal.
• Infinite Discontinuity: the limits approach infinity.
Summary
• Limits help us understand the behavior of functions as they approach specific
values.
• Continuity ensures that there are no "jumps" or "holes" in the function at a given
point.
Practice Problem
• Evaluate the limit:
lim⁡x→1x2−1x−1limx→1x−1x2−1
• Discuss the continuity of:
• f(x)=x2−4x−2f(x)=x−2x2−4 at x=2x=2.
Understanding the Derivative from First Principles
The derivative is a fundamental concept in calculus that measures how a function
changes as its input changes. To grasp the derivative from first principles, we rely on
the concept of the limit.
Definition of the Derivative
The derivative of a function f(x)f(x) at a point x=ax=a is defined as:
f′(a)=lim⁡h→0f(a+h)−f(a)hf′(a)=limh→0hf(a+h)−f(a)
Where:
• f′(a)f′(a) is the derivative of ff at the point aa.
• hh is a small increment in xx.
Explanation of the Definition
1. Interval Increment:
• We consider a small increment hh added to aa. This gives us the
point a+ha+h.
2. Average Rate of Change:
• The expression f(a+h)−f(a)hhf(a+h)−f(a) represents the average rate of
change of the function ff over the interval from aa to a+ha+h.
• As hh approaches zero, this average rate of change approaches the
instantaneous rate of change at the point aa.
3. Limit:
• We take the limit as hh approaches zero to find the exact rate of change
at aa, which gives us the derivative.
Steps to Calculate the Derivative Using First Principles
 1. Identify the Function: Determine the function f(x)f(x) you want to
differentiate.
2. Set Up the Difference Quotient: Write down:
f(a+h)−f(a)hhf(a+h)−f(a)
3. Simplify: Substitute a+ha+h into the function and simplify the expression.
4. Take the Limit: Evaluate the limit as hh approaches zero.
Example
Let's find the derivative of f(x)=x2f(x)=x2 at x=3x=3.
1. Set Up the Difference Quotient:
f′(3)=lim⁡h→0(3+h)2−32hf′(3)=limh→0h(3+h)2−32
2. Expand and Simplify:
(3+h)2=9+6h+h2(3+h)2=9+6h+h2
f′(3)=lim⁡h→0(9+6h+h2)−9h=lim⁡h→06h+h2hf′(3)=limh→0
h(9+6h+h2)−9=limh→0h6h+h2
Simplifying further gives:
f′(3)=lim⁡h→0(6+h)f′(3)=limh→0(6+h)
3. Take the Limit:
f′(3)=6+0=6f′(3)=6+0=6
Thus, the derivative of f(x)=x2f(x)=x2 at x=3x=3 is 66.
Key Takeaways
• The derivative quantifies how a function changes at a specific point.
• Utilize the limit definition to derive functions from first principles, allowing a
deep understanding of their behavior.
Let's dive deep into the Application of Derivatives, focusing on three key areas:
finding slopes of tangents, optimizing functions, and analyzing graphs.
1. Finding Slopes of Tangents
The derivative of a function at a particular point provides the slope of the tangent line
at that point.
• Definition: If f(x)f(x) is a function, then the derivative f′(a)f′(a) at a
point aa represents the slope of the tangent line to the curve at
point (a,f(a))(a,f(a)).
• Tangent Line Equation: The equation of the tangent line can be given by:
y−f(a)=f′(a)(x−a)y−f(a)=f′(a)(x−a)
Example:
Given the function f(x)=x2f(x)=x2, find the slope of the tangent at x=3x=3.
1. Calculate the Derivative:
f′(x)=2xf′(x)=2x
2. Evaluate at x=3x=3:
f′(3)=2(3)=6f′(3)=2(3)=6
The slope of the tangent line at x=3x=3 is 6.
2. Optimizing Functions
Optimization involves finding the maximum or minimum values of a function, typically
done using critical points determined by setting the derivative to zero.
• Finding Critical Points:
• Calculate the derivative f′(x)f′(x).
• Set f′(x)=0f′(x)=0 to find critical points.
• Check where f′(x)f′(x) does not exist.
• Second Derivative Test:
• Use f′′(x)f′′(x) to determine the nature of the critical points:
• If f′′(x)>0f′′(x)>0: local minimum
• If f′′(x)<0f′′(x)<0: local maximum
• If f′′(x)=0f′′(x)=0: test inconclusive
Example:
Optimize f(x)=−x2+4x+1f(x)=−x2+4x+1.
1. Find the First Derivative:
f′(x)=−2x+4f′(x)=−2x+4
2. Set Derivative to Zero:
−2x+4=0 ⟹ x=2−2x+4=0⟹x=2
3. Second Derivative:
f′′(x)=−2 (which is <0)f′′(x)=−2(which is <0)
Since f′′(2)<0f′′(2)<0, x=2x=2 is a local maximum.
3. Analyzing Graphs
Derivatives are essential for understanding the behavior of functions.
• Increasing and Decreasing Intervals:
• If f′(x)>0f′(x)>0: the function is increasing.
• If f′(x)<0f′(x)<0: the function is decreasing.
• Concavity and Inflection Points:
• Use the second derivative f′′(x)f′′(x):
• If f′′(x)>0f′′(x)>0: the function is concave up.
• If f′′(x)<0f′′(x)<0: the function is concave down.
• Points where f′′(x)=0f′′(x)=0 can indicate possible inflection
points.
Example:
Analyze f(x)=x3−3x2f(x)=x3−3x2.
1. Find the First Derivative:
f′(x)=3x2−6f′(x)=3x2−6
Set 3x2−6=03x2−6=0 to find critical points:
x2=2 ⟹ x=2,−2x2=2⟹x=2,−2
2. Find the Second Derivative:
f′′(x)=6xf′′(x)=6x
Analyze concavity:
• For x<0x<0, f′′(x)<0f′′(x)<0: Concave down.
 • For x>0x>0, f′′(x)>0f′′(x)>0: Concave up.
Thus, x=0x=0 is an inflection point.
Introduction to Integration and Area Under the Curve
Integration is a fundamental concept in calculus used to find the area under curves.
Specifically, integration allows us to calculate the accumulation of quantities, like the
total area under a function between two points.
1. Understanding the Definite Integral
The definite integral is represented as:
∫abf(x) dx∫abf(x)dx
Where:
• f(x)f(x) is the function being integrated.
• aa is the lower limit.
• bb is the upper limit.
• dxdx indicates the variable of integration.
Interpretation: The definite integral calculates the net area between the graph of
the function f(x)f(x) and the x-axis, from x=ax=a to x=bx=b.
2. The Area Calculation
• Positive Areas: If the curve is above the x-axis, the area counted is positive.
• Negative Areas: If the curve is below the x-axis, the area is counted as negative.
To visualize this, think of a function like f(x)=x2f(x)=x2:
• For a=0a=0 and b=2b=2, the definite integral ∫02x2 dx∫02x2dx would
provide the area under the curve from 0 to 2.
3. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus links differentiation and integration:
• It states that if F(x)F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x)f(x), then:
∫abf(x) dx=F(b)−F(a)∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)
This means to compute the area under f(x)f(x), you can find an
antiderivative F(x)F(x) and evaluate it at the limits.
4. Example Problem: Area Under a Curve
Let's solve an example:
Problem: Calculate the area under the
curve f(x)=x2f(x)=x2 from x=1x=1 to x=3x=3.
Solution Steps:
1. Find the Antiderivative:
F(x)=x33F(x)=3x3
2. Apply the Fundamental Theorem:
∫13x2 dx=F(3)−F(1)=(333)−(133)∫13x2dx=F(3)−F(1)=(333)−(313)
=(273)−(13)=9−13=27−13=263=(327)−(31)=9−31=327−1=326
So, the area under the curve from x=1x=1 to x=3x=3 is 263326 square units.
5. Applications of Integrals
Integrals have vast applications, including:
• Calculating areas between curves
• Determining volumes of solids of revolution
• Finding accumulated quantities, such as distance from velocity
Summary
• Integration is vital for calculating areas under curves.
• Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus for evaluations.
• Understanding positive and negative areas is key to interpreting results
correctly.