Short Lecture Notes

for

Computer Networks & Protocols

(3220304)

Dr. Gaurav Khare

August 22, 2024

 Computer Network & Protocols (3220304)

Dr. Gaurav Khare ii

Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Data Commuincation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Components of a Data Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Data Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Introduction to Computer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Network Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Communication Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Geographic Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Protocols and Protocol Layering in Computer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 What is a Protocol? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 The Need for Protocol Layering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 OSI Framework for Network Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.1 Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.2 Data Link Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.3 Network Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.4 Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.5 Session Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.6 Presentation Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.7 Application Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 TCP/IP Protocol Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.1 Layered Architecture of TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.2 Comparison with the OSI Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.3 Detailed Analysis of TCP/IP Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Switching Techniques in Computer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.1 Circuit Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.2 Message Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6.3 Packet Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.4 Comparison of Switching Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7 Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7.1 Types of Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7.2 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7.3 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7.4 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7.5 Applications of Multiplexing in Computer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7.6 Challenges Associated with Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7.7 Factors Influencing Multiplexing Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8.1 Basic Principle: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8.2 ISDN and the OSI Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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CONTENTS Computer Network & Protocols (3220304)

1.9 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1.9.1 Basic Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.9.2 SONET and the OSI Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.9.3 Comparison of ISDN and SONET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Data Commuincation

Data communication is the cornerstone upon which modern computer networks are built. It
encompasses the transmission of information, in the form of data, between two or more devices over
a communication chRameshel. This process involves the conversion of data into signals suitable
for transmission, their propagation through the chRameshel, and the subsequent reconstruction of
data at the receiving end.
The performance of a data communication system is measured by four fundamental character-
istics:
1. Delivery: Data must be delivered to the correct destination. Errors in delivery, such as
sending data to the wrong recipient, render the communication useless.
2. Accuracy: The data received must be exactly the same as the data sent. Errors introduced
during transmission, if not corrected, compromise the integrity of the information.
3. Timeliness: Data must be delivered in a timely mRamesher. Excessive delays in data
delivery can diminish its value. For applications like voice and video, timely delivery is
critical for a quality user experience. This is often referred to as real-time transmission,
where the data is delivered as it is generated, without significant delay.
4. Jitter: This refers to variations in packet arrival times. In applications like audio and video,
jitter can result in uneven playback, causing disruptions in quality.

1.1.1 Components of a Data Communication System

A data communication system consists of five essential components:

Figure 1.1: Communication system components

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1. Message: The information to be communicated, which can be in various formats such as

text, numbers, images, audio, or video.

2. Sender: The device that initiates data transmission. It converts the message into a suitable
format for transmission.

3. Receiver: The device that accepts the transmitted message and converts it back into its
original form.

4. Transmission medium: The physical path through which the message travels from the
sender to the receiver. Examples include copper wires, optical fibers, and wireless chRameshels.

5. Protocol: A set of rules governing data communication, ensuring that devices can interpret
and process the transmitted information correctly. Protocols standardize data formatting,
error checking, and control mechanisms.

1.1.2 Data Flow

Data flow refers to the direction in which data can be transmitted between two devices. There are
three primary modes:

Figure 1.2: Communication modes for data flow

Simplex Mode:
In simplex mode, data transmission occurs in only one direction. One device acts as the sender,
and the other as the receiver. There is no capability for the receiver to respond. Examples include
television broadcasting and weather sensors sending data to a central station.

Half-Duplex Mode:
Half-duplex mode allows data transmission in both directions, but only one direction at a time.
Once one device finishes sending, the other can begin. Walkie-talkies and early modems operate
in half-duplex mode.

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Full-Duplex Mode:
Full-duplex mode enables simultaneous data transmission in both directions. This mode is com-
monly used in modern networks, allowing efficient communication between devices. Most network
interfaces and modems support full-duplex operation.

1.2 Introduction to Computer Networks

A computer network is a digital infrastructure comprising interconnected devices capable of com-
municating and sharing resources [1]. It is made up of hardware (routers, switches, cables), software
(protocols, operating systems), and media (wired, wireless). Networks are classified according to
geographic scope, topology, and communication medium [2].

1.2.1 Network Topologies

A network topology delineates the physical or logical arrangement of network devices and their
interconnections. The configuration of these links significantly influences a network’s performance,
reliability, and cost. This section explores several fundamental network topologies.

A) Mesh Topology
A mesh topology is characterized by a dedicated point-to-point link between every pair of nodes
within the network. This implies that each device maintains a direct connection to every other
device. The redundancy inherent in this architecture offers substantial fault tolerance, as the failure
of a single link does not compromise overall network connectivity. However, the implementation of
a full mesh topology necessitates a considerable number of physical connections. Mathematically,

Figure 1.3: Mesh topology across five devices

the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes can be determined by
the formula n(n−1)
2
. This substantial requirement for interconnections results in elevated installation
and maintenance costs. Moreover, each device must possess (n − 1) input/output ports, further
escalating hardware expenses.

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• Advantages:

1. High reliability due to multiple paths for data transmission.

2. Optimal performance due to dedicated links.
3. Enhanced security through point-to-point connections.

• Disadvantages:

1. High installation and maintenance costs.

2. Complex cabling infrastructure.
3. Scalability challenges as the number of devices increases.

B) Star Topology
In a star topology, all network devices are connected to a central hub or switch. This central
device acts as a conduit for data transmission between nodes. While this topology simplifies
network management and troubleshooting, it introduces a single point of failure. If the central
device malfunctions, the entire network becomes inoperable.

Figure 1.4: Star topology with four devices

• Advantages:

1. Easy installation and management.

2. Efficient for small networks.
3. Fault isolation is straightforward.

• Disadvantages:

1. Single point of failure.

2. Performance can degrade as the number of devices increases.
3. Dependency on the central device.

C) Bus Topology
A bus topology employs a shared communication chRameshel, often referred to as a backbone, to
which all devices are connected. Data transmission occurs in a broadcast fashion, with all devices
receiving the transmitted data. While this topology is economical, it is susceptible to performance
degradation as the number of devices grows. Additionally, a fault in the backbone can disrupt the
entire network.

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Figure 1.5: Bus topology connecting three devices

• Advantages:

1. Simple and inexpensive to install.

2. Easy to expand.

• Disadvantages:

1. Low performance as the number of devices increases.

2. Single point of failure (the bus).
3. Difficult to troubleshoot.

D) Ring Topology
A ring topology forms a closed loop, with each device connected directly to its neighbors. Data
circulates around the ring in a unidirectional mRamesher. While offering relatively high data
transfer rates, ring topologies are vulnerable to failures. A malfunctioning device can disrupt the
entire network.

Figure 1.6: Ring topology connecting six devices

• Advantages:

1. High data transfer rate.

2. Suitable for real-time applications.
3. Moderate cost.

• Disadvantages:

1. Failure of one device can disrupt the entire network.

2. Difficult to troubleshoot.
3. Limited scalability.

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E) Hybrid Topologies
Hybrid topologies emerge as a practical solution by combining the strengths of multiple basic
topologies. This approach often yields a network structure that is both flexible and cost-effective.
A star-bus hybrid topology exemplifies this concept. It integrates the centralized control of a
star topology with the shared medium of a bus topology. Each department within an organization
can utilize a star topology, with the departmental hubs interconnected via a common bus. This
configuration balances the advantages of centralized management with the cost-efficiency of a
shared medium.
Another common hybrid is the hierarchical topology, resembling a tree structure. Multiple star
topologies are interconnected to form a hierarchical arrangement. This topology is particularly
well-suited for large-scale networks, as it manages complexity and facilitates scalability.
By judiciously combining different topologies, organizations can create network architectures
that address their specific needs and challenges effectively.

1.2.2 Communication Medium

• Wired media: Copper cables, including twisted pair and coaxial, are traditional wired me-
dia. Fiber optic cables offer higher bandwidth and immunity to electromagnetic interference.

• Wireless media: Radio waves, microwaves, and infrared light are used for wireless com-
munication. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks are common examples of wireless tech-
nologies.

1.2.3 Geographic Scope

Network topologies, as discussed previously, define the physical or logical arrangement of network
devices. However, networks can also be categorized based on their geographical scope. This
classification provides a broader perspective on network infrastructure and the services they offer.

1. Personal Area Network – A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a computer network or-
ganized around an individual person within a small geographical area. Typically, it includes
devices such as personal computers, smartphones, tablets, printers, digital cameras, and per-
sonal digital assistants (PDAs). PANs are often implemented using wireless technologies like
Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or near-field communication (NFC).
The primary function of a PAN is to enable communication and data exchange among per-
sonal devices. For instance, a user can transfer files between a smartphone and a laptop,
print documents from a tablet, or connect wireless headphones to a computer. PANs are
characterized by their limited range and typically operate within a radius of a few meters.

2. Local Area Network – A Local Area Network (LAN) interconnects devices within a con-
fined geographical area, such as an office, building, or campus. LANs are typically privately
owned and managed. They employ high-speed communication technologies such as Ethernet
to facilitate data exchange among computers, printers, servers, and other network devices.
LANs are characterized by their high data transfer rates, low latency, and shared resources.
They provide a platform for file sharing, printer sharing, and access to shared applications
and databases. Additionally, LANs often serve as the foundation for connecting to larger
networks like WANs and the internet.

3. Metropolitan Area Network – A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) spans a larger

geographical area than a LAN, typically encompassing an entire city or metropolitan region.

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MANs interconnect multiple LANs and provide connectivity to larger networks. They are of-
ten owned and operated by city governments, cable companies, or internet service providers.
MANs employ high-speed communication technologies, such as fiber optics, to provide broad-
band services to residential and business customers. They offer a range of services, including
internet access, cable television, and telephone services. MANs are essential for connecting
businesses, educational institutions, and government agencies within a metropolitan area.

4. Wide Area Network – A Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a vast geographical area,
spanning across cities, states, countries, or even continents. WANs interconnect multiple
LANs and MANs, creating a global network infrastructure. They are typically owned and
operated by telecommunication service providers.
WANs employ a variety of technologies, including satellite, microwave, and fiber optics,
to transmit data over long distances. They are characterized by their large scale, high
latency, and lower bandwidth compared to LANs and MANs. WANs are essential for enabling
communication and data exchange between geographically dispersed locations. There are two
primary types of WANs:

(a) Point-to-Point WANs: Connect two specific locations directly using a dedicated link.
(b) Switched WANs: Connect multiple locations through a shared network infrastructure.

5. Global Area Networks – With the increasing globalization of business and the prolifer-
ation of interconnected devices, the concept of a Global Area Network (GAN) has gained
prominence. A GAN is a vast network that spans the entire globe, encompassing multiple
continents and countries. It is characterized by its immense scale, high complexity, and the
integration of various network technologies.
GANs are essential for supporting global business operations, enabling seamless communi-
cation and collaboration among distributed teams. They also facilitate the exchange of data
and information on a global scale, driving innovation and economic growth.

Challenges and Considerations –

The design and management of large-scale networks, such as WANs and GANs, present significant
challenges. These include network security, reliability, performance, and scalability. Additionally,
the convergence of different network technologies (e.g., wired and wireless) requires careful planning
and integration.
As network technologies continue to evolve, the boundaries between different network types
are becoming increasingly blurred. The integration of wireless technologies, cloud computing, and
the Internet of Things is transforming the landscape of network infrastructure.

1.3 Protocols and Protocol Layering in Computer Net-

works
In the realm of computer networks and data communications, protocols are fundamental to ensur-
ing effective and coherent communication between different entities. A protocol is a set of rules and
conventions that govern how data is transmitted and received over a network. These rules dictate
the format, timing, sequencing, and error-checking required to successfully exchange information.
As communication complexities increase, protocols often need to be organized into multiple layers,
each responsible for a different aspect of communication. This write-up will delve into the nature

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of protocols, the necessity of multiple layers in protocol design, and the principles guiding protocol
layering, illustrated through practical scenarios.

1.3.1 What is a Protocol?

A protocol in data communications defines the methods and rules for data exchange between
devices or systems. It ensures that data is transmitted correctly and efficiently from sender to
receiver. Protocols cover various aspects of communication, including:
• Syntax: How data is formatted and structured.

• Semantics: The meaning of each part of the data.

• Timing: The speed and sequence of data transmission.

• Error Handling: Methods for detecting and correcting errors.

Protocols can range from very simple, as seen in basic face-to-face interactions, to highly complex,
involving multiple stages of data processing and transmission. For instance, in computer network-
ing, protocols are essential for tasks such as error detection, data compression, and encryption.

1.3.2 The Need for Protocol Layering

In complex communication scenarios, a single-layer protocol may not suffice. Instead, protocols
are often organized into layers, each handling a specific aspect of the communication process. This
organization is known as protocol layering. By dividing the communication process into multi-
ple layers, each layer can focus on a particular function, simplifying design and implementation.
Protocol layering has several key advantages:
1. Modularity: Each layer operates independently, meaning changes in one layer do not nec-
essarily affect others. This allows for easier updates and maintenance.

2. Abstraction: Each layer provides a service to the layer above it and receives services from
the layer below, abstracting the complexity of underlying layers.

3. Interoperability: Different implementations of the same layer can work together as long
as they adhere to the same protocol standards.

4. Flexibility: Layers can be added, removed, or modified without impacting the entire system,
making it easier to adapt to new requirements.

Example Illustrating Protocol Layering:

To better understand the need for protocol layering, consider two scenarios:

Scenario 1: Simple Communication

Ram and Ramesh are neighbors who communicate directly in person. This interaction represents
a single-layer communication system:
1. Layer 1: Face-to-Face Communication - Ram and Ramesh use verbal language and
follow certain social rules (greeting each other, waiting for a turn to speak, etc.).

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Figure 1.7: Single-layered communication

2. Protocol Rules:

• Greet each other.

• Maintain a conversational vocabulary.
• Allow each other to speak without interruption.
• Engage in a two-way dialogue.
• Exchange pleasantries before departing.

This scenario is straightforward and only requires one layer because the communication is direct
and simple.

Scenario 2: Complex Communication

Now, Ram and Ramesh need to communicate over long distances through regular mail while
ensuring confidentiality. Here, communication occurs in multiple layers:

Figure 1.8: Multi-layered communication

1. Layer 1: Physical Mailing - Involves mailing the letter, including addressing and sending
it.

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2. Layer 2: Encryption/Decryption - Encrypts the letter to protect its content and decrypts
it upon receipt.

3. Layer 3: Plaintext Creation/Reading - Converts spoken or written communication into

plaintext (the original message) and reads it.

4. Process:

• Ram’s Side:
(a) Third Layer: Ram creates the plaintext letter.
(b) Second Layer: Encrypts the plaintext to produce ciphertext.
(c) First Layer: Puts the ciphertext into an envelope and mails it.
• Ramesh’s Side:
(a) First Layer: Receives the letter, extracts the ciphertext.
(b) Second Layer: Decrypts the ciphertext to retrieve the plaintext.
(c) Third Layer: Reads the plaintext letter.

This multi-layered approach provides modularity; changes in encryption methods only require
updating the second layer, while the other layers remain unchanged.

1.4 OSI Framework for Network Communication

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model provides a conceptual framework for understand-
ing the functions of a networking system. It divides the complex process of network communica-
tion into seven distinct layers, each with specific responsibilities. This layered approach promotes
modularity, facilitates troubleshooting, and enables interoperability between different networking
technologies.

1.4.1 Physical Layer

The physical layer is the foundation of network communication, concerned with the transmission of
raw data bits over a physical medium. It defines electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for devices and cables.

• Encoding/Decoding: Converting data into electrical signals (e.g., digital to analog) and
vice versa.

• Bit Synchronization: Coordinating the timing of bit transmission and reception using
techniques like clocking.

• Physical Connection: Establishing and maintaining a physical link between devices (e.g.,
RJ45 connectors for Ethernet).

• Media Access Control (MAC) addressing: Assigning unique physical addresses to

network interfaces (e.g., Ethernet MAC addresses).

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1.4.2 Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms raw bits into data frames and provides reliable data transfer across
a physical link. Its primary functions include:

• Framing: Structuring data into data frames with headers and trailers (e.g., Ethernet
frames).

• Error Detection and Correction: Employing techniques like checksums, cyclic redun-
dancy checks (CRCs), and automatic repeat request (ARQ) to ensure data integrity.

• Media Access Control (MAC) Addressing: Using MAC addresses to identify devices
on a shared network medium (e.g., Ethernet MAC addresses).

• Flow Control: Regulating data flow to prevent buffer overflow (e.g., sliding window proto-
col).

1.4.3 Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for routing data packets across multiple networks. It determines
the best path for data to travel and handles network congestion.

• Addressing: Assigning logical addresses to network devices (e.g., IP addresses).

• Packet Switching: Dividing data into packets for efficient transmission.

• Routing: Selecting optimal paths for data packets using routing protocols (e.g., RIP, OSPF).

• Congestion Control: Managing network traffic to prevent congestion (e.g., TCP congestion
control).

1.4.4 Transport Layer

The transport layer ensures reliable end-to-end data delivery. It provides error recovery, flow
control, and congestion control mechanisms.

• End-to-End Connection: Establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections between

applications (e.g., TCP, UDP).

• Segmentation and Reassembly: Dividing data into segments and reassembling them at
the destination.

• Error Control: Detecting and correcting errors in data transmission (e.g. checksums,
ARQ).

• Flow Control: Regulating the rate of data flow between end systems (e.g., sliding window).

• Congestion Control: Preventing network congestion (e.g., TCP congestion control).

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1.4.5 Session Layer

The session layer manages and synchronizes communication sessions between applications. It
establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions.

• Session Establishment and Termination: Initiating and ending communication sessions.

• Session Management: Controlling dialogue flow and synchronization between applications

(e.g., synchronization points).

• Checkpoint and Recovery: Establishing checkpoints to recover data in case of session

failures.

1.4.6 Presentation Layer

The presentation layer ensures that data is in a format that can be interpreted by the application
layer. It handles data encryption, compression, and format conversion.

• Data Encryption and Decryption: Protecting data confidentiality and integrity (e.g.,
AES, DES).

• Data Compression: Reducing data size for efficient transmission (e.g., ZIP, gzip).

• Data Conversion: Converting data formats between different systems (e.g., text to binary,
image formats).

1.4.7 Application Layer

The application layer is the highest layer of the OSI model and interacts directly with end-users.
It provides network services to user applications.

• Network Services: Offering various network services such as email (SMTP), file transfer
(FTP), web browsing (HTTP), and database access (SQL).

• User Interface: Providing a user-friendly interface for interacting with network applica-
tions.

• Application-Specific Protocols: Defining communication protocols for specific applica-

tions (e.g., HTTP, FTP, SMTP).

1.5 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the foundational architec-
ture underpinning the internet. It is a collection of protocols that govern communication between
devices across interconnected networks. Unlike the OSI model, which is a conceptual framework,
TCP/IP is a practical implementation, directly influencing the design and operation of networks
worldwide.

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1.5.1 Layered Architecture of TCP/IP

TCP/IP employs a hierarchical layered architecture, where each layer provides specific services to
the layer above. This modular approach enhances flexibility, scalability, and troubleshooting. The
TCP/IP suite traditionally comprises four layers:
1. Application Layer: The uppermost layer, interacting directly with user applications. It
encompasses protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, and others, each tailored to specific
application needs.

2. Transport Layer: Responsible for end-to-end communication, providing reliable data de-
livery and flow control. TCP and UDP are the primary protocols at this level.

3. Internet Layer: Handles packet routing and addressing across multiple networks. IP is the
cornerstone protocol.

4. Network Access Layer: Concerned with data transfer across the physical network, en-
compassing functions similar to the OSI model’s physical and data link layers.

1.5.2 Comparison with the OSI Model

While TCP/IP and OSI model share the concept of layered architecture, they differ in structure
and scope. The OSI model is a conceptual framework with seven layers, aiming to standardize
network communication. TCP/IP, on the other hand, is a practical implementation with four
layers, directly addressing the needs of internetworking.
• OSI Model: Focuses on conceptualizing network functions, providing a reference model for
protocol development.

• TCP/IP: Emphasizes practical implementation and interoperability, with a direct impact

on network design and operation.
The following figure and table highlights the mapping between the two models:

OSI Layer TCP/IP Layer

Application Application
Presentation Application
Session Application
Transport Transport
Network Internet
Data Link Network Access
Physical Network Access

1.5.3 Detailed Analysis of TCP/IP Layers

1) Application Layer –
The Application layer is the interface between user applications and the network. It houses pro-
tocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS, each with specific functions:

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• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Manages communication between web clients

and servers, enabling web browsing.

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Facilitates file transfer between systems.

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Handles email transmission.

• DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names into IP addresses.

2) Transport Layer –
The Transport layer provides end-to-end communication between applications on different hosts.

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Offers reliable, connection-oriented data trans-

fer. It employs flow control, congestion control, and error recovery mechanisms.

• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides connectionless, best-effort data delivery,

suitable for applications prioritizing speed over reliability.

3) Internet Layer –
The Internet layer is responsible for packet routing and addressing.

• IP (Internet Protocol): The core protocol, handling packet encapsulation, addressing,

and routing.

– IPv4: The original version, using 32-bit addresses.

– IPv6: The newer version, employing 128-bit addresses to address the IPv4 address
depletion issue.

4) Network Access Layer –

The Network Access layer handles data transfer across the physical network.

• Ethernet: The dominant technology for wired LANs, defining physical and data link layer
specifications.

• Wi-Fi: Enables wireless communication, operating in the physical and data link layers.

• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): Used for establishing point-to-point connections.

Example of TCP/IP in Action: A Communication Scenario

To illustrate how TCP/IP works, consider a web browsing session:

• Application Layer: The web browser (an application) sends an HTTP request to a web
server.

• Transport Layer: TCP establishes a connection between the browser and the web server.
The HTTP request is encapsulated in a TCP segment.

• Internet Layer: The TCP segment is encapsulated in an IP packet, with source and desti-
nation IP addresses. Routers forward the packet based on IP addressing.

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• Network Access Layer: The IP packet is converted into data frames for transmission over
the physical network.

The web server responds similarly, sending an HTML page back to the browser through the same
layers.

1.6 Switching Techniques in Computer Networks

Switching techniques are fundamental to the operation of computer networks, defining how data
is transmitted and routed between devices. This section will explore three primary switching
techniques: circuit switching, message switching, and packet switching.

1.6.1 Circuit Switching

In circuit switching, a dedicated communication path is established between the sender and the
receiver before data transmission begins. This path remains in place for the duration of the
communication session, ensuring a guaranteed bandwidth and quality of service.

Example: Traditional telephone networks use circuit switching. When you make a phone call, a
dedicated circuit is established between your phone and the recipient’s phone. This circuit remains
active until you hang up.

Figure 1.9: Circuit switching in communication

Advantages:
1. Guaranteed bandwidth: Provides a dedicated channel, ensuring predictable performance.

2. Low latency: Minimal delays due to the dedicated path.

3. Suitable for real-time applications: Ideal for voice and video communication.

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Disadvantages:
1. Inefficient resource utilization: Idle circuits consume resources even when not in use.

2. Limited flexibility: Requires prior establishment of a circuit, limiting spontaneous com-

munication.

3. Susceptible to failures: A single link failure can disrupt communication.

1.6.2 Message Switching

In message switching, data are transmitted in complete messages from one node to another. Mes-
sages are stored at intermediate nodes until the entire message is received before being forwarded
to the next hop.

Example: Early computer networks often used message switching. Messages would be trans-
mitted from one node to another, stored at intermediate nodes, and forwarded to the destination
when the entire message was received. This technique is less efficient than circuit switching, but
more flexible.

Figure 1.10: Message switching in communication

Advantages:
1. Efficient resource utilization: No dedicated circuit is required, allowing for dynamic
resource allocation.

2. Flexible routing: Messages can be routed through different paths according to network
conditions.

3. Resilient to failures: Can tolerate failures in individual links.

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Disadvantages:
1. Higher latency: Messages may experience delays as they are stored and forwarded at
intermediate nodes.

2. Overhead: Requires additional overhead for message headers and storage.

3. Less suitable for real-time applications: May introduce noticeable delays.

1.6.3 Packet Switching

In packet switching, data is divided into smaller units called packets. Each packet contains a
header with destination and source addresses. Packets are transmitted independently through the
network, and they may follow different paths to reach their destination. It is the most commonly
used technique in modern networks.

Example: The internet primarily uses packet switching. When you send an email, it is divided
into packets, which are transmitted independently through the network.

Figure 1.11: Packet switching in communication

Advantages:
1. Efficient resource utilization: Packets can be transmitted independently, maximizing
network capacity.

2. Flexibility: Packets can be routed through different paths based on network conditions.

3. Resilient to failures: Can tolerate failures in individual links.

4. Suitable for a wide range of applications: Supports various data types and transmission
rates.

Disadvantages:
1. Potential for packet loss: Packets may be lost or delayed during transmission.

2. Requires flow control and error detection: Mechanisms are needed to ensure reliable
data delivery.

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1.6.4 Comparison of Switching Techniques

Feature Circuit Switching Message Switching Packet Switching
Resource Utilization Inefficient Efficient Efficient
Latency Low Medium Medium
Flexibility Limited Flexible Flexible
Reliability Susceptible to failures Resilient Resilient
Real-time Applications Suitable Less suitable Suitable

1.7 Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a fundamental technique in computer networking that allows multiple signals or
data streams to be transmitted over a single physical medium. It efficiently manages bandwidth and
optimizes resource utilization, allowing multiple devices or users to share the same communication
channel without interference. Multiplexing is essential in scenarios where the transmission medium
is expensive, scarce, or limited in capacity. It forms the basis of various communication protocols
and networking technologies, ensuring that data is transmitted reliably and efficiently.

The Need for Multiplexing:

The exponential growth of data traffic, driven by factors such as the proliferation of mobile devices,
the rise of cloud computing, and the Internet of Things (IoT), has placed immense pressure on the
network infrastructure. Without multiplexing (which literally means multi-into-one), networks
would require a vast number of individual links to accommodate the growing volume of data,
leading to increased costs and complexity.
Multiplexing offers a solution to this challenge by maximizing the utilization of existing infras-
tructure. By sharing a single channel among multiple users or applications, multiplexing helps
to:

• Reduce costs: By minimizing the need for additional physical links.

• Improve efficiency: By optimizing the use of available bandwidth.

• Enhance scalability: By enabling networks to handle increasing volumes of traffic.

1.7.1 Types of Multiplexing

There are several types of multiplexing, but the most common in computer networks are:

1. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

2. Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

3. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Each of these techniques serves different purposes and is suited for different types of networks.
In the following sections, we will discuss these types in detail, covering their basic principles and
providing suitable examples.

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1.7.2 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Basic Principle:
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a technique in which multiple signals share the same com-
munication channel by dividing time into slots. Each signal is assigned a specific time slot during
which it can transmit its data. After its time slot, the next signal gets the chance to transmit,
and this process repeats in a cyclic manner. TDM allows multiple signals to coexist on the same
medium by alternating between them at a high speed. TDM operates in two main modes:

1. Synchronous TDM: In synchronous TDM, each signal gets an equal and fixed time slot,
regardless of whether it has data to transmit. This method ensures predictability but can be
inefficient if some time slots remain unused.

2. Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM): In asynchronous TDM, time slots are as-
signed dynamically based on demand. This method is more efficient as it allocates slots only
when a signal has data to transmit.

Examples: A common example of TDM is its use in telecommunications, particularly in digital

telephony systems. In a T1 line, which is widely used for voice and data transmission, 24 different
voice calls are multiplexed onto a single channel using TDM. Each voice call is allocated a time
slot, and the signals are transmitted in rapid succession, so fast that the users perceive continuous
communication.
Another example is the GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) technology, where
TDM is used to allocate time slots to different mobile users within the same frequency band. This
ensures that multiple users can share the same frequency without interference.

Advantages of TDM:
• Efficient Use of Bandwidth: By dividing time into slots, TDM ensures that the commu-
nication channel is fully utilized.

• Simplified Error Detection and Correction: Since each signal occupies a distinct time
slot, errors are easier to detect and correct.

Limitations of TDM:
• Fixed Time Slots in Synchronous TDM: In synchronous TDM, time slots are fixed,
leading to potential inefficiencies if some slots are unused.

• Complexity in Asynchronous TDM: Asynchronous TDM, while more efficient, intro-

duces complexity in terms of managing dynamic time slots.

1.7.3 Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Basic Principle:
Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique in which multiple signals share the same
communication channel by being transmitted at different frequencies. The available bandwidth is
divided into multiple frequency bands, each carrying a separate signal. Since different signals use
different frequencies, they can coexist without interfering with each other.

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FDM is analogous to tuning different radio stations. Just as a radio can pick up multiple
stations by tuning to different frequencies, a communication channel using FDM can transmit
multiple signals simultaneously, each occupying a unique frequency band.

Examples: FDM is commonly used in radio broadcasting. In this scenario, different radio
stations transmit their signals at different frequencies within the same geographical area. A listener
can tune into a specific frequency to receive the desired radio station.
Another notable example is cable television, where multiple TV channels are transmitted over
a single cable using FDM. Each channel occupies a different frequency band, allowing viewers to
select from various channels without interference.
FDM is also used in traditional analog telephone systems, where multiple voice calls are trans-
mitted over a single line, each occupying a different frequency band.

Advantages of FDM:
• Simultaneous Transmission: Multiple signals can be transmitted simultaneously without
waiting for time slots, making FDM suitable for real-time applications.

• Simple Implementation: FDM is relatively simple to implement, especially in analog

systems.

Limitations of FDM:
• Bandwidth Limitation: FDM requires a wide bandwidth, and as the number of signals
increases, the available frequency spectrum may become congested.

• Intermodulation Distortion: If frequency bands are not adequately separated, signals

may interfere with each other, causing intermodulation distortion.

1.7.4 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Basic Principle:
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a variation of FDM, specifically used in optical fiber
communication. In WDM, multiple data streams are transmitted simultaneously over a single
optical fiber by using different wavelengths (or colors) of light. Each data stream is assigned a
unique wavelength, and since light signals at different wavelengths do not interfere with each other,
they can coexist within the same fiber. WDM can be classified into two types:

1. Dense Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (DWDM): DWDM involves a large number

of closely spaced wavelengths, allowing for high data capacity and long-distance transmission.
It is commonly used in backbone networks.

2. Coarse Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (CWDM): CWDM uses fewer wavelengths

with wider spacing, making it more cost-effective for shorter distances.

Examples: A typical example of WDM is in fiber-optic communication systems used by Internet

Service Providers (ISPs) and telecommunications companies. By employing WDM, multiple data
streams, such as voice, video, and internet traffic, can be transmitted simultaneously over a single
optical fiber, significantly increasing the capacity of the network.

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For instance, in a DWDM system, a single fiber can carry up to 160 channels, each at a
different wavelength, allowing massive amounts of data to be transmitted over long distances
without interference.
Another application of WDM is in metro networks, where CWDM is used to transmit multiple
signals across shorter distances, providing cost-effective bandwidth solutions for urban areas.

Advantages of WDM:
• High Data Capacity: WDM significantly increases the capacity of optical fibers, enabling
the transmission of vast amounts of data over long distances.

• Efficient Use of Fiber: By using different wavelengths, WDM allows multiple data streams
to be transmitted over a single fiber, reducing the need for additional infrastructure.

Limitations of WDM:
• Cost: WDM systems, especially DWDM, can be expensive to implement due to the need
for precise wavelength control and specialized equipment.

• Complexity: Managing multiple wavelengths and ensuring they remain separate requires
advanced technology, adding complexity to the network.

1.7.5 Applications of Multiplexing in Computer Networks

Multiplexing is a critical component in various networking technologies and protocols. Here are
some key applications:

1. Telecommunication Networks: In telecommunication networks, TDM and FDM are

widely used to multiplex voice and data signals. For example, the T1 line uses TDM to
transmit multiple voice calls over a single channel, while traditional analog systems use
FDM for voice transmission.

2. Internet and Data Networks: WDM is extensively used in fiber-optic networks, forming
the backbone of the internet. It enables high-speed data transmission, supporting the growing
demand for bandwidth due to the proliferation of internet services and applications.

3. Wireless Communication: In wireless communication, multiplexing is used to share the

limited frequency spectrum among multiple users. For example, in GSM, TDM is used to
allocate time slots to different mobile users, while in LTE (Long-Term Evolution), OFDM
(a variant of FDM) is used to allocate frequency subcarriers to users.

4. Broadcasting: FDM is used in radio and television broadcasting, allowing multiple channels
to be transmitted simultaneously over the same medium. In digital broadcasting, techniques
like Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM) are used to improve spectral effi-
ciency and robustness.

5. Satellite Communication: In satellite communication, FDM and WDM are used to trans-
mit multiple signals from Earth stations to satellites and vice versa. This allows efficient use
of the satellite’s transponder bandwidth and supports multiple communication channels.

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1.7.6 Challenges Associated with Multiplexing

While multiplexing has greatly enhanced the efficiency of communication networks, it also presents
certain challenges:

• Interference and Crosstalk: In FDM and WDM systems, signals may interfere with each
other if frequency or wavelength separation is insufficient. This can lead to crosstalk and
degraded signal quality.

• Resource Allocation: In TDM systems, allocating time slots to different signals can be
challenging, especially in dynamic networks where traffic patterns change frequently.

• Cost and Complexity: Advanced multiplexing techniques like DWDM require specialized
equipment and precise control, leading to higher costs and increased network complexity.

1.7.7 Factors Influencing Multiplexing Choice

The choice of multiplexing technique depends on various factors, including:

• Bandwidth requirements: The amount of bandwidth needed for each signal.

• Distance: The distance over which the signals need to be transmitted.

• Cost: The cost of implementing the multiplexing technique.

• Existing infrastructure: The type of communication medium and equipment available.

1.8 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

1.8.1 Basic Principle:
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards designed to trans-
mit voice, video, and data over traditional telephone networks in a digital format. ISDN emerged as
an evolution of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), offering improved data transmis-
sion capabilities and enabling a wide range of digital services over a single physical medium. Unlike
traditional analog systems, ISDN provides end-to-end digital connectivity, facilitating higher data
rates and supporting multiple services simultaneously.
ISDN operates on the principle of circuit switching, where a dedicated communication path is
established between the sender and receiver for the duration of the transmission. This guarantees
consistent quality of service (QoS) and is particularly well-suited for real-time applications such
as voice and video conferencing. ISDN is divided into two main services:

1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI): BRI provides two B-channels (64 Kbps each) for data and
one D-channel (16 Kbps) for signaling, making it suitable for small businesses and home
users.

2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI): PRI offers a higher data rate, typically with 23 B-channels
and one D-channel (in North America) or 30 B-channels and one D-channel (in Europe),
making it ideal for larger organizations requiring more bandwidth.

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Examples: A classic example of ISDN usage is in video conferencing. In the 1990s and early
2000s, ISDN was widely adopted for video conferencing due to its ability to provide consistent and
high-quality transmission of both audio and video signals. Businesses used ISDN to connect geo-
graphically dispersed teams, enabling real-time communication without the latency issues common
in analog systems.
Another example is in remote access services, where ISDN was employed to provide digital
dial-up connections for accessing corporate networks. ISDN’s higher data rates compared to tra-
ditional modems made it a popular choice for remote workers needing reliable access to data and
applications.

Advantages of ISDN
• Simultaneous Transmission: ISDN supports multiple services (e.g., voice, data, video)
over the same line, enabling simultaneous communication.

• High-Quality Transmission: ISDN provides digital transmission, resulting in better voice

and data quality compared to analog systems.

• Fast Call Setup: ISDN enables faster call setup times compared to traditional PSTN,
improving efficiency in communication.

Limitations of ISDN
• Cost: ISDN services can be more expensive than analog services, particularly for small
businesses or home users.

• Gradual Phase-Out: With the advent of broadband technologies such as DSL and fiber-
optic networks, ISDN has seen a decline in usage.

1.8.2 ISDN and the OSI Model

ISDN services operate across multiple layers of the OSI model. At the Physical Layer (Layer 1),
ISDN defines the electrical and physical interface for connecting devices to the network. At the
Data Link Layer (Layer 2), ISDN uses protocols such as LAPD (Link Access Protocol D-channel)
for signaling and frame relay for data transmission. ISDN also touches on the Network Layer
(Layer 3), where protocols like Q.931 handle call setup and teardown.

1.9 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

1.9.1 Basic Principle
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is a standardized protocol designed for high-speed data
transmission over optical fiber networks. SONET was developed to address the limitations of earlier
digital transmission systems by providing a unified framework for multiplexing digital signals and
enabling efficient, scalable, and reliable communication over long distances. SONET is particularly
well-suited for backbone networks that require high data rates and low latency.
The core principle of SONET is synchronous transmission, where data is transmitted at a
fixed rate, synchronized with a master clock. This ensures that data arrives in the correct order
and without the timing issues that can occur in asynchronous systems. SONET also employs

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time-division multiplexing (TDM) to combine multiple data streams into a single optical signal,
enhancing bandwidth utilization.
SONET frames are structured in a hierarchical manner, with lower-level signals being multi-
plexed into higher-level frames. The basic building block of SONET is the Synchronous Transport
Signal level 1 (STS-1), which has a data rate of 51.84 Mbps. Higher-level signals, such as STS-3
(155.52 Mbps) and STS-12 (622.08 Mbps), are created by multiplexing multiple STS-1 signals.

Examples: A typical application of SONET is in telecommunications backbone networks. Large

telecommunications providers use SONET to interconnect central offices and carry high-speed data,
voice, and video traffic across long distances. For example, a SONET ring network might connect
multiple cities, providing a robust and fault-tolerant infrastructure for transmitting large volumes
of data.
SONET is also used in enterprise networks to connect data centers and support high-speed
data transfer between locations. For instance, a multinational corporation might use SONET
to link its data centers across different continents, ensuring fast and reliable communication for
mission-critical applications.

1.9.2 SONET and the OSI Model

SONET primarily operates at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model, providing the physical
infrastructure for optical transmission. However, it also has implications for the Data Link Layer
(Layer 2), where SONET frames are organized and managed. SONET’s framing structure, error
detection, and management protocols ensure reliable data transmission over the network.

Advantages of SONET
• High Data Rates: SONET supports extremely high data rates, making it ideal for back-
bone networks that require large bandwidth.

• Scalability: SONET’s hierarchical structure allows for easy scalability, enabling networks
to grow without major reconfigurations.

• Fault Tolerance: SONET networks often use ring topologies with automatic protection
switching, ensuring that data can be rerouted in case of a failure.

Limitations of SONET
• Complexity: SONET networks can be complex to design and manage, particularly in large-
scale deployments.

• Cost: The infrastructure required for SONET, including optical fibers and multiplexing
equipment, can be expensive to implement.

1.9.3 Comparison of ISDN and SONET

While both ISDN and SONET are used in telecommunications, they serve different purposes and
are suited for different applications. ISDN is focused on providing digital services over existing
copper telephone lines, making it accessible for small-scale users and businesses. In contrast,
SONET is designed for high-speed, long-distance data transmission over optical fiber, making it
more suitable for large-scale and enterprise-level applications.

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From a network topology perspective, ISDN is typically used in point-to-point or star config-
urations, where individual devices connect to a central office. SONET, on the other hand, often
employs ring topologies, providing redundancy and fault tolerance.
In terms of switching techniques, ISDN relies on circuit switching, where a dedicated path is es-
tablished for each communication session. SONET, while also supporting circuit-switched services,
can be integrated with packet-switched networks, allowing for more flexible data transmission.

1.10 Conclusion
This chapter has provided an overview of computer networks, including their types, reference
models, switching techniques, and multiplexing methods. It also introduced ISDN and SONET
as examples of network technologies. In subsequent chapters, we will dive deeper into specific
network protocols and technologies.

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