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Ai Notes Unit 3

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Ai Notes Unit 3

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lusuku920
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UNIT III

2 MARKS

1. What is reasoning in Artificial Intelligence?

The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and making
predictions from available knowledge, facts, and beliefs. Or we can say, "Reasoning is a
way to infer facts from existing data." It is a general process of thinking rationally, to
find valid conclusions.

2. List out the types of Reasoning

In artificial intelligence, reasoning can be divided into the following categories:

o Deductive reasoning
o Inductive reasoning
o Abductive reasoning
o Common Sense Reasoning
o Monotonic Reasoning
o Non-monotonic Reasoning

3. What is Deductive reasoning and give one examples?

Deductive reasoning is deducing new information from logically related known


information. It is the form of valid reasoning, which means the argument's conclusion must be
true when the premises are true.

Example:

Premise-1: All the human eats veggies

Premise-2: Suresh is human.

Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.

4. What is Inductive Reasoning and give one examples?

Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning to arrive at a conclusion using limited sets of


facts by the process of generalization. It starts with the series of specific facts or data and reaches
to a general statement or conclusion.
Example:

Premise: All of the pigeons we have seen in the zoo are white.

Conclusion: Therefore, we can expect all the pigeons to be white.

5.What is the Abductive reasoning and give one examples?

Abductive reasoning is a form of logical reasoning which starts with single or multiple
observations then seeks to find the most likely explanation or conclusion for the observation.
Example:

Implication: Cricket ground is wet if it is raining

Axiom: Cricket ground is wet.

Conclusion It is raining.

6. What is the Common Sense Reasoning and give one examples?

 Common sense reasoning is an informal form of reasoning, which can be gained through
experiences.
 Common Sense reasoning simulates the human ability to make presumptions about
events which occurs on every day.
 It relies on good judgment rather than exact logic and operates on heuristic
knowledge and heuristic rules.

Example:

1. One person can be at one place at a time.


2. If I put my hand in a fire, then it will burn.

7. What is the Monotonic Reasoning ?

 Monotonic reasoning is not useful for the real-time systems, as in real time, facts get
changed, so we cannot use monotonic reasoning.
 Monotonic reasoning is used in conventional reasoning systems, and a logic-based
system is monotonic.
 Any theorem proving is an example of monotonic reasoning.

Example:

o Earth revolves around the Sun.


8. What is the Advantages of Monotonic Reasoning?
o In monotonic reasoning, each old proof will always remain valid.
o If we deduce some facts from available facts, then it will remain valid for always.

9. What is the Disadvantages of Monotonic Reasoning?


o We cannot represent the real world scenarios using Monotonic reasoning.
o Hypothesis knowledge cannot be expressed with monotonic reasoning, which means
facts should be true.
o Since we can only derive conclusions from the old proofs, so new knowledge from the
real world cannot be added.

10. What is the Non-monotonic Reasoning?

 In Non-monotonic reasoning, some conclusions may be invalidated if we add some more


information to our knowledge base.
 Logic will be said as non-monotonic if some conclusions can be invalidated by adding
more knowledge into our knowledge base.
 "Human perceptions for various things in daily life, "is a general example of non-
monotonic reasoning.

11. What is the Advantages of Non-monotonic reasoning?


o For real-world systems such as Robot navigation, we can use non-monotonic reasoning.
o In Non-monotonic reasoning, we can choose probabilistic facts or can make assumptions.

12. What is the Disadvantages of Non-monotonic Reasoning?


o In non-monotonic reasoning, the old facts may be invalidated by adding new sentences.
o It cannot be used for theorem proving.

13. What is Fuzzy Logic?

• Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning. This
approach is similar to how humans perform decision making. And it involves all
intermediate possibilities between YES and NO.

14. Why do we use Fuzzy Logic?

• It controls machines and consumer products


• If not accurate reasoning, it at least provides acceptable reasoning
• This helps in dealing with the uncertainty in engineering
15. Draw the Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture

16. What is the Inference Engine?

It determines the degree of match between fuzzy input and the rules. According to the input
field, it will decide the rules that are to be fired. Combining the fired rules, form the control
actions.

17. What is the Defuzzification ?

The Defuzzification process converts the fuzzy sets into a crisp value. There are different
types of techniques available, and you need to select the best-suited one with an expert system.

18. What is the Membership Function?

• The membership function is a graph that defines how each point in the input space is
mapped to membership value between 0 and 1. It allows you to quantify linguistic
terms and represent a fuzzy set graphically. A membership function for a fuzzy set A on
the universe of discourse X is defined as μA:X → [0,1]

19. What are the Applications of Fuzzy Logic?

• It is used in the aerospace field for altitude control of spacecraft and satellite.
• This controls the speed and traffic in the automotive systems.
• It is used for decision making support systems and personal evaluation in the large
company business.
• It also controls the pH, drying, chemical distillation process in the chemical industry.

20.What are the Advantages & Disadvantages of Fuzzy Logic?


• The structure of Fuzzy Logic Systems is easy and understandable
• Fuzzy logic is widely used for commercial and practical purposes
• It helps you to control machines and consumer products
• It helps you to deal with the uncertainty in engineering

21. Draw the Example of a Fuzzy Logic System

22. Draw the Case Based System


23. What is the rule-based expert systems?

• Set of Facts: These are assertions or anything relevant to the beginning state of the
system.
• Set of Rules: It contains all actions that should be taken within the scope of a problem
and specify how to act on the assertion set. Here, facts are represented in an IF-THEN
form.
• Termination Criteria or Interpreter: Determines whether a solution exists or not, as
well as when to terminate the process.

24. Explain the Rule-Based System Example

A domain-specific expert system that uses rules to make deductions or narrow down
choices is one of the most popular as well as the classic example of rule-based systems

25. What are the Features of Rule-Based Systems?

Widely used in Artificial Intelligence, Rule-Based Expert System is not just only
responsible for modeling intelligent behavior in machines and building expert system that
outperform human expert(s)

26. What are the Advantages of Rule-Based Systems ?

• Being one of the core technologies responsible for making machines capable of rule-
based learning, rule-based systems offer a range of advantages like:
• Rule-based programming is easy to understand.
• It can be built to represent expert judgment in simple or complicated subjects.

27. What are the Disadvantages of Rule-Based Systems?

• Though exceptionally beneficial, rule-based systems have certain drawbacks associated


with them, such as:
• They require deep domain knowledge and manual work.
• Generating rules for a complex system is quite challenging and time-consuming.

28. What is the Classical Set?

• It is a type of set which collects the distinct objects in a group. The sets with the crisp
boundaries are classical sets. In any set, each single entity is called an element or member
of that set.

29. List out the Types of Set


• Finite
• Empty
• Infinite
• Proper
• Universal
• Subset
• Singleton
• Equivalent Set
• Disjoint Set

30. What is the Fuzzy Set Theory?

• Set
A set is a term, which is a collection of unordered or ordered elements. Following are the
various examples of a set:
• A set of all-natural numbers
• A set of students in a class.
• A set of all cities in a state.
• A set of upper-case letters of the alphabet.

31. What are the Operations on Classical Set?

• Union Operation
• Intersection Operation
• Difference Operation
• Complement Operation

32. List out the Properties of Classical Set

1.Commutative Property

2. Associative Property

3. Idempotency Property

4. Absorption Property

5. Distributive Property

6. Identity Property

7. Transitive property

8. Ivolution property

9. De Morgan's Law

5 MARKS
1. What are the Applications of Fuzzy Logic?

Following are the different application areas where the Fuzzy Logic concept is widely used:

1. It is used in Businesses for decision-making support system.


2. It is used in Automative systems for controlling the traffic and speed, and for improving
the efficiency of automatic transmissions. Automative systems also use the shift
scheduling method for automatic transmissions.
3. This concept is also used in the Defence in various areas. Defence mainly uses the Fuzzy
logic systems for underwater target recognition and the automatic target recognition of
thermal infrared images.
4. It is also widely used in the Pattern Recognition and Classification in the form of
Fuzzy logic-based recognition and handwriting recognition. It is also used in the
searching of fuzzy images.
5. Fuzzy logic systems also used in Securities.
6. It is also used in microwave oven for setting the lunes power and cooking strategy.
7. This technique is also used in the area of modern control systems such as expert
systems.
8. Finance is also another application where this concept is used for predicting the stock
market, and for managing the funds.
9. It is also used for controlling the brakes.
10. It is also used in the industries of chemicals for controlling the ph, and chemical
distillation process.
11. It is also used in the industries of manufacturing for the optimization of milk and
cheese production.
12. It is also used in the vacuum cleaners, and the timings of washing machines.
13. It is also used in heaters, air conditioners, and humidifiers.

2. Difference Between classical set theory and fuzzy set theory

Classical Set Fuzzy Set Theory


Theory
1. This theory is a 1. This theory is a class of those sets having un-sharp boundaries.
class of those sets
having sharp
boundaries.

2. This set theory is 2. This set theory is defined by ambiguous boundaries.


defined by exact
boundaries only 0
and 1.

3. In this theory, 3. In this theory, there always exists uncertainty about the boundary's location of a set.
there is no
uncertainty about
the boundary's
location of a set.

4. This theory is 4. It is mainly used for fuzzy controllers.


widely used in the
design of digital
systems.

3. What are the Advantages of Fuzzy Logic?

Fuzzy Logic has various advantages or benefits. Some of them are as follows:

1. The methodology of this concept works similarly as the human reasoning.


2. Any user can easily understand the structure of Fuzzy Logic.
3. It does not need a large memory, because the algorithms can be easily described with
fewer data.
4. It is widely used in all fields of life and easily provides effective solutions to the
problems which have high complexity.
5. This concept is based on the set theory of mathematics, so that's why it is simple.
6. It allows users for controlling the control machines and consumer products.
7. The development time of fuzzy logic is short as compared to conventional methods.
8. Due to its flexibility, any user can easily add and delete rules in the FLS system.

4. What are the Disadvantages of Fuzzy Logic?

Fuzzy Logic has various disadvantages or limitations. Some of them are as follows:

1. The run time of fuzzy logic systems is slow and takes a long time to produce outputs.
2. Users can understand it easily if they are simple.
3. The possibilities produced by the fuzzy logic system are not always accurate.
4. Many researchers give various ways for solving a given statement using this technique
which leads to ambiguity.
5. Fuzzy logics are not suitable for those problems that require high accuracy.
6. The systems of a Fuzzy logic need a lot of testing for verification and validation.

10 MARKS

1.Explain about the Reasoning and its types.

The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and making
predictions from available knowledge, facts, and beliefs. Or we can say, "Reasoning is a way to
infer facts from existing data." It is a general process of thinking rationally, to find valid
conclusions.

In artificial intelligence, the reasoning is essential so that the machine can also think
rationally as a human brain, and can perform like a human.

Types of Reasoning

In artificial intelligence, reasoning can be divided into the following categories:

o Deductive reasoning
o Inductive reasoning
o Abductive reasoning
o Common Sense Reasoning
o Monotonic Reasoning
o Non-monotonic Reasoning
1. Deductive reasoning:

Deductive reasoning is deducing new information from logically related known information. It is
the form of valid reasoning, which means the argument's conclusion must be true when the
premises are true.

Deductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic in AI, and it requires various rules and facts.
It is sometimes referred to as top-down reasoning, and contradictory to inductive reasoning.

In deductive reasoning, the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.

Deductive reasoning mostly starts from the general premises to the specific conclusion, which
can be explained as below example.

Example:

Premise-1: All the human eats veggies

Premise-2: Suresh is human.

Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.

The general process of deductive reasoning is given below:

2. Inductive Reasoning:

Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning to arrive at a conclusion using limited sets of facts by
the process of generalization. It starts with the series of specific facts or data and reaches to a
general statement or conclusion.

Inductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic, which is also known as cause-effect


reasoning or bottom-up reasoning.

In inductive reasoning, we use historical data or various premises to generate a generic rule, for
which premises support the conclusion.

In inductive reasoning, premises provide probable supports to the conclusion, so the truth of
premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion.

Example:
Premise: All of the pigeons we have seen in the zoo are white.

Conclusion: Therefore, we can expect all the pigeons to be white.

3. Abductive reasoning:

Abductive reasoning is a form of logical reasoning which starts with single or multiple
observations then seeks to find the most likely explanation or conclusion for the observation.

Abductive reasoning is an extension of deductive reasoning, but in abductive reasoning, the


premises do not guarantee the conclusion.

Example:

Implication: Cricket ground is wet if it is raining

Axiom: Cricket ground is wet.

Conclusion It is raining.

4. Common Sense Reasoning

Common sense reasoning is an informal form of reasoning, which can be gained through
experiences.

Common Sense reasoning simulates the human ability to make presumptions about events which
occurs on every day.

It relies on good judgment rather than exact logic and operates on heuristic
knowledge and heuristic rules.

Example:

1. One person can be at one place at a time.


2. If I put my hand in a fire, then it will burn.

The above two statements are the examples of common sense reasoning which a human mind
can easily understand and assume.
5. Monotonic Reasoning:

In monotonic reasoning, once the conclusion is taken, then it will remain the same even if we
add some other information to existing information in our knowledge base. In monotonic
reasoning, adding knowledge does not decrease the set of prepositions that can be derived.

To solve monotonic problems, we can derive the valid conclusion from the available facts only,
and it will not be affected by new facts.

Monotonic reasoning is not useful for the real-time systems, as in real time, facts get changed, so
we cannot use monotonic reasoning.

Monotonic reasoning is used in conventional reasoning systems, and a logic-based system is


monotonic.

Any theorem proving is an example of monotonic reasoning.

Example:

o Earth revolves around the Sun.

It is a true fact, and it cannot be changed even if we add another sentence in knowledge base like,
"The moon revolves around the earth" Or "Earth is not round," etc.

Advantages of Monotonic Reasoning:


o In monotonic reasoning, each old proof will always remain valid.
o If we deduce some facts from available facts, then it will remain valid for always.

Disadvantages of Monotonic Reasoning:


o We cannot represent the real world scenarios using Monotonic reasoning.
o Hypothesis knowledge cannot be expressed with monotonic reasoning, which means
facts should be true.
o Since we can only derive conclusions from the old proofs, so new knowledge from the
real world cannot be added.

6. Non-monotonic Reasoning

In Non-monotonic reasoning, some conclusions may be invalidated if we add some more


information to our knowledge base.

Logic will be said as non-monotonic if some conclusions can be invalidated by adding more
knowledge into our knowledge base.
Non-monotonic reasoning deals with incomplete and uncertain models.

"Human perceptions for various things in daily life, "is a general example of non-monotonic
reasoning.

Example: Let suppose the knowledge base contains the following knowledge:

o Birds can fly


o Penguins cannot fly
o Pitty is a bird

So from the above sentences, we can conclude that Pitty can fly.

However, if we add one another sentence into knowledge base "Pitty is a penguin", which
concludes "Pitty cannot fly", so it invalidates the above conclusion.

Advantages of Non-monotonic reasoning:


o For real-world systems such as Robot navigation, we can use non-monotonic reasoning.
o In Non-monotonic reasoning, we can choose probabilistic facts or can make assumptions.

Disadvantages of Non-monotonic Reasoning:


o In non-monotonic reasoning, the old facts may be invalidated by adding new sentences.
o It cannot be used for theorem proving.

2.What is Fuzzy Logic and explain it?

The 'Fuzzy' word means the things that are not clear or are vague. Sometimes, we cannot decide
in real life that the given problem or statement is either true or false. At that time, this concept
provides many values between the true and false and gives the flexibility to find the best solution
to that problem.Example of Fuzzy Logic as comparing to Boolean Logic
Fuzzy logic contains the multiple logical values and these values are the truth values of a
variable or problem between 0 and 1. This concept was introduced by Lofti
Zadeh in 1965 based on the Fuzzy Set Theory. This concept provides the possibilities which are
not given by computers, but similar to the range of possibilities generated by humans.

In the Boolean system, only two possibilities (0 and 1) exist, where 1 denotes the absolute truth
value and 0 denotes the absolute false value. But in the fuzzy system, there are multiple
possibilities present between the 0 and 1, which are partially false and partially true.

The Fuzzy logic can be implemented in systems such as micro-controllers, workstation-based or


large network-based systems for achieving the definite output. It can also be implemented in
both hardware or software

Characteristics of Fuzzy Logic

Following are the characteristics of fuzzy logic:

1. This concept is flexible and we can easily understand and implement it.
2. It is used for helping the minimization of the logics created by the human.
3. It is the best method for finding the solution of those problems which are suitable for
approximate or uncertain reasoning.
4. It always offers two values, which denote the two possible solutions for a problem and
statement.
5. It allows users to build or create the functions which are non-linear of arbitrary
complexity.
6. In fuzzy logic, everything is a matter of degree.
7. In the Fuzzy logic, any system which is logical can be easily fuzzified.
8. It is based on natural language processing.
9. It is also used by the quantitative analysts for improving their algorithm's execution.
10. It also allows users to integrate with the programming.

Architecture of a Fuzzy Logic System

In the architecture of the Fuzzy Logic system, each component plays an important role. The
architecture consists of the different four components which are given below.

1. Rule Base
2. Fuzzification
3. Inference Engine
4. Defuzzification

Following diagram shows the architecture or process of a Fuzzy Logic system:


1. Rule Base

Rule Base is a component used for storing the set of rules and the If-Then conditions given by
the experts are used for controlling the decision-making systems. There are so many updates that
come in the Fuzzy theory recently, which offers effective methods for designing and tuning of
fuzzy controllers. These updates or developments decreases the number of fuzzy set of rules.

2. Fuzzification

Fuzzification is a module or component for transforming the system inputs, i.e., it converts the
crisp number into fuzzy steps. The crisp numbers are those inputs which are measured by the
sensors and then fuzzification passed them into the control systems for further processing. This
component divides the input signals into following five states in any Fuzzy Logic system:

o Large Positive (LP)


o Medium Positive (MP)
o Small (S)
o Medium Negative (MN)
o Large negative (LN)

3. Inference Engine

This component is a main component in any Fuzzy Logic system (FLS), because all the
information is processed in the Inference Engine. It allows users to find the matching degree
between the current fuzzy input and the rules. After the matching degree, this system determines
which rule is to be added according to the given input field. When all rules are fired, then they
are combined for developing the control actions.

4. Defuzzification

Defuzzification is a module or component, which takes the fuzzy set inputs generated by
the Inference Engine, and then transforms them into a crisp value. It is the last step in the
process of a fuzzy logic system. The crisp value is a type of value which is acceptable by the
user. Various techniques are present to do this, but the user has to select the best one for reducing
the errors.

Membership Function

The membership function is a function which represents the graph of fuzzy sets, and allows
users to quantify the linguistic term. It is a graph which is used for mapping each element of x to
the value between 0 and 1.

This function is also known as indicator or characteristics function.


This function of Membership was introduced in the first papers of fuzzy set by Zadeh. For the
Fuzzy set B, the membership function for X is defined as: μB:X → [0,1]. In this function X, each
element of set B is mapped to the value between 0 and 1. This is called a degree of membership
or membership value.

3.Explain the Classical and Fuzzy Set Theory

Set

A set is a term, which is a collection of unordered or ordered elements. Following are the various
examples of a set:

1. A set of all-natural numbers


2. A set of students in a class.
3. A set of all cities in a state.
4. A set of upper-case letters of the alphabet.

Types of Set:

There are following various categories of set:

1. Finite
2. Empty
3. Infinite
4. Proper
5. Universal
6. Subset
7. Singleton
8. Equivalent Set
9. Disjoint Set

Classical Set

It is a type of set which collects the distinct objects in a group. The sets with the crisp boundaries
are classical sets. In any set, each single entity is called an element or member of that set.

Operations on Classical Set

Following are the various operations which are performed on the classical sets:
1. Union Operation
2. Intersection Operation
3. Difference Operation
4. Complement Operation

1. Union:

This operation is denoted by (A U B). A U B is the set of those elements which exist in two
different sets A and B. This operation combines all the elements from both the sets and make a
new set. It is also called a Logical OR operation.

It can be described as:

A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A OR x ∈ B }.

Example:

Set A = {10, 11, 12, 13}, Set B = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}, then A ∪ B = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

2. Intersection

This operation is denoted by (A ∩ B). A ∩ B is the set of those elements which are common in
both set A and B. It is also called a Logical OR operation.

It can be described as:

A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A AND x ∈ B }.

Example:

Set A = {10, 11, 12, 13}, Set B = {11, 12, 14} then A ∩ B = {11, 12}

3. Difference Operation

This operation is denoted by (A - B). A-B is the set of only those elements which exist only in
set A but not in set B.

It can be described as:

A - B = { x | x ∈ A AND x ∉ B }.
4. Complement Operation: This operation is denoted by (A`). It is applied on a single set. A` is
the set of elements which do not exist in set A.

It can be described as:

A′ = {x|x ∉ A}.

Properties of Classical Set

There are following various properties which play an essential role for finding the solution of a
fuzzy logic problem.

1. Commutative Property:

This property provides the following two states which are obtained by two finite sets A and B:

A∪B=B∪A
A∩B=B∩A

2. Associative Property:

This property also provides the following two states but these are obtained by three different
finite sets A, B, and C:

A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

3. Idempotency Property:

This property also provides the following two states but for a single finite set A:

A∪A=A
A∩A=A

4. Absorption Property

This property also provides the following two states for any two finite sets A and B:

A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A

5. Distributive Property:
This property also provides the following two states for any three finite sets A, B, and C:

A∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B)∩ (A ∪ C)
A∩ (B ∪ C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)

6. Identity Property:

This property provides the following four states for any finite set A and Universal set X:

A ∪ φ =A
A∩X=A
A∩φ=φ
A∪X=X

7. Transitive property

This property provides the following state for the finite sets A, B, and C:

If A ⊆ B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C

8. Ivolution property

This property provides following state for any finite set A:

9. De Morgan's Law

This law gives the following rules for providing the contradiction and tautologies:

4. What is a rule-based system in AI?


A rule-based system is a system that applies human-made rules to store, sort and
manipulate data. In doing so, it mimics human intelligence.
Rule-based systems require a set of facts or source of data, and a set of rules for
manipulating that data. These rules are sometimes referred to as ‘If statements’ as they tend to
follow the line of ‘IF X happens THEN do Y’.
The steps can be simplified to:

 First comes the data or new business event


 Then comes the analysis: the part where the system conditionally processes the data
against its rules
 Then comes any subsequent automated follow-up actions

Some of the important elements of rule-based systems include:

A set of facts
These facts are assertions or anything that is relevant to the beginning state of the system.

Set of Rules
This set contains all the actions that should be performed within the scope of a problem and
defines how to act on the assertion set. In the set of rules facts are represented in an IF-THEN
form.

Termination Criteria or Interpreter


This determines whether a solution exists or not and figures out when the process should be
terminated.
Characteristics of rule-based systems:

Some of the features of rule-based systems are:

 They are made up of the combined knowledge of human experts in the problem domain.
 They represent knowledge in a very declarative manner.
 They make it possible to use various knowledge representations paradigms.
 They support the implementation of non-deterministic search and control strategies.
 They help in describing fragmentary, ill-structured, heuristic, judgemental knowledge.
 They are robust and have the ability to operate using uncertain or incomplete knowledge.
 They can help with rule based decision making.

Rule based system in AI work:


Rule-based systems outlines triggers & the actions that should follow (or are triggered). For
example, a trigger might be an email containing the word “invoice”. An action might then be to
forward the email to the finance team.
These rules most often take the form of "if" statements. "IF" outlines the trigger, "THEN"
specifies the action to complete. So, if you want to create a rule-based system capable of
handling 100 different actions, you’d have to write 100 different rules. If you want to then update
the system and add actions, then you would need to write new rules.
In short, you use rules to tell a machine what to do, and the machine will do exactly as you tell it.
From there, rule-based systems will execute the actions until you tell it to stop.
But remember: if you tell it to do something incorrectly, it will do it incorrectly.

The main components of a rules-based system:


A typical rule-based system has seven basic components:

The knowledge base


It holds the domain knowledge that is necessary for problem solving. In a rules-based system, the
knowledge gets represented as a set of rules. Every rule specifies a relation, recommendation,
directive, strategy or heuristic and has the IF (condition) THEN (action) structure. As soon as the
condition part of the rule is satisfied, the rule gets triggered and the action part gets executed.

The database
The database has a set of facts that are used to compare against the IF (condition) part of the
rules that are held in the knowledge base.

The inference engine


The inference engine is used to perform the reasoning through which the expert system comes to
a solution. The job of the inference engine is to link the rules that are defined in the knowledge
base with the facts that are stored in the database. The inference engine is also known as the
semantic reasoner. It infers information or performs required actions on the basis of input and the
rule base that's present in the knowledge base. The semantic reasoner involves a match-resolve-
act cycle that works like this:

 Match - A section of the production rule system gets matched with the contents of the
working memory to gain a conflict, where there are several instances of the satisfied
productions.
 Conflict-Resolution - After the production system is matched, one of the production
instances in the conflict is selected for execution for the purpose of determining the
progress of the process.
 Act - The production instance selected in the previous stage is s executed, impacting the
contents of the working memory.

Explanation facilities
The explanantion facilities make it possible for the user to ask the expert system how a specific
conclusion was reached and why a specific fact is required. The expert system needs to be able to
explain its reasoning and justify its advice, analysis, or conclusion.

User interface
The user interface is the means through which the user seeking a solution to a problem
communicates with the expert system. The communication should be as meaningful and friendly
as possible and the user interface should be as intuitive as possible.
These five elements are critical for any rule-based system. They are the core components of the
rule-based system. But the system might have some additional components as well. A couple of
these components could be the external interface and the working memory.

External interface
The external interface enables an expert system to work with external data files and programs
that are written in conventional programming languages like C, Pascal, FORTRAN and Basic.

Working memory
The working memory stores temporary information and data.

Advantages of the rule-based system in AI:

1. A rule-based system is generally cost-efficient and accurate in terms of its results.


2. The outputs generated by the system are dependent on rules so the output responses are
stable and not random.
3. The coverage for different circumstances is less, whatever scenarios are covered by the
Rule Based system will provide high accuracy. The error rate goes down because of the
predefined rules.
4. It's feasible to reduce the amount of risk in terms of system accuracy.
5. Optimizing the speed of the system is easier as you know all the parts. So providing
instant outputs, is not a big issue.

Disadvantages of the rule-based system in AI:


1. A rule-based system is built upon a lot of data, deep knowledge of the domain, and a lot
of manual work.
2. Writing and generating rules for a complex system is quite challenging and time-
consuming.
3. The self-learning capacity in a rule-based system is less as it generates the result as per
the rules.
4. Complex pattern identification is a challenging task in the Rule Based method as it takes
a lot of time and analysis.

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