UNIT-II

Introduction to Quantum Computing [CO1,(PO1,PO2 & PO12)]

Complex Numbers :

Quantum mechanics is full of complex numbers, numbers involving i = −1 . This section summarizes
their most important properties.

First, any complex number c can always be written in the form c = a + ib

where both a and b are ordinary real numbers, not involving −1 . The number a is called the real part of
c and b the imaginary part.

Complex numbers can be manipulated pretty much in the same way as ordinary numbers can. A relation to
1
remember is : = −i
i
which can be verified by multiplying top and bottom of the fraction by i and noting that bydefinition i2
= −1 in the bottom.

The complex conjugate of a complex number c, denoted by c∗, is found by replacing i everywhere by –i.
In particular, if c = a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, the complex conjugate is c∗ = a – ib.
The magnitude, or absolute value, of a complex number c, denoted by |c|, is the positive

square root of c times its complex conjugate : c = cc

If c = a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, multiplying out cc shows the magnitude of c to be

c = a 2 + b2

Complex numbers of magnitude one can always be written in the form ei where  is an ordinary real
number. The critically important Euler identity says that:

ei = cos( ) + i sin( )

Note that the only two real numbers of magnitude one, 1 and −1, are included for  =0,
respectively  =  .

Functions as vectors:
The second mathematical idea that is critical for quantum mechanics is that functions can be treated in a way that
is fundamentally not that much different from vectors.
A vector f (which might be velocity v , linear momentum p = mv , force F , or whatever) is usually
shown in physics in the form of an arrow:

Figure 1: The classical picture of a vector.

However, the same vector may instead be represented as a spike diagram, by plotting the
value of the components versus the component index:

Figure 2: Spike diagram of a vector.

(The symbol i for the component index is not to be confused with i = −1 )
In the same way as in two dimensions, a vector in three dimensions, or, for that matter, in
thirty dimensions, can be represented by a spike diagram:

Figure 3: More dimensions.

For a large number of dimensions, and in particular in the limit of infinitely many dimensions, the large values of
i can be rescaled into a continuous coordinate, call it x. For example, x might be defined as i divided by the number
of dimensions. In any case, the spike diagram becomes a function f(x):
 Figure 4: Infinite dimensions.
In this way, a function is just a vector in infinitely many dimensions.

( e x ) = 1e x
d d
For example, e x s an eigen function of the operator with eigenvalue 1, since
dx dx

However, eigen functions like ex are not very common in quantum mechanics since they become very large
at large x and that typically does not describe physical situations.

d
The eigen functions of that do appear a lot are of the form eikx , where i = −1 and k is an
dx
arbitrary real number. The eigenvalue is ik :

d ikx
e = ikeikx
dx
Function eikx does not blow up at large x ; in particular, the Euler identity says:
eikx = cos(kx) + i sin(kx)
Concept of Operator:

The wave function 𝜓(𝑥) which when operated by an operator O are merely multiplied by some constant ‘k’ if

⏞ 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝜓(𝑥)
𝑂
Then wave function 𝜓(𝑥) are called Eigen function of the operator O and the various possible values k are
called eigen values of operator O.
For example, We consider the function-
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛4𝑥
𝑑2
When the wavefunction is operated by operator (− 𝑑𝑥 2 )
The result is
⏞ 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝜓(𝑥)
𝑂
2
𝑑
(− 2 ) (𝑆𝑖𝑛4𝑥) = 16(𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑛4𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2
Thus Sin4x is Eigen function and 16 is Eigen value of the operator (− 𝑑𝑥 2 )

Eigen Value & Eigen Function:

Eigenvalues are associated with eigenvectors in Linear algebra. Both terms are used in the analysis of linear
transformations. Eigenvalues are the special set of scalar values that is associated with the set of linear equations
most probably in the matrix equations. The eigenvectors are also termed as characteristic roots. It is a non-zero
vector that can be changed at most by its scalar factor after the application of linear transformations. And the
corresponding factor which scales the eigenvectors is called an eigenvalue.

Eigenvalue Definition
Eigenvalues are the special set of scalars associated with the system of linear equations. It is mostly used in matrix
equations. ‘Eigen’ is a German word that means ‘proper’ or ‘characteristic’. Therefore, the term eigenvalue can be
termed as characteristic value, characteristic root, proper values or latent roots as well. In simple words, the
eigenvalue is a scalar that is used to transform the eigenvector. The basic equation is
Ax = λx
The number or scalar value “λ” is an eigenvalue of A.

Eigenvalues are also known as characteristic or latent roots, is a special set of scalars associated with the
system of linear equations.
In Mathematics, an eigenvector corresponds to the real non zero eigenvalues which point in the direction stretched
by the transformation whereas eigenvalue is considered as a factor by which it is stretched. In case, if the eigenvalue
is negative, the direction of the transformation is negative.
For every real matrix, there is an eigenvalue. Sometimes it might be complex. The existence of the eigenvalue for
the complex matrices is equal to the fundamental theorem of algebra.

What are Eigen Vectors?

Eigenvectors are the vectors (non-zero) that do not change the direction when any linear transformation is
applied. It changes by only a scalar factor. In a brief, we can say, if A is a linear transformation from a vector
space V and x is a vector in V, which is not a zero vector, then v is an eigenvector of A if A(X) is a scalar multiple
of x.
An Eigenspace of vector x consists of a set of all eigenvectors with the equivalent eigenvalue collectively with the
zero vector. Though, the zero vector is not an eigenvector.
Let us say A is an “n × n” matrix and λ is an eigenvalue of matrix A, then x, a non-zero vector, is called as
eigenvector if it satisfies the given below expression;
Ax = λx
x is an eigenvector of A corresponding to eigenvalue, λ.
The classical bit
The bit that we all are familiar with, is the most basic unit of information. It either represents a 1 or a 0. We can
think of it as analogous to a switch being on or off. A bit’s current status, either 1 or 0, is known as its state.

The quantum bit

The quantum bit can represent 0, 1, or both simultaneously. This seems quite counter-intuitive. What does it
mean to be two different things simultaneously? This phenomenon is called superposition. We will come back
to this in a future lesson about quantum mechanics. For now, we just need to accept that it’s possible to be 0
and 1 at once.

Quantum states
The first take away here is that the superposition of 0 and 1 is not some third possible state of a bit. It is a
special state that we cannot describe by using a classical bit. Let’s see why it is so special.

Notation
Let’s introduce some notations to distinguish quantum states from classical states. We will represent the 0 state in
quantum as “∣0⟩ and the 1 state as “∣1⟩”.

Superposition state
Think of a slider moving between the values from 0 to 1. A superposition of 0 and 1 means our current state is
somewhere on the slider, it could be a little more towards the 0 side, or it could be a little more towards the 1 side.
We see from this slider analogy that there are infinitely many possible states that we can call “being both 0 and 1
at the same time”.

We can think of such a quantum state as a whole, with some part being a 0 and the remaining part of it being a 1.
Let’s try to capture this concept using our new notation. We can write a superposition state as a combination of
∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩ in the form of ∣0⟩+∣1⟩.

An equal superposition state would mean 50% of the qubit is a 0 and the other 50% of it is a 1. Using this way,
we can think of the ∣0⟩ state to be 100% 0 and 0% ∣1⟩. Similarly, we can say the ∣1⟩ state is 0% 0 and 100% 1.

Differences between Qubits vs Bits:

• When we consider bit in traditional computing technology, bits refer only to the binary values such as 0s
and 1s, and they cannot be considered for other values. Whereas in qubits, it represents 0s, 1s, and a
superposition of both the values. That means it can be used to represent the combination of 0s and 1s in
quantum computing, where it is much important to notify all the values in the system.
• When bit storing the information of binary digits, qubits store the combination of binary digits, which helps
the qubits in quantum computing work three times as fast as a conventional computer system. The
information stored and the data transfer is huge, which helps to transfer the information faster.
• When the problem is to be solved on the computer, bits approach the problem as if in a hit and trial run.
This is due to the fact that one value is considered at a time, and parallel processing is not happening when
the problem has to be solved. When the same problem has to be solved using quantum computing, it is
approached with parallel processing by supporting all four values at a time and solving it at a faster pace.
• When more qubits are added to the quantum computer, the power to do the processing increases at an
exponential rate. In contrast, when bits are added to the normal computer, the power will not increase, and
the operations will be done at the same pace as one at a time. In quantum computing, this happens due to
superposition.
• It is extremely difficult to build quantum computers because they need extreme isolation and quantum
objects’ proper temperature. This is not the case with traditional computers, which anyone with hardware
knowledge can build and make it work for all the needed conditions for the user. Hence, the number of
quantum computers is very less, and their use is recently being increased.
• The storage space required by traditional computers for bits is huge, and it takes up lots of room. This can
be avoided for qubits as huge information can be stored in the system with a small area. As the systems and
devices are getting smaller, qubits help reimagine the technological world with really small size devices
being handy to carry everywhere.
• The scientific world can be viewed with different light with the help of qubits as it helps to modify and
recalculate the physical phenomena, even though it is really huge, within a short span of time than the
normal computers and make the process really easy for all who is beneficial with the same.

Wave function :

Wave represents the propogation of a disturbance in a medium. . Every wave is characterized by some
quantity known as the wave variable which varies with space and time. eg. the sound waves have
pressure as the wave variable which varies with space and time, the waves on strings have displacement
y as the wave variable, the light waves consists of variations of electric and magnetic fields in space.
In analogy with these waves known to us, it was suggested that the matter waves or de Broglie waves
should also have a wave variable associated with them and it should be a function of space and time.
The wave variable associated with the matter waves is called the wave function ψ (x,y,z,t) and it
mathematically describes the motion of an electron. The wave function -
• Ψ is a function of both position (x,y,z) & time (t).
• Ψ is a complex quantity containing real & imaginary terms.
• Ψ has no direct physical significance, as
• Ψ is not an observable quantity.
Classically the intensity of a wave motion is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave.
Thus the region of space where the particle is more likely to be found at time ‘t’ are those where the
intensity of the particle is more likely to be found at time t are those where intensity of the field IΨI2
is large.i.e. Probability of finding the particle in an infinitesimal volume is proportional to
IΨ(x,y,z)I2dx dy dz at time t.
P α IΨ(x,y,z)I2dv
 Physical significance.
Q. Explain physical significance of wave function Ψ.
Q. What is physical significance of wave function ψ.
Q. Give physical significance of wave function ψ.
Ans. The wave function ψ mathematical describes the motion of an election (ie particle). But since ψ
is not observable quantity therefore ψ has no direct physical significance. The wave function ψ is a
complex quantity, but the probability must be real. Therefore to make it a real quantity, Max-Born
German physicist showed that if ψ is multiplied by its complex conjugate ψ* then square of absolute
valve of the wave function IΨI2 is proportional to the probability of a particle being in unit volume
of space.
Thus the probability of finding a particle between x & x+dx, y & y+dy , z & z+dz is-

𝑃 𝖺 ∭ 𝜓𝜓∗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

Where ψ* is a complex of ψ

∴ 𝐼𝜓𝐼2 = 𝜓𝜓∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

𝑥+𝑑𝑥 𝑦+𝑑𝑦
𝑧+𝑑𝑧

∴𝑃α ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜓𝐼2 𝑑𝑣
𝑧
𝑥 𝑦

Normalization Condition
Since the particle must be found somewhere in the space i.e in the universe, the total probability of
finding the partied in entire space is unity.
+∞ +∞
+∞

∫ ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜓𝐼2 𝑑𝑣 = 1
−∞
−∞ −∞

This condition is known as the Normalization Condition and a wave function ψ satisfying above
condition is said to be normalized. Whenever wave functions are normalized. if IΨI2dv equals to
the probability that a particle will be found in volume dv.
P = IΨ(x,y,z)I2dv
Q. State the properties of wave function “ψ”. OR
Conditions of well behaved wave function (2m)
1) The wave function ψ must be single valued function: Any physical quantity can have only
one value at a point. For this reason the function related to a physical quantity cannot have
more than one value at that point. If it has more than one value at a point it means that there is
more than one value of probability of finding the particle at that point.

2) ψ Should be finite, at all point: The wave function ψ must be finite everywhere. Even if
𝑥 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞, 𝑦 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞, 𝑧 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 − ∞, the wave function should not tend to infinity.It
must remain finite for all values of x, y, z .If ψ is infinite, it would imply an infinitely large
probability of finding the particle at that point.
3) ψ must be continuous: ψ function should be continuous across any boundary. Since ψ is
related to a physical quantity. It cannot have a discontinuity at any point. Therefore, the wave
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
function ψ and its space derivatives𝜕𝜓 , & should be continuous across any boundary.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Since ψ is related to a real particle, it cannot have discontinuity at any boundary where
potential changes.

4) ψ must be normalized function: Since the particle must be found somewhere in

the space i.ein the universe, the total probability of finding the partied in entire space
is unity.

+∞ +∞
+∞
∫ ∫ ∫ 𝐼𝜓𝐼2 𝑑𝑣 = 1
−∞
−∞ −∞

This condition is known as the Normalization Condition and a wave function ψ satisfying
above condition is said to be normalized.

Q. Write down Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation for matter waves.
Schrödinger’s wave eq. (2 m)
Schrödinger wave eq is of two type.
1) Time dependent equation.
 ℏ2 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕𝜓
− + v𝜓 = iℏ (in one dimension)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑡

ℏ2 𝜕𝜓
− ∇2𝜓 + v𝜓 = iℏ (in three dimension)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑡

2) Time independent equation.

ℏ2 𝜕2𝜓
− + v𝜓 = E𝜓 (in one dimension)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥2
ℏ2
− ∇2𝜓 + v𝜓 = E𝜓 (in three dimension)
2𝑚

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
Where 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 = ∇2 represents differential operator (Laplace Operator)

Q. Show that wave function for a particle confined in an infinite one dimensional potential well
𝟐 𝒏𝝅
of length “L” is given by𝝍𝒏 (𝒙) = √𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( 𝑳 𝒙) .
Hence, discuss the energy levels and their discreteness.
OR
Q. Show that wave function for a particle confined to move in infinite one dimensional potential well of
𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
length (L) is given by 𝐄𝐧 = 𝟖𝐦𝐋𝟐 where symbols have their usual meanings. Is the electron trapped in a
potential well, allowed to take zero energy ? Why ?

Q. Show that the energy of an electron confined in one dimensional potential well of length (L)
and infinite depth is quantized? Is the electron trapped in a potential well, allowed to take zero
energy ?Why ? or

Q. A free particle of mss “m” is kept in a rectangular box of length “L”. Considering one
dimensional motion, obtain an expression of discrete energy of particle. Show that energy of
particle are quantized. or
Q. A particle confined in a one dimensional potential well of infinite depth. Use Schrödinger’s wave
equation to obtain the energy states of a particle inside the well. Or

Q. Write down Schrodinger’s time-independent wave equation for matter waves. Hence
obtain an expression for t h e energy of a particle in one dimensional potential well of infinite
height
Infinite potential well OR Particle in a potential well OR Particle in a Rigid box
A potential well is a potential energy function V(x) that has a minimum energy. If a particle is left in
 the well and the total energy of the particle is less than the height of the potential well, then the
particle is said to be trapped in the well.
In classical mechanics a particle trapped in a potential well can vibrate back and forth with
periodic motion but cannot leave the well. In quantum mechanics , such trapped state is called a
bound state
Let us consider a Particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity v along positive x-direction. Let its
motion be restricted between x = 0 and x=L inside the box bounded by rigid walls. The Particle
bounces back and forth on the wall of rigid box. When it collides with the walls it does not lose any
energy as the collision being elastic collision. And hence total energy E remains constant.
Now the P.E of particle outside the box is infinite and inside the box it is constant but for our
convenience inside the box constant P.E.is zero.
Thus, 𝑣𝑥 = ∞ , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 > 𝑥 > 𝐿

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑜 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿

The variation of potential with x is shown in fig. The particle is inside in deep potential well.

Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation is

Let ψ be the wave function associated with it. The wave function ψ = 0 outside the box because the
particle exist inside the box.
To find the energy and wave function inside the box we apply Schrödinger’s time-independent equation

ħ𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝍
1- Dimensional − 𝟐𝒎 𝝏𝒙𝟐 + 𝑽𝝍 = 𝑬𝝍

The particle is moving along x-direction.

ℎ2 𝑑2𝜓
− + (E –v)𝜓 = 0
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥2
The potential energy v = 0 inside the box.
𝑑2𝜓 2𝑚𝐸𝜓
∴ 2+ =0
𝑑𝑥 ℎ2
2𝑚𝐸
Keep = 𝑘2 -------------- (1) 𝑑2𝜓
+ 𝑘2𝜓 = 0
ℎ2
𝑑𝑥2
 The general solution of this equation is

(2)
𝜓 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥 ------------------------ (3)
Where A & B are constant and its value can be obtained by applying boundary conditions
i.e. at x = 0 => 𝜓=0
at x = L => 𝜓=0
Now applying first condition
at x = 0 => 𝜓=0
n
eq .(3) => 0 = 𝐴 sin 0 + 𝐵 cos 0
B=0 ∵ cos 0 = 1
n
Put in eq .(3) , we get
𝜓 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 ---------- (4)
at x = L => 𝜓=0
n
eq .(3) => 0 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝐿+0

∵ 𝐴 ≠ 0 ⟹ sin 𝑘𝑙 = 0 ⟹ 𝑘𝑙 = 𝑛𝜋 ⟹ 𝑘 =
𝑛𝜋
𝑘= (5)
𝐿

2𝜋 𝑛𝜋 2𝜋 2𝐿
𝐾= ⟹ = ⟹𝜆=
𝜆 𝐿 𝜆 𝑛

This implies that the wave equation has solution only when the electron wavelength is restricted to discrete
values such that only a whole number of half wavelengths (λ/2) is formed over the length L. Itmeans that
electron waves form standing wave pattern within the potential well.
From eqn.(1) & (5)
We get,
2𝑚𝐸
ℏ2
𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝐸𝑛
= 2
𝐿 𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ℏ2
=
2𝑚𝐿2
𝑛2 ℎ2
=
8𝑚𝐿2

En= 𝑛2ℎ2
8𝑚𝐿2 (6)

Where n =1,2,3---------
 For n = 1 For n = 2 For n = 3 for n = 4

ℎ2 4ℎ2 9ℎ2 16ℎ2

𝐸1 = 8𝑚𝐿2 , 𝐸2 = 8𝑚𝐿2 , 𝐸3 = 8𝑚𝐿2 , 𝐸4 = --- ------------
8𝑚𝐿2

are allowed energy states or energy quantization. The energy levels are shown in fig.

The above equation indicates that a particle confined in a potential well can have only certain values
of energy. Other energy values are not allowed. In other words restricting a micro particle to a certain
region leads to the quantization of energy. These allowed values of energies for a particle for which
Schrodinger equation can be solved is known as Energy Eigen values of the particle.

ℎ2
The lowest energy allowed for the particle is 𝐸1 = 8𝑚𝐿2 . It can not possess energy less than this.
The energy E1 is called zero point energy. The zero point energy is the consequence of the uncertainty principle.
If energy of the particle is zero, its momentum would be zero, and the uncertainty principle requires that the
wavelength be infinite. Hence, in this case the particle cannot be confined to the box. Eqn (6) is called energy
eigen values of nth particle. In this eqn .n is called quantum number which havevalues 1,2,3---------

Quantum mechanically, The zero point energy is the consequence of the uncertaintyprinciple. If E = 0 => p = 0
by relation E = p2/2m , If p = 0 => λ = infinity

If λ = infinity => The particle cannot be confined to a box.

So, the particle must have certain minimum amount of kinetic energy.
Classically, the particles may have zero point energy but Quantum mechanically it is not possible

To find wave function:

The wave function corresponding to the allowed energy levels can be obtained as fallows.

𝜓 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 cos 𝑘𝑥
𝑛𝜋
∵ 𝐵 = 0, 𝑘 =
𝐿

𝑛𝜋𝑥
⇒ 𝜓 = 𝐴 sin
𝐿
nπx 2
𝐼𝜓𝐼2 = IA sin ( )I
L
But according normalization condition,

∫ 𝐼𝜓𝐼2𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
nπx 2
∫ IA sin ( ) I 𝑑𝑥 = 1
L
0

𝐿
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐴2 ∫ sin2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
0

0 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
1 − cos ( 𝐿 )
2
𝐴 ∫( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
2
𝐿
 𝐿 𝐿
𝐴2 2𝜋𝑛𝑥
[∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ cos 𝑑𝑥] = 1
2 𝐿
0 0

2𝜋𝑛𝑥 𝐿
𝐴2 sin ( 𝐿 ) 𝐴2
[𝑥 − ] =1⟹ [(𝐿 − 0) − 0] = 1
2 𝐿 2
0

2 2
⟹ 𝐴2 = ⟹𝐴=√
𝐿 𝐿

This is required wave function. Probability is given by-

2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
I𝜓𝐼2 = sin ( )
𝐿 𝐿

Fig. 4: Diagrams of 𝜓(𝑥) & |ψn|2

 1) The allowed wave function ψn and the corresponding probability densities |ψn|2 for an electron
trapped in a one dimensional potential well are plotted in Fig 4. While ψn may be negative, |ψn|2 is
always positive. |ψn|2 gives the probability of finding the electron at a certain place within the well.
2) For n=1, |ψ1|2 gives the maximum probability of locating the particle at the centre of the well
i.e L/2 and decreases on either side of it.
3) However For n=2, |ψ2|2 gives the maximum probability of locating the particle which is found at
L/4 & 3L/4. For n=2, the probability of locating the particle at centre is zero.
For higher values of ‘n’ the probability of locating the particle lies at several points in the close vicinity
of each other and can be treated as continuum. Classically particle can have all possible values of
probability. It simply means that particle can be found at all the places with equal probabilities. However
quantum mechanically, the probability varies with the values of n.

Dependence of quantization on width of well

Or
𝑛2ℎ2
Using the relation 𝐸𝑛 = , Where symbols have their usual meanings, show
8𝑚𝐿2

that the quantization of energy assumes great importance in atomic world.

Let En and En+1 are two adjacent energy levels

ΔE = En+1 – En
(𝑛 + 1)2ℎ2 (𝑛)2ℎ2
−
8𝑚𝐿2 8𝑚𝐿2

ℎ2
(𝑛2 + 2𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛2)
8𝑚𝐿2
ℎ2(2𝑛 + 1)
∆𝐸 =
8𝑚𝐿2
ℎ 2 (2𝑛)
∆𝐸 = (∵ 2𝑛 ≫ 1; 1 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)
8𝑚𝐿2
 ℎ2 𝑛
∴ ∆𝐸 =
4𝑚𝐿2
Now assume two values for L
• L= 1cm = 10-2m
(6.63 × 10−34)2𝑛
∆𝐸 = 𝐽
4 × 9.11 × 10−31(10−2)2

=
1.2 × 10−33 × 𝑛 𝐽
∆E = = n × 0.74 × 10−14eV
1.602 × 10−19

∆E = n × 10−14eV --------- (1)

This energy difference between successive levels is so insignificant that an electron possess thermal
K.E. = 10-3eV .Then electron can easily move from one level to another without any external energy.
Thus the energy levels are quasi continuous.

• If L = 10Ǻ = 10 x 10-10 m ΔE = 0.74 x n eV

2
(6.63×10−34) 𝑛
∆𝐸 = −9 2
𝐽

4×9.11×10−31(10 )

1.2 × 10−19 × 𝑛 𝐽
∆E = = n × 0.74 eV
1.602 × 10−19
 ∆E = n × 0.74 eV --------- (2)

This energy difference between the adjacent levels is

very largeand electron cannot move into higher energy
level without any external energy. i.e energy levels are
far wider.

From eqn.(1) and (2),it is clear that of quantization

energy dependon width of well ’L’.
Que. Explain in short the phenomenon of tunneling that occurs when a beam of particles
are incident on a potential barrier of finite width.
OR
Explain the (quantum mechanical ) barrier tunneling of electron on the basis of quantum
mechanics.

When an electromagnetic wave strikes at the interface of the two media, it is partly reflected and partly
transmitted through the interface and enters the second medium. Similarly, the wave nature of micro
particles makes it possible to get partly reflected from the boundary of the potential barrier and partly
penetrate through the barrier. The penetration of a barrier by a quantum particle is called tunneling.
A potential barrier is the opposite of potential well; it is a potential energy function with a
maximum. Let us consider a potential barrier of height h and thickness L. The potential energy is zero
for x<0 and x>L and potential energy has a value V for 0 <, x < L. An electron of total energy E
approaches the barrier from the left. From the view point of classical physics , the electron would be
reflected from the barrier because its energy E is less than V. For the particle to overcome the potential
barrier, it must have an energy equal to or greater than V. Quantum mechanics leads to entirely new
result. It shows that there is a finite chance for the electron to leak to the other side of the barrier. We
say that the electron tunneled through the potential barrier and hence in quantum mechanics, the
phenomenon is called Quantum tunneling.

Let us consider a particle of energy E approaching the barrier from the left. The region around the barrier
can be divided into three regions as shown in fig. If the particle is to go into region III, it must have energy
equal to or greater than height h of the barrier. But according to quantum mechanics, particle can go into
all the three regions regardless of its energy.
The approximate transmission probability is given by

𝑇 = 𝑒 −2𝑘2 𝐿

Applications of the tunneling:

1) Tunnel diode
2) Scanning tunneling electron microscope(STM)
3) α - decay

Q.10. Draw the sketches of Wave function and probability densities of a particle for first three states
for finite potential well and discuss.
Ans.

The first three wave functions and probability densities when plotted against x are shown in the figure.
The eigen functions are similar in appearance to those of infinite well except that they extend a
little outside the box.
Even though the particle energy E is less than the P.E. V0 outside the box there is a definite probability
that the particle is found outside the box. The particle energy is not enough to break through the walls
of the box but it can penetrate the walls and leak out. This shows penetration of the particle into the
classically forbidden region.

Particle in a non-rigid box (Finite Potential Well)

• Consider a particle of mass m moving with velocity v along the x-direction between x = 0 and x
= L.
• The walls of the box are not rigid. Hence it is represented by a potential well of finite depth.

Step I : Let E be the total energy of the particle inside the box and V be its P.E. which is assumed to
be zero within the box. The potential outside the box is finite say v0 and v0>E.

The variation of potential with x is shown in fig 1.2

Classically , the particle with energy E , V0 cannot be present in regions 1 and 2 outside the box.

Consider the quantum mechanical picture of the particle in one dimensions. If Ψ is the wave function associated
with the particle then schroedinger’s time independent equation for it is ,
𝑑2 Ψ 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉) Ψ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

Step II : Consider the three regions 1,2,3 separately and let Ψ1, Ψ2, Ψ3 be the wave functions in them separately.

We have for region 1,

𝑑 2 Ψ1 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉0 ) Ψ𝐼 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

We have for region 2,

𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼 2𝑚𝐸
+ Ψ𝐼𝐼 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

And for region 3,

𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉0 ) Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

2𝑚𝐸
Let = k2
ℏ2

2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉0 )
And = -k’2 (as E < V0)
ℏ2

Then the equation in the three regions can be written as ,

𝑑 2 Ψ𝐼
− 𝑘′2 Ψ𝐼 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼
+ 𝑘 2 Ψ𝐼𝐼 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼
− 𝑘′2 Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2

Step III : The solution of these equation are of the form.

′𝑥
Ψ𝐼 = A𝑒 𝐾′𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑘 for x< 0

Ψ𝐼𝐼 = 𝑃 . 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝑄 . 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 for 0<x<L

Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼 = C . 𝑒 𝑘′𝑥 + D 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘′𝑥 for x>L

Step IV : As x → ±∞, Ψ should not become infinite. Hence B = 0

and C = 0
 Hence the wave function in three region are
′𝑥
Ψ𝐼 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑘

Ψ𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃 . 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝑄 . 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥

Ψ𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐷 . 𝑒 −𝑘′𝑥

Step V : The constant A, P, Q and D can be determined by applying the boundary conditions. The wave function
𝑑Ψ
Ψ and its derivative 𝑑𝑥

Should be continuous in the region where Ψ is defined.

Ψ𝐼 (0) = Ψ𝐼𝐼 (0)

𝑑Ψ𝐼 𝑑Ψ𝐼𝐼
] = ]𝑥=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥

Ψ𝐼𝐼 (𝐿) = Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼

𝑑Ψ𝐼𝐼 𝑑Ψ𝐼𝐼𝐼
]𝑥=𝐿 = ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝐿

• Using these four conditions, we get four equation from which the four constant A, B,C D can be
determined. Thus the wave function can be known completely.
• The first three wave function and probability densities when plotted against x are shown in fig 1
• The eigen function are similar in appearance to those of infinite well except that they extend a little
outside the box.
• Even though the particle energy E is less than the P.E. V0 outside the box there is a definite probability
that the particle is found outside the box.
• The particle energy is not enough to break through the walls of the box but it can penetrate the walls and
leak out. This shows penetration of the particle into the classically forbidden region.
• The energy levels of the particle are still discrete but there a finite number of them. Such a limit exists
because, soon the particle energy becomes equal to V0.
• For energies higher than this the Particle energy is not quantised but may have any value above V0.
• These predictions are unique in quantum mechanics and shows different behaviour from that expected in
classical physics.