CME 100518

Construction Mangement and Economics (2004) 22, 000–000

Innovative construction technology for affordable mass

housing in Tanzania, East Africa
RUMIT MEHTA and LARRY BRIDWELL*
Lubin School of Business, Pace University, One Martine Avenue, White Plains, New York 10606

Received 5 September 2003; accepted 26 May 2004

Building affordable housing with adequate structural safety is very important in the developing world. New
technology, specifically the Terra Block Fabricator, has the advantage of using local soil and labour to create high
quality building blocks. An interesting country in which to examine the potential of this technology is Tanzania
because it has had a fascinating history of evolving democratically from socialism to a market economy.
Using environmentally appropriate technology can energize local sustainable economic growth by stimulating
market demand for improved housing and raising the standard of living in low-income countries.

Keywords: housing, Africa, construction

Introduction both major successes and failures. A few years after the
creation of the Republic, a vision of nationalism and
The Least Developed Countries (LDC’s) are experi- self-reliance was promoted under the auspices of the
encing dramatic change. The transformation is both Arusha Declaration. The Arusha Declaration’s core
political and economic involving a shift in ideology from philosophy was to nationalize all areas of agriculture
government-controlled societies to more reliance on and manufacturing to ensure equal income distribution
market forces. Tanzania, in particular, has been viewed among the population (Kanaan, 2000). While the ideol-
as a success story in navigating change while maintain- ogy was promoted and executed, there was no incentive
ing political stability. structure in place to drive economic growth. Further-
more, manufacturing plants and agricultural areas of
the economy that were run by effective management
Historical Overview – 1950 to 1985 during the colonial period were managed by inad-
equately trained managers who either did not know the
Modern Tanzanian politics began under British rule particular trade or did not have a vision or goal.
when the colonial administration encouraged a formal The Declaration’s effectiveness in eradicating poverty
political party system allowing the formation of the and disease and improving the standard of living of the
Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). Under citizens began to weaken. This was attributed to ineffec-
the leadership of Dr Julius Nyerere, independence for tive economic management, governance and imple-
the mainland territory of Tanganyika was achieved in mentation of policy. Furthermore, the morale of the
1961. In 1964, the island nation of Zanzibar united with population eroded due to a lack of education, inad-
Tanganyika to form the new country, ‘Tanzania’. equate production incentives within the state-owned
While Socialism was the official ideology, politics industries and more importantly a ‘donor dependency’
in Tanzania became a combination of Marxism, syndrome due to years of aid from the Soviet Union,
Democracy and Socialism with a little bit of tradition Asia and western countries that resulted in crippling
and culture mixed in. There was no rigidly defined foreign debt.
‘ism’, and this has led the country up a unique path to This eventually led to the reduction of unnecessary
trade barriers, removal of restrictions on foreign
*Author for correspondence. E-mail: [email protected] exchange transactions and reform of the banking sector.
Construction Management and Economics
ISSN 0144-6193 print/ISSN 1466-433X online © 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
DOI: 10.1080/0144619042000287769

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 2 Mehta and Bridwell

Market policies were established through the Tanzania poverty such as increased slum development, diminish-
Investment Act of 1997. This Act was a radical change ing health services and lack of schooling.
from the past and allowed a more relaxed investment
climate. Furthermore, the Act guaranteed that the
‘Government does not have a right to nationalize or Housing development and services
expropriate any business’. This is the type of language
and legal guarantee that investors looked for, especially One of the dilemmas that developing countries and
after the Arusha Declaration in which all assets belong their metropolitan areas are facing is the haphazard way
to the government overnight. that urban dwellers have developed their infrastructure.
While the economic ideologies advocated from The lack of municipal planning for development is
1961–1985 can be questioned today, it must be noted mainly to blame for this. It is not uncommon to see con-
that the political evolution in Tanzania has led to one of struction of homes next to factories and other industrial
the most peaceful, united and harmonious nations in sites, creating serious health and safety hazards. Much
the developing world. of the development occurs near industrial facilities
because infrastructure amenities such as power, water
and sanitation are easily available there. And because
Urbanization and housing industrial facilities are typically located in metropolitan
centres where infrastructure is available, rural inhabit-
Almost every developing country has experienced a ants are forced to move to urban areas. Slums emerge
mass rural to urban migration. With urbanization come where hundreds and thousands of people live in appall-
issues of housing shortages, inadequate infrastructure ing conditions without access to basic health and
and societal friction. While there are many causes for human services, paved roads and utilities (Policy Forum
the urban migration in Africa, two stand out. First, the Report, 2002). Central governments in Africa have 2
levels of poverty in rural areas resulting from low agri- failed to recognize the sociological truth that the basic
cultural yields due to famine and other natural disasters way to retain a population in rural and small communi-
in sub-Saharan countries has forced many to move into ties is to provide economic incentives to keep them
2 cities (Global Coalition for Africa, 2000). Second, rural there. In Tanzania with a population of 35 million,
regions are woefully under-serviced, particularly in only three cities provide the majority of the industrial
basic medical and schooling facilities because much of capacity – Arusha (north), Mwanza (North-Central)
the government resources are targeted for urban areas. and Dar-Es-Salaam (east coast) – the latter being the
Furthermore, inappropriate government policies of largest and most developed.
land allocation and farming incentives often force Most African countries face a tremendous challenge
farmers to move to urban areas (Policy Forum Report, in addressing current problems while at the same time
2 2000). creating a new policy environment that will help their
cities to be more effective centres of growth and
progress. Cities have to be made more governable and
The informal economy livable as well as economically viable for growth. This
includes a proactive and integrated policy-making pro-
The heavy influx of rural people coming into the cities cess involving all aspects of local and national govern-
in search of jobs has also caused an imbalance between ments structuring a common development strategy. But
job hunters and job creators. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the for planners, urbanization also has to be looked at in the
modern formal economy provides jobs for only 10% of context of overall development of the nation and not
the work force. The remainder of the work force is simply in the area that is the most fiscally rewarding.
usually involved in casual labour, street vending and
other forms of enterprise. Productivity in the informal
sector is low and rather erratic, posing a dilemma for the Democratic development strategies
national government when it comes to revenue projec-
tions and budget allocation. Much of the revenue gener- Several African nations have begun to embrace democ-
ated by the informal economy is never shown on the ratization as a way of governing. While still in their early
books (if they even exist); hence the government is stages, multi-party agendas are blossoming. Politics is
strictly dependent on the formal sector for collections slowly becoming decentralized and decision-making
that are woefully short of their projections. While most assumed at a local and regional level. It is hoped that the
municipalities recognize that the informal sector is initial stages of the decentralization of power will slow
the only means of livelihood for the poor, they have down the growth of capital cities, and that resources will
also shown concern for the social issues that come with be transferred instead to the smaller towns that are

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 Mass housing in Tanzania 3

in dire need of development. Concurrently, it creates rural population lives in dwellings made of pressed
a mechanism whereby financial outflows occur to mud. Only 3% of the population lives in dwellings of
facilitate rural development and strengthen secondary concrete or stone and only
cities that can sustain industries and curb unnecessary Twenty-three per cent use mud brick. Regionally, the
economic migration. use of modern material is highest in Dar-Es-Salaam and
Kilimanjaro and lowest in Lindi, Singida and Tabora.
The use of modern housing material has increased in all
Housing and urban development areas since the last Housing Budget Survey in 1991
(Appendix A, Chart 2). In general, there has been an
The need to build affordable housing and other infra- increase in baked brick walls mainly in the rural areas
structure is paramount in Tanzania. While the elite has and a leap in the use of metal sheet roofing in urban
the means to live adequately, the low-income popula- areas such as the Kagera, Arusha and Kilimanjaro
tion suffers the most. The high cost of construction regions. As it is the wealthier households that are able
and the lack of financing have left large pockets of to afford modern materials, this suggests an increase in
metropolitan areas inhabited largely by dense and often incomes.
impenetrable slums built of wood, sheet metal and card-
According to 2001 housing figures published by the
board. Local governing bodies are struggling to alleviate
Tanzanian Ministry of Lands and Habitat Develop-
their problems with the help of NGOs such as Habitat
ment, there is a demand for 600 000 housing units in
for Humanity. However, such institutions only make a
the major urban areas, with Dar-Es-Salaam carrying
small dent in the larger problem that the continent
faces, making the need for a massive development 50% of that burden. This amount continues to rise with
strategy ever more essential. the daily influx of new migrants from smaller towns and
The 2002 Household Budget Survey (HBS) and the villages. Peripheral issues such as financing further
2002 Census, conducted by the Tanzania National exacerbate the lack of structured land development
Bureau of Statistics (NBS), analysed the housing condi- policy. Since the collapse of the Tanzania Housing
tions in 20 regions of the country. The census not only Bank (THB) in 1993, there has been no formal method
counted the civilian population of the country, but also by which one can borrow money to build a home.
collected information about household incomes, gender Instead, most construction in the country has been
roles, living conditions and quality of infrastructure. financed through personal funding, an expensive and
The data in Table 1 clearly indicates that inferior unreachable option for a low-level civil service employee
material is used mainly in rural areas of the country. making no more than $2000–$3000 annually. Thus,
Referring to Chart 2 in Appendix A, the majority of the individuals get priced out of the housing ownership

Table 1 Percentage of households living in dwellings with modern4 materials (NBS, 2002)

Tanzania Mainland
Dar-Es-Salaam
Kilimanjaro

Shinyanga
Morogoro
Dodoma

Ruvuma

Mwanza
Kigoma
Mtwara

Singida
Tabora
Arusha

Kagera
Rukwa
Mbeya
Tanga

Pwani

Iringa
Lindi

Mara

Modern floor (%)

Urban 70 66 67 70 65 51 n/a 37 54 66 79 66 52 60 52 39 64 65 54 66 71
Rural 7 11 38 12 7 10 n/a 7 8 25 15 19 7 5 3 4 9 15 13 20 13
Total 16 23 42 17 21 18 92 12 17 32 20 33 11 14 10 9 15 18 22 27 25
Modern walls (%)
Urban 54 43 57 44 61 26 n/a 20 40 76 62 20 26 24 38 27 41 54 25 47 54
Rural 18 11 36 3 18 1 n/a 1 5 65 26 37 5 3 31 41 2 10 6 19 17
Total 23 18 39 6 28 6 88 4 11 67 28 32 7 6 32 39 6 13 10 23 25
Modern roof (%)
Urban 89 96 93 86 88 70 n/a 56 75 81 88 90 84 85 64 73 75 89 79 89 88
Rural 24 41 84 36 31 24 n/a 8 17 34 44 37 15 11 8 13 18 51 31 34 31
Total 33 53 85 41 45 33 98 16 28 42 48 53 21 24 16 21 24 53 42 43 44

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 4 Mehta and Bridwell

market; yet, they still have to pay a large portion of their amounts to 3.49 million residential homes built by the
monthly salaries for rent. non-regulated sector, a phenomenal amount when
The most immediate response of the government considering revenue potential from property taxes.
has been to utilize the National Social Security Fund There are several developmental pitfalls that have
(NSSF) as a mechanism to build affordable housing been a detriment to the sector, creating a void and
in some of the more impoverished areas of Dar- preventing it from growth and development in areas
Es-Salaam. Using the funds from social security con- of research and innovative engineering (Bjork and
tributions, this pilot project includes the planned Klingberg, 1992):
construction of 146 homes complete with infrastructure
(roads, running water, drainage and electricity) by 2004
• There is a high degree of ‘stop-go’. While the
industry is seasonal (most construction occurs in
(Mwamunyange, 2003). The homes will be built of
the dry period), work often stops because of the
concrete block walls and clay tile roofs and sold for
lack of adequate technology, material shortages
approximately $9000 to $12 000, depending on their
or bureaucratic hurdles.
size. While the intent is good, it does not meet the mini-
mum demand nor make it affordable for an average
• Managing a transient construction workforce is
logistically difficult, due to a limited highway
family of four to six people.
network.
• The economic turbulence used to be a major
hurdle for contractors, and in order to overcome
Ecological awareness
losses, they often inflated their price quotes. This
was primarily to cover unforeseen costs including
Environmental sensitivity is often a low priority in
sudden shift in policy and currency devaluation.
developing countries, and the need to make ends meet is
While that problem has diminished today, it was
primary for the majority of Tanzanians. For example, in
the most common threat 15 years ago.
order to find both cheaper material and much needed
structural strength, roadside ‘brick factories’ have been
• Laws and regulations covering industry
standards exist but are often overlooked due to
set up without approval or any quality-control. These
insufficient monitoring and lack of resources.
small-scale producers, using shovels, pack brick-sized
moulds with a sand and clay mix under uncontrolled
conditions and then either sun-dry them or fire them in
Overcoming the housing shortfall using
home-made wood-fired kilns. While this is a tried
innovative technology
and tested method, consumers fail to see the negative
environmental impact caused by the use of firewood to
The underlying struggle that most developing nations
fuel the kilns.
face when it comes to housing is how to make it not only
Furthermore, there is another psychological and
affordable, but more importantly sustainable over time.
sociological issue that needs to be emphasized. The
The economics of affordable housing calls for a dwelling
very idea of a middle-income earner living in a ‘mud
having minimal maintenance requirements, and being
dwelling’ goes against the grain of their status in the
community. Instead, the extensive and expensive use of affordable to the lowest wage earner paying a mortgage
foreign materials symbolizes success and position in the that does not exceed 10 years. Fortunately, innovative
community. This is a trend that should be reversed technologies are being introduced to help reduce some
through the introduction of creative design and of the financial, economic and engineering pitfalls.
construction sophistication that emphasizes locally Innovative technology, or alternative technology, is
available products and labour. by definition, technology that has been creatively
re-designed to produce a similar, but better product.
Typically, the re-design is done to reduce costs, be more
The construction sector in Tanzania environmentally sensitive and technologically improved
for efficient use. More importantly, the technology is
A lack of statistical data makes it extremely difficult to tailored for local use under local conditions. In the case
gauge the health of the construction sector in Tanzania. of East Africa, the use of mud and thatch as a building
The biggest hurdle is accounting for the unregulated material is a common sight particularly in rural and
and informal housing sector that includes squatter other outlying regions.
camps and shanty towns. A 1992 Swedish International The potential to improve this traditional approach
Development Agency (SIDA) evaluation reports ‘95% has been shown in India that also uses mud as a primary
of the rural homes and 85% of all urban houses are building tool in rural development. Research institutes
built by self-help’ (Bjork and Klingberg, 1992). This such as Auroville, India have been promoting the use of

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 Mass housing in Tanzania 5

manual block machines that create structurally sounder Cost effectiveness

building blocks. The manual hand crank process
including the hydraulic system of producing clay blocks The use of indigenous material, namely soil compared
for construction is certainly not a unique concept, and to the use of cement blocks provides substantial savings.
in fact there are several functioning designs available. Soil can also be found on the building site, eliminating
unnecessary transportation costs that comes with ready-
made materials, such as cement block and fired brick.
Mechanized hydraulically compressed block Furthermore, the press uses diesel fuel that is widely
machine used and is the preferred choice of fuel in Tanzania.1

Going beyond manual labour, an inexpensive diesel- Labour effectiveness

fuelled hydraulic machine can take a semi-dry mix of
local clay and sand and create better building blocks Most developing countries face a shortage of skilled
with consistency and quality control equivalent to that labour. The only skilled person required for the press
achieved in a factory setting. There are several designs is a mechanic who understands the basics of operating
available. hydraulic technology and who can carry out preventive
The hydraulic functions of these machines have maintenance.
several advantages particularly in large-scale develop-
ment programmes such as affordable mass housing.
The ‘Terra Block Fabricator (TBF)’ (see Figure 1)
Table 2 Regional cost comparisons
models were used as a case study for this research paper.
Using gravity feed, the TBF self-loads the compression Material U.S.A. Tanzania
chamber. Once loaded, a powerful ram compresses the Compressed block $0.80* $0.04
soil at a consistent rate ensuring the necessary quality Concrete block $6.80 $2.00
controls. The sizes of the blocks vary according to the Press built house construction $10–$80 $6.00–$50
model used. After compression, the block is automati- cost range
cally ejected and the chamber is cleared to receive the
*All figures are based on “installed” per square foot.
next batch of soil for compression. Source: National Construction Council (Tanzania), AECT (San
This approach has several advantages: Antonio, TX).

COLOUR
FIGURE

Figure 1 TBF205: Mulanja

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 6 Mehta and Bridwell

Environmental impact Job creation and ‘mobile’ education

Not only does the hydraulic press eliminate the use In Tanzania, the inadequacy of reliable overland
of firewood for firing the block, it also has a positive transportation often curbs the movement of potentially
environmental impact in terms of energy efficiency. In talented people. The mobility of the press is advanta-
Tanzania, ventilation is of paramount importance in geous, because it brings the technology to the people,
order to keep the habitat cool. Mud is one of the best in essence establishing an equivalent of a ‘mobile
insulators and has a great cooling effect. The use of classroom’.
adobe walls can result in a 40–50% savings2 in energy The hydraulically pressed block (HPB) produced by
bills (air conditioning) over a 12-month period. the TBF has a load-bearing strength of 1000 pds/in2
(concrete masonry unit: 1500 pds/in2). Reinforced con-
crete columns are not necessary for a typical single story
Speed and efficiency structure because an HPB wall derives its strength from
Several hydraulic press models that were analysed could its monolithic nature when complete. In fact, an HPB
produce up to 900 blocks in one hour, while the small- wall can withstand earthquakes up to 7.5 on the Richter
est produced up to 240 per hour.3 While these are key scale if made and used appropriately. This feature is
statistics, what is important is the fact that because the particularly important considering the horrific damage
blocks only contain up to 8% moisture, they can be put caused by the 2004 earthquake in Bam, Iran that mea-
in place immediately without having to dry them. This sured 6.5 on the Richter Scale. Cement mortar is not
results in substantial savings in storage, time and fuel. used; instead watery mud slurry is painted between the
blocks, causing the layers of blocks to bond directly to
each other. This vastly increases the shearing strength of
Quality control a block wall compared to concrete or fired-brick blocks,
Quality Control: Construction storage facilities in which bond to the inter-layer of mortar – not to each
Tanzania often do not meet high quality standards. The other.
storage of building materials over a period of time may
result in deterioration due to water seepage and bad
handling. Furthermore, to transport building blocks Market and customer
from warehouses is detrimental to the quality of the
product. Because the TBF manufactures the building The hydraulic press has been designed for continuous,
block on-site, quality can be maintained at all times by large-scale and voluminous construction, and identify-
the building crew rather than depending on indepen- ing the right market to ensure some level of success is
dent suppliers who could be making bricks in wood critical. Accordingly, a niche market has been identified
fired kilns under questionable quality standards. and exists in two forms as described below:

Low maintenance Non-governmental Organizations (NGO)

While the hydraulic press is sophisticated, it requires In sub-Saharan Africa, NGOs and non-profit organiza-
minimal maintenance, much of which involves periodic tions have provided humanitarian services, food distri-
inspections of the mechanism by a skilled mechanic. bution, medical services, education and infrastructure
Parts are easily replaceable and can be found in any development for decades. An NGO also tends to be a
hardware store or can be ordered. Furthermore, the likely partner in promoting such locally based technolo-
components of the machine are non-proprietary, which gies, as their role is often to promote rural development,
lowers the overall maintenance costs. education and self-sufficiency.

Ease of transportation Central and regional governments

The typical hydraulic press is extremely mobile and Currently, all policy making, financing and strategic
built for rugged conditions. It is designed to be towed planning is made at the central government level and
behind a truck or can be placed on a flatbed vehicle, then funding is distributed to regional bodies for
allowing it to be moved from one job site to the next as execution and coordination. In Tanzania, the process is
needed. This is particularly advantageous in developing rapidly becoming more decentralized, giving additional
countries such as Tanzania where road conditions are authority to regional governments in all areas of devel-
sub-par, and the very fact that the hydraulic press can be opment, including schools, health facilities, road expan-
brought to the source of raw material as well as the site sion and more importantly, the collection of revenue
can produce a level of efficiency that is often lacking. that can be solely used for that particular region. Aside

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 Mass housing in Tanzania 7

from the housing need, Tanzania has a severe shortage Marketing the press for some of their projects can help
of school buildings, clinics and agricultural storage reduce overall operational costs that can then be trans-
facilities. The hydraulic press is an ideal candidate for ferred to the customers for overall economic benefit.
sale to government agencies that have established devel-
opment programmes. In Tanzania, these would include
the ministries of health, education, housing and urban Cost analysis
development and agriculture.
The cost estimate (Table 3) shows a comparison
between using hydraulically pressed block and standard
Private developers/builders
concrete masonry units. The estimate was for the con-
Tanzania enjoys the presence of small and medium- struction of a single-family, single-storey home. Several
sized enterprises (SME) providing a full range of assumptions were also made in order to portray a
services. There are several large-scale developers who ‘worst-case scenario’ of construction costs in Tanzania.
are involved in urban planning and development. These include soil that has to be trucked in from

Table 3 Sample cost breakdown using compressed mud block

Cost estimate5: 1350 ft single storey basic home

Using hydraulically pressed block Using
concrete
block
Description Unit cost Quantity Units Quantity 2 Total cost Comments Total cost
Concrete Floor $2.00 1350 SF $2,700.00 50' × 27' footprint $2,700.00
Walls (exterior and interior) $0.05 9240 per block $323.40 6" ×12" block $2,635.20
#5 Steel rebar (for bond beam) $1.00 300 LF $300.00 for bond beam $600.00
Grout/mortar $0.00 0 0 0 $0.00 $3,150.00
Wall finishes (slurry/ plaster) $0.04 2000 SF $80.00 $200.00
Metal roof (4'x8' sheets) $0.20 1350 SF $270.00 $269.00
Roof trusses $1.00 1350 SF $1,350.00 $1,345.00
Windows $35.00 6 Units $210.00 $210.00
Doors $35.00 3 Units $105.00 $105.00
Utilities Fixed Fixed allowance $120.00 $120.00
Total material cost: $5,597.00 $11334.00
Operating costs:
Soil material
transportation
depending on site
conditions. Soil
may be available
on-site eliminating
Material/equip. transport $10.00 7 trips $70.00 transport needs $100.00
Use of shipping
container the press
Storage $0.00 2 days $0.00 came in. $70.00
Material wastage/breakage 0% $0.00 $131.76
Other costs
4 days of brick
Diesel fuel $2.00 7 gallon 2 $28.00 production
Maintenance Fixed Fixed Allowance $10.00
Labour (machine ops, $3.50 5 per labourer 12 $210.00 $525.00
construction)
Daily operating/OH cost $15.00 12 days $180.00 on-site office,
telephone, $315.00
Total operating cost $498.00 electric/ water $1,141.76
Total cost: $5,956.40 $12,025.96
Profit 15% $893.46 $1,783.64
Total cost to customer: $7009.25 $14259.60

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 8 Mehta and Bridwell

another location if the site conditions are not adequate. Table 4 Material sources
If the clay and sand conditions are adequate, then the
Material Imported Local
costs are less.
The use of concrete masonry units (CMU) requires Block/brick a
multiple transportation of the product from a factory. Paint a
Furthermore, the inadequate roads in Tanzania often Roof panels a
hinder delivery of the material and are the main reason Doors a
why a proportion of the goods are damaged at delivery. Windows a
The use of concrete masonry units also requires struc- Piping a
tural additives that result in higher cost. Block masons Plumbing fixtures a
Wiring a
are considered skilled and require quite a lot of experi-
Elect. Fixtures a
ence prior to taking on complex projects. Furthermore,
Cement a
they are paid almost twice as much as unskilled persons
Appliances a
and in reality a four-person team can only lay up to 500
blocks per day, as opposed to 2000 per day in the case
of hydraulically pressed block that requires a minimal
effort to shape and prepare for construction. March 2003 with the Head of the Commercial Division
of the National Bank of Commerce (Tanzania), the
lending policy of Tanzanian commercial banks requires
Financing and credit facilities collateral of at least 125% of the borrowed amount
before a loan can be made.
The banking system in Tanzania has matured tremen-
dously since banking policies were amended to allow
private banks to serve the population. Furthermore, the Material availability
government ceased to operate banks and sold the
majority of its holdings to private investors. Tanzania As mentioned earlier, construction in Tanzania is often
now boasts several commercial lending banks, both hampered by a lack of the steady availability of building
local and international, such as the National Bank of material, including concrete blocks, and the situation
Commerce Ltd (NBC), Citibank, Standard Charter, is worse in outlying areas. The reason is not because of
Kenya Commercial Bank and Stanbic SA. With this the lack of manufacturing facilities, but inadequate and
infrastructure, the business community has access to inefficient distribution channels. Bureaucratic hurdles
capital and credit facilities for investment, business at warehouses, customs and ports often cause signifi-
loans and financial transactions. Therefore, financing cant delays in delivering material. Innovative technol-
becomes an important element in purchasing the press, ogy thus becomes the driving force in an effort to
even though lending rates run as high as 19% annually remove many of these frustrations. Because of the
2 (Bank of Tanzania, 2003). unreliable quality of building blocks, contractors in
The cost of the smallest TBF is approximately Tanzania often make their own concrete block on the
US$22 000 – an unaffordable amount to a small site to ensure quality control. However, the dependence
builder. However, it must be noted that the TBF is most on cement is tremendous, leaving them at the mercy of
effective in high volume construction to get the maximum the suppliers and often resulting in stalled construction.
return such as mass housing development and therefore By using the hydraulic press, dependence on the single
larger construction firms are most likely to benefit the most significant material item is removed.
most from this technology. Based on field observation, The information above indicates that when the
the return on capital investment must be made within hydraulic press is used, most of the basic building mate-
three years or approximately 30–40 small homes. rial is manufactured locally, thus avoiding some of the
There are however, several negative aspects to the bureaucratic and cost burdens associated with import-
Tanzanian lending laws that need to be emphasized. ing therefore ensuring a reliable supply of basic building
As in most developing countries, particularly in the material.
sub-Saharan region, the acute lack of records on asset
ownership (land and property as collateral) combined
with past fiscal policies has resulted in difficulty to Conclusion
obtain financing. The alternative for the small business-
person is to pursue micro-lending, but the amounts Increasing the quality of life in developing countries
are extremely small and require some sort of backing. requires the optimal utilization of resources. Reliance
For the medium to large company, the constraints of on local natural resources and labour skills instead of
borrowing are magnified. Per e-mail correspondence in imported construction materials increases the potential

CME51578.pmd 8 11/5/04, 6:26 PM

 Mass housing in Tanzania 9

affordability of decent housing for workers and the C.I.A. World Fact Book (2000) “Tanzania”. http:// 3
middle class. The political and economic evolution of www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tz.html.
Tanzania has given its government the opportunity to Fairbanks and Lindsay (1997) Plowing the Sea: Nurturing the 1,3
promote quality housing for its people, but a major Hidden Sources of Growth in the Developing World, Harvard
challenge is to overcome the negative perception of Business School Press, Boston, MA.
‘mud’ in the status consciousness of the people. Since Friedman, T.L. (1999) The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Farrar, 3
mud is viewed as a poor man’s material, pilot pro- Straus, Giroux, New York, NY.
grammes and training facilities will have to be set up Kanaan, O. (June 2000) Tanzania’s experience with
to show the creative and cost effective ways compressed trade liberalization. Finance and Development- A Quarterly
mud blocks can be used. Government efforts should be Magazine of the IMF, 37(2).
reinforced by multilateral organizations and NGOs. In Kironde, L. (1997) Financing and Sustainable Development of 3
Cities: the Case study of Dar-Es-salaam in the United Republic
Africa, these institutions have begun to take prominent
of Tanzania, Report prepared for UNCHS (Habitat),
roles as liaisons between central governments and the
Nairobi, Kenya.
local populations. Their involvement also reduces
Lamprecht, J. (2000) African Focus, First National Bank. 3
bureaucracy and keeps the government out of the
Mwamunyange, J. (2003) Tanzania to spend $2m on low-cost
day-to-day running of the program, putting the
housing plan, The East African, 20 January.
responsibility in the hands of the people. Tanzania Revenue Authority (2001) Highlights of the 3
Government policy, NGOs and the private sector Tanzania Budget 2001/2002. The Revenews, 1.
need to work together to promote cost-effective sustain- Tanzania Revenue Authority (2001) Tax Administration and 3
able housing which can lead to an improved standard of Structure in Tanzania, Tax Payer Education Department.
living and economic growth. If this can be achieved in The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania (1998) 3
Tanzania, it could be a positive example for the rest of Tanzania Investment Act, http://www.Tanzania-online.gov/
Africa. business/investmentpolic/investment.
The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania (1999) 3
East African Co-operation, http://www.Tanzania-online.gov/
Notes eacb.html.
The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania (1999) 3
1. Field verified by authors. The Tanzania Development Vision 2025, Dar-Es-Salaam,
2. Advanced Earth & Construction Technology, Inc. Tanzania.
(AECT), San Antonio, TX. The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania (2000) 3
3. Source: Global Pressed Block LLC (New York). The Economic Survey 2000, The Planning Commission.
4. Note: Modern floor material include cement, tiles etc and Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania.
exclude earth floor; modern walls include baked/ burnt The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania (2001) 3
bricks and concrete/ cement/ stone; modern roof materials Paper Presentation: 3rd Annual United Nations Conference
include metals sheets, tiles, concrete. on the Least Developed Countries.
5. Statistical information sources: AECT (San Antonio, The World Bank Group (2001) World Bank Group Review of 3
TX), Drishti Planners LTD (Tanzania), National Small Business Activities 2001, Glen Burnie, Maryland.
Construction Council (Tanzania). Thompson, A.A. and Strickland, A.J. (2003) Strategic 3
Management, 13th Edition, NY, McGraw-Hill, New York.
UNDP. Occasional Paper 17 (2000) Human Development: 3
References An African Perspective, http://www.undp.org/hdro/oc17d.
html.
1 Bjork and Klingberg (1992) Birches Don’t Grow on Trees: United Nations Development Program (2002) Cooperation 3
Analysis of the Construction Sector in Tanzania, SIDA Report. South 2002, New York, NY.

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 10 Mehta and Bridwell

Appendix A

Chart 1 Tanzania population statistics

Region 2002 Popn. Households Avg. Household Popn density Growth rate (percentage)
size (per km2)
1978–88 1988–2002
Total Tanzania 34 569 232 6 996 036 4.9 39 2.8 2.9
Total Mainland 33 584 607 6 811 087 4.9 38 2.8 2.9
Total Zanzibar 1 003 794 184 949 5.3 400 3.0 3.1
Dodoma 1 698 996 376 530 4.5 41 2.4 2.3
Arusha 1 292 973 286 579 4.5 35 3.8+ 4.0
Kilimanjaro 1 381 149 297 439 4.6 104 2.1 1.6
Tanga 1 642 015 356 993 4.6 61 2.1 1.8
Morogoro 1 759 809 385 260 4.6 25 2.6 2.6
Pwani 889 154 200 919 4.4 27 2.1 2.4
Dar-Es-Salaam 2 497 940 596 264 4.2 1793 4.8 4.3
Lindi 791 306 190 761 4.1 12 2.0 1.4
Mtwara 1 128 523 293 908 3.8 68 1.4 1.7
Ruvuma 1 117 166 232 340 4.8 18 3.4 2.5
Iringa 1 495 333 346 815 4.3 26 2.7 1.5
Mbeya 2 070 046 491 929 4.2 34 3.1 2.4
Singida 1 090 758 217 572 5 22 2.5 2.3
Tabora 1 717 908 291 369 5.9 23 2.4 3.6
Rukwa 1 141 743 222 868 5.1 17 4.3 3.6
Kigoma 1 679 109 242 533 6.9 45 2.8 4.8
Shinyanga 2 805 580 445 020 6.3 55 2.9 3.3
Kagera 2 033 888 394 128 5.2 72 2.7 3.1
Mwanza 2 942 148 495 400 5.9 150 2.6 3.2
Mara 1 368 602 246 600 5.5 70 2.9 2.5
Manyara 1 040 461 199 860 5.2 23 n/a 3.8

CME51578.pmd 10 11/5/04, 6:26 PM

 Mass housing in Tanzania 11

Chart 2 Percentage distribution of households by construction materials

Dar Es Salaam Other urban areas Rural areas Mainland Tanzania

91/92 00/01 91/92 00/01 91/92 00/01 91/92 00/01
House foundations:
No foundation 16.1 7.8 31.1 24.9 72.5 61.9 62.9 52.7
Stones in mud-mortar 11.3 6.8 27.7 22.9 11.2 12.9 13.6 14
Stones loosely laid 7.4 2.5 2.9 4.2 0.6 0.9 1.4 1.5
Concrete 64.8 82.8 33.2 44 13.9 20 20 27.8
Others 0.4 0.1 5.1 4 1.8 4.3 2.2 4
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
House Floor:
Earth 14.5 6.7 44.6 38.3 90.8 86.6 79.2 74
Cement, tiles, etc. 84.3 92.4 54.2 61.1 8 12.5 19.6 25.2
Other 1.2 0.9 1.2 0.5 1.2 0.9 1.2 0.8
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
House Walls:
Poles, branches, grass 3.4 0.9 5.7 5.3 23.7 19.3 19.8 16
Mud and poles/stones 15.1 5.2 16.3 13.1 27.7 21.8 25.3 19.4
Mud only 2 2.2 11.1 12.1 14.6 18.1 13.3 16.1
Mud bricks 12 3.2 37.6 30.8 24.2 23.5 25.4 23.3
Baked/burnt bricks 4.8 1.3 11.9 15.9 8.1 13.7 8.5 13.2
Concrete, cement, stone 62.1 87.2 17.1 22.4 1.5 3 7.6 11.5
Other 0.7 0 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.6 0.2 0.5
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
House roof:
Grass, leaves, bamboo 1.1 1.1 21.7 14.3 63.1 55.7 53.1 45.8
Mud and grass 0.2 0.7 1.7 1.5 12.8 12.5 10.4 10.1
Concrete, cement 3.4 3.6 0.7 0.5 0.1 0 0.4 0.3
Galvanized metal sheets 91.5 91.7 74.2 81.9 23.8 31.1 35.4 42.8
Asbestos sheets 0.1 0.5 0 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1
Tiles 3.8 2.4 0.5 1 0 0.1 0.3 0.4
Other 0 0 1.3 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.5
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

CME51578.pmd 11 11/5/04, 6:26 PM

 Author Query Sheet
Manuscript Information
Journal Acronym RCME

Volume 22

Issue No.
Rumit Mehta and Larry
Author name
Bridwell
Manuscript No. (if 100518
applicable)

QUERIES: to be answered by AUTHOR

AUTHOR: The following queries have arisen during the editing of your manuscript. Please answer the queries by marking necessary
corrections at the appropriate positions on the proofs.

QUERY NO. QUERY DETAILS QUERY ANSWERED

1. Please give authors’ initials for Bjork and Klingberg (1992) and Fairbanks and
Lindsay (1997).

2. The following references have been cited in the text but not listed: Bank of
Tanzania (2003), Global Coalition for Africa (2000) and Policy Forum Report
(2000) and (2002).

3. The following references are not cited in the text – please either cite in text or
delete from references:

C.I.A. World Fact Book (2000)

Fairbanks and Lindsay (1997)
Friedman (1999)
Kironde (1997)
Lamprecht (2000)
Tanzania Revenue Authority (2001)
The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania (1998), (1999), (2000)
and (2001)
The World Bank Group (2001)
Thompson and Strickland (2003)
UNDP (2000) and (2002)