UNIT 1- COMPUTER NETWORKS

(important questions)

QUE -Define computer networks?

ANS- Computer Networking is the practice of connecting computers together to enable
communication and data exchange between them. In general, Computer Network is a
collection of two or more computers. It helps users to communicate more easily. Basics
building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and Links. A Network Node can be
illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment
of a Data Terminal like connecting two computers or more. Link in Computer Networks can
be defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks.The working of Computer
Networks can be simply defined as rules or protocols which help in sending and receiving
data via the links which allow Computer networks to communicate. Each device has an IP
Address, that helps in identifying a device.
The following are some important goals of computer networks:
1. Resource Sharing – Many organization has a substantial number of computers in
operations, which are located apart. Ex. A group of office workers can share a
common printer, fax, modem, scanner, etc.

2. High Reliability – If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be replicated
on two or more machines. If one of them is not available, due to hardware failure,
the other copies could be used.

3. Inter-process Communication – Network users, located geographically apart, may

converse in an interactive session through the network. In order to permit this, the
network must provide almost error-free communications.

4. Flexible access – Files can be accessed from any computer in the network. The
project can be begun on one computer and finished on another.
5. Security– Computer networks must be secure to protect against unauthorized
access, data breaches, and other security threats. This includes implementing
measures suchas firewalls, antivirus software, and encryption to ensure the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.
6. Performance– Computer networks must provide high performance and low latency
to ensure that applications and services are responsive and available when needed.
This requires optimizing network infrastructure, bandwidth utilization, and traffic
management.
7. Scalability- Computer networks must be designed to scale up or down as needed to
accommodate changes in the number of users, devices, and data traffic. This requires
careful planning and management to ensure the network can meet current and
future needs.
8. Other goals include Distribution of processing functions, Centralized management,
and allocation of network resources, Compatibility of dissimilar equipment and
software, Good network performance, Scalability, Saving money, Access to remote
information, Person to person communication, etc.

Advantages:
Resource sharing: Networks enable the sharing of resources such as printers,
scanners, storage devices, and software applications, which can reduce costs and
increase efficiency.

Communication and collaboration: Networks provide a platform for communication

and collaboration among users, allowing for easy sharing of information and ideas.

Centralized management: Networks allow for centralized management of devices,

users, and resources, making it easier to control and monitor the network.

Scalability: Networks can be scaled up or down to accommodate changes in the

number of users, devices, or data volume. Accessibility: Networks can provide
remote access to resources, enabling users to work from anywhere and improving
accessibility to information and resources.

Disadvantages:
Security vulnerabilities: Networks can be vulnerable to security threats such as
hacking, viruses, and malware, which can compromise sensitive data and disrupt
network operations.

Complexity: Networks can be complex to set up, configure, and maintain, requiring
specialized knowledge and expertise.

Dependence on infrastructure: Networks depend on the underlying infrastructure

such as cables, routers, switches, and servers, which can be prone to failures or
downtime, disrupting network operations.
 Cost: Networks can be expensive to set up and maintain, requiring investments in
hardware, software, and personnel.
Performance limitations: Networks have performance limitations such as bandwidth
constraints, latency, and congestion, which can affect the speed and reliability of
network operations.

QUE - Explain types of data flows?

ANS- Transmission modes also known as communication modes, are methods of transferring
data between devices on buses and networks designed to facilitate communication. They
are classified into three types: Simplex Mode, Half-Duplex Mode, and Full-Duplex Mode.
Simplex Mode
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use
the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the
monitor can only give the output.

Advantages of Simplex Mode

 Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.
 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication channel.
 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices,
which simplifies the communication process.
 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is not
required, such as broadcasting or surveillance.
Disadvantages of Simplex Mode
 Only one-way communication is possible.
 There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly.
  Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional
communication.
Half-Duplex Mode
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex
mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
directions.
Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages of Half Duplex Mode

 Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in
situations where devices need to send and receive data.
 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the channel can
be used for both transmission and reception.
 Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only requires one
communication channel.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex Mode
 Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices cannot
transmit at the same time.
 There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems in
some applications.
  There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices,
which can complicate the communication process.
Full-Duplex Mode
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in
another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
sending and the other for receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Advantages of Full-Duplex Mode

 Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which is
ideal for real-time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming.
 It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and
receive data simultaneously.
 Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no need
for error correction mechanisms.
Disadvantages of Full-Duplex Mode
 Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication
channels.
 It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two physically
separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
 Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a high level
of bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of communication.

QUE- Write a short note on point-to-point network?

ANS- Point-to-Point Connection:
1. A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
2. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
3. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the
two ends, but other options such as microwave or satellite links are also possible.
4. Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most
conventional networks
topologies.
5. It is also the simplest to establish and understand.
Example: Point-to-Point connection between the remote control and Television for changing
the channels.
Point-to-Point:
 Uses a dedicated link to connect two devices
 Simple and easy to set up
 Limited to two devices only
 Does not require a network interface card (NIC) or a hub/switch
 Can become complex and difficult to manage as the network grows
Multipoint:
 Uses a single link to connect three or more devices
 More complex than point-to-point configuration
 Can be more efficient and cost-effective for larger networks
 Devices share the same link, which can lead to collisions and lower performance
 Commonly used in LANs and MANs
QUE- Give the advantages of computer network?
ANS- The computer network is defined as a set of interconnected autonomous systems that
facilitate distributed processing of information.
Applications of Computer Networking
Some of the applications of Computer Networking are discussed below:
 Resource Sharing: Resource Sharing is one of the important applications of Computer
Networking. You can share a single software among Multiple users. We can also
share Hardware Devices via this technique.
 Communication: Communication Medium means various ways through which we can
communicate like Email Calls, broadcasts, etc.
 Home Applications: Home Applications are an important application of Computer
Networking. Examples are User-to-User Communication, Entertainment, E-
Commerce, etc.
 Business Applications: Business Application is also an important application of
Computer Networking. Almost all companies are doing business online with the help
of Computer Networking.
  Social Media: Social Media is one of the recent and widely used applications of
Computer Networking. It helps people in getting news, feed, current trending topics
of all types, etc.
 Access to Remote Information: Computer Networking helps in accessing remote
information from the end-users. For Example. details required for train tickets, plane
tickets, etc.
 Cloud Computing: Computer Networking has facilitated the development of cloud
computing, which allows users to store and access data and applications from
remote servers via the internet.
 Virtualization: Networking technologies also enable virtualization, which allows
multiple virtual machines to run on a single physical machine, improving resource
utilization and reducing costs.
 Online Education: Computer Networking has revolutionized education by providing
online learning platforms, distance education, and virtual classrooms.
 Remote Working: Networking technologies have enabled remote working, allowing
employees to work from home or other locations outside of the office. This has
become especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic.
 E-commerce: Computer Networking has facilitated the growth of e-commerce by
allowing businesses to sell their products and services online and reach a global
market.
 Telemedicine: Networking technologies have also enabled telemedicine, allowing
doctors and healthcare providers to provide remote medical consultations and
diagnosis to patients in remote locations.
 Real-time Collaboration: Networking technologies enable real-time collaboration,
allowing people to work together on projects and share information in real-time, no
matter where they are located.
Advantages of Computer Networking
Some of the main advantages of Computer Networking are discussed below:
 Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) that
can be shared and made available to every user in an organization.
 Connectivity: There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a modern
computer network. The effortlessness of joining makes it workable for even youthful
kids to start exploring the data.
 Faster Problem-solving: Since an extensive procedure is disintegrated into a few
littler procedures and each is taken care of by all the associated gadgets, an explicit
issue can be settled in lesser time.
  Reliability: Reliability implies backing up information. Due to some reason equipment
crashes, and so on, the information gets undermined or inaccessible on one PC, and
another duplicate of similar information is accessible on another workstation for
future use, which prompts smooth working and further handling without
interruption.
 Flexible: This innovation is known to be truly adaptable, as it offers clients the chance
to investigate everything about fundamental things, for example, programming
without influencing their usefulness.
 Security through Authorization: Security and protection of information are
additionally settled through the system. As just the system clients are approved to
get to specific records or applications, no other individual can crack the protection or
security of information.
 Storage capacity: Since you will share data, records, and assets with other
individuals, you need to guarantee all information and substance are legitimately put
away in the framework. With this systems administration innovation, you can do
most of this with no issue, while having all the space you require for capacity.
Disadvantages of Computer Networking
Some of the main disadvantages of Computer Networking are discussed below:
 Expensive: Execution of the network can be expensive in the case of an initial setup,
as the wires and the cost of the cable are high and sometimes equipment is also
costly.
 Virus and Malware: Computer Networking can lead to the spreading of viruses to
another computer through the network.
 Management of the network: Management of the Network is quite difficult as it
requires skilled persons to handle that large network. It requires training of people
who are employed in this work.
 Loss of Information: In case of a crash of the Computer Network, it can lead to the
loss of information or not being able to access information for some time.
 The system can be Hacked: In the case of Wide Area Networks(WAN), there is a
threat of Hacking of the System. Some security features should be added to prevent
such things.

QUE- Define Topology. Explain any three topology with its advantages and
disadvatages?
ANS- Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links,
and devices in a computer network. It defines how these components are connected and
interact with each other. Understanding various types of network topologies helps in
designing efficient and robust networks. Common types include bus, star, ring, mesh, and
tree topologies.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In
Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the
devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of
devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet
service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also
used in military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Mesh Topology.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be
passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time
the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many
popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology
A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks
where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media
Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology
A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via
drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up
to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques
are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
  Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to
a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television
networks. For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.
Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent
data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology
A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one
node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
 1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is
done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the
token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
 Less secure.

QUE- Write short note on 1) LAN 2) MAN 3) WAN

ANS- Local Area Network (LAN) –
LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal computers
and workstations can share data, tools, and programs. The group of computers and devices
are connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme
as defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other
computers on the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting
them to the larger WAN.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By definition,
the connections must be high-speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs,
network adapters, and Ethernet cables). LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is
limited to a few kilometres) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building,
home, hospital, school, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium
used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and so the
error and noise are minimized.
Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or 1000
Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN may only use two
computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. LAN has a range
up to 2km. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and
security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a LAN is
more and there is less congestion in this network. For example A bunch of students playing
Counter-Strike in the same room (without internet).
Advantages:
 Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
 Easy to set up and manage.
 Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
 Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.
Disadvantages:
 Limited geographical coverage.
 Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to
accommodate growth.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –
MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by a LAN and a
smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km. It connects two or more
computers that are apart but reside in the same or different cities. It covers a large
geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for
customers who need high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s
hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.

The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is
costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and the
propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data through
MAN are Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are part of the telephone company
network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV network in a
city.
Advantages:
 Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than LAN.
 Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
 Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased usage.
 May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.
Wide Area Network (WAN) –
WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. WAN has a
range of above 50 km. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via
telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an
organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is high-speed and relatively
expensive.
There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is difficult to
design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more
congestion in the network. A Communication medium used for WAN is PSTN(Public Switched
Telephone Network) or Satellite Link. Due to long-distance transmission, the noise and error
tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased distance and
increased number of servers and terminals etc. The speed of WAN ranges from a few kilobits
per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest
problems faced here. Devices used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic
wires, Microwaves, and Satellites. An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects a home
computer to the Internet.
Advantages:
 Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
 Provides connectivity to the internet.
 Offers remote access to resources and applications.
 Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
  Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
 May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to longer distances
and multiple network hops.
 May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

QUE- Define following terms

1)Broadcasting
2)Multicasting
3)PAN
ANS- Types of Broadcast Network
There are two types of Broadcast Network
 Direct Broadcast
 Limited Broadcast
A. Direct Broadcast
Direct Broadcasting is a type of transmission where one node from a network sends the data
packet to all available nodes in another network. This type of broadcast is used when all the
receiving hosts from another network require the same data. Direct Broadcast can be
achieved by setting all the host ID part bits of receiving node’s address to Direct Broadcast is
used by television networks for the transmission of audio and videos. Let’s see the example
of direct broadcast.

As shown in the above example, we have two networks, Network A and Network B. Host A
from Network A wants to transmit data to all the nodes in Network B.
 Source IP address: 11.2.3.1
 Destination IP address: 20.255.255.255
B. Limited Broadcast
Limited Broadcast is defined as a type of transmission of data where the source host sends
the data packets to all the other available nodes connected in the same network. The limited
broadcast can be achieved by setting 1 for all the 32 bits of receiving IP address. Let’s see
with an example.

As shown in the above figure, We have a single network of devices. All the devices are
connected to the same network. The sending host sends the data packets to all the other
nodes in the same network.
 Source IP address: 11.2.3.1
 Destination IP address: 255.255.255.255
Multicast
Multicast is defined as a type of transmission of data where one or more sending hosts
sends the data packets to one or more receiving hosts in another network. This type of
transmission is known as one-to-many communication. Class D of IP address is reserved for
multicast groups. Multicast is more efficient than unicast when multiple nodes want to
receive the same data. Let’s see the example of multicast transmission.
As shown in the above figure, we have two networks A and B. Sending host A belongs to one
network and multiple receiving hosts from network B. Examples where multicast
transmission is used are:
 Video conference
 Internal Streaming
 Sending an email or WhatsApp message to a group of people
Difference Between Direct Broadcast and Limited Broadcast
Direct Broadcast and Limited Broadcast are the two sub-types of broadcast. Both work
according to one communication approach but differs with respect to some properties. Let’s
see the difference between them.

Parameter Direct Broadcast Limited Broadcast

Definition Direct Broadcasting is a type of Limited Broadcast is defined as a

transmission where one node type of transmission of data where
from a network sends the data the source host sends the data
packet to all available nodes in packets to all the other available
another network. nodes connected in the same
Parameter Direct Broadcast Limited Broadcast

network.

Direct Broadcast consists of two Limited Broadcast consists of only

Number of
networks. Sending hosts from one network. ie. Both sending hosts
networks
one network and receiving hosts and receiving hosts are from the
involved
from another network. same network.

 Source IP address:
 Source IP address: 11.2.3.1
11.2.3.1
Example  Destination IP address:
 Destination IP address:
255.255.255.255
20.255.255.255

Direct Broadcast is used in

Television networks for the A Limited Broadcast network is used
Application
transmission of audio and in cal Area Network(LAN).
videos.

Personal Area Network (PAN)-

PAN is a personal area network having an interconnection of personal technology devices to
communicate over a short distance. It covers only less than 10 meters or 33 feet of area. PAN
has fewer users as compared to other networks such as LAN, WAN, etc. PAN typically uses
some form of wireless technology. PAN involves the transmission of data between
information devices such as smartphones, personal computers, tablet computers, etc.
Advantages:
 Allows for easy communication between personal devices in close proximity.
 Can be set up easily and quickly.
 Uses wireless technology, which eliminates the need for wires and cables.
 PANs are designed to be energy efficient, which means that devices can
communicate with each other without draining their batteries quickly.
 PANs are typically secured using encryption and authentication protocols, which
helps to prevent unauthorized access to data and resources.
Disadvantages:
  Limited coverage area.
 May not be suitable for large-scale data transfer or communication.PANs typically
have limited bandwidth, which means that they may not be able to handle large
amounts of data or high-speed communication.
 May experience interference from other wireless devices.

QUE- Write about protocols and standards?

ANS- A protocol is a set of rules that determines how data is sent and received over a
network. The protocol is just like a language that computers use to talk to each other,
ensuring they understand and can respond to each other’s messages correctly. Protocols
help make sure that data moves smoothly and securely between devices on a network.
To make communication successful between devices, some rules and procedures should be
agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the system. Such rules and procedures are
called Protocols. Different types of protocols are used for different types of communication.

Protocols
In the above diagrams, Protocols are shown as a set of rules. Communication between the
Sender and Receiver is not possible without Protocol.
Key Elements of Protocol
 Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data that gets exchanged
between the devices. Syntax of the message includes the type of data, composition
of the message, and sequencing of the message. The starting 8 bits of data are
considered as the address of the sender. The next 8 bits are considered to be the
address of the receiver. The remaining bits are considered as the message itself.
 Semantics: Semantics defines data transmitted between devices. It provides rules
and norms for understanding message or data element values and actions.
  Timing: Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination between devices while
transferring the data. Timing ensures at what time data should be sent and how fast
data can be sent. For example, If a sender sends 100 Mbps but the receiver can only
handle 1 Mbps, the receiver will overflow and lose data. Timing ensures preventing
of data loss, collisions, and other timing-related issues.
 Sequence Control: Sequence control ensures the proper ordering of data packets.
The main responsibility of sequence control is to acknowledge the data while it get
received, and the retransmission of lost data. Through this mechanism, the data is
delivered in correct order.
 Flow Control: Flow control regulates device data delivery. It limits the sender’s data
or asks the receiver if it’s ready for more. Flow control prevents data congestion and
loss.
 Error Control: Error control mechanisms detect and fix data transmission faults. They
include error detection codes, data resend, and error recovery. Error control detects
and corrects noise, interference, and other problems to maintain data integrity.
 Security : Network security protects data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity.
which includes encryption, authentication, access control, and other security
procedures. Network communication’s privacy and trustworthiness are protected by
security standards.
Types of Protocol
 Network Layer Protocols : Network layer protocols operate in the network layer
which is also known as the Layer 3 of the network architecture. Network layer
protocols are responsible for packet routing, forwarding, and addressing of data
packets throughout the network. IP and ICMP are the network layer protocols.
 Transport Layer Protocols: Transport layer protocols work in the transport layer
which provides end-to-end service ensuring data transfer across apps on different
devices. TCP and UDP are the most popular transport layer protocols.
 Application Layer Protocol: Application layer protocol working in the application
layer of the network architecture provides communication between applications
running on different devices. The application layer protocols enable cross-device
communication. They format, exchange, and interpret application data. HTTP, FTP,
and SMTP are examples.
 Wireless Protocols: Wireless protocols basically used in wireless communication
which enables data transfer through wireless networks. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE
protocols are examples.
 Routing Protocols: Routing protocol establishes the best/optimal network pathways
throughout the network for fastest data transmission. Routers share information to
develop and maintain routing tables. RIP, OSPF, and BGP are examples.
  Security Protocols : security protocol protects data confidentiality, integrity, and
authenticity while transmission of data over the network. They include SSL and TLS,
encryption methods, and authentication protocols for providing data security.
 Internet Protocols : IP identifies devices uniquely. Internet protocol provides data
communication through routing and forwarding data packets from one device to
another by unique addressing scheme.
Important Protocols Used in Computer Network
Here are some key protocols that are widely used in computer networks:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures data is sent and received accurately by
breaking it into packets, sending them, and reassembling them at the destination.
 IP (Internet Protocol): Addresses and routes the packets to make sure they reach the
right destination.
 HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol/Secure): HTTP used for transferring web
pages on the internet. When you browse a website, your browser uses HTTP to
request and display web pages. And HTTPs is a secure version of HTTP that encrypts
data to protect it from being intercepted.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between computers on a
network. It allows users to upload and download files.SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol): Used for sending emails. It transfers emails from a client to a server or
between servers.
 DNS (Domain Name System): It is used to translates human-readable domain names
(like www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers use to identify each other
on the network.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically assigns IP addresses to
devices on a network, ensuring each device has a unique address.
 SSH (Secure Shell): Provides a secure way to access and manage devices over a
network. It encrypts the data, making it safe from eavesdropping.
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for managing and monitoring
network devices like routers, switches, and servers. It collects and organizes
information about these devices
How are Protocols Used in Cyber Attacks?
Attackers can misuse the rules of how data is sent over the internet to cause problems for
systems. One common way they do this is through distributed denial-of-service (DDoS)
attacks.
For example, in a SYN flood attack, attackers exploit the TCP protocol. Normally, a device
sends a SYN packet to a server to start a connection, and the server responds, expecting a
final response to complete the connection. Attackers send many SYN packets but never
complete the connections. This overloads the server, preventing it from working properly for
real users.
Cloudflare offers solutions to stop these kinds of attacks. One of their services, Cloudflare
Magic Transit, protects against attacks targeting different levels of the network system. In
the case of a SYN flood attack, Cloudflare manages the TCP connections for the server, so the
server doesn’t get overwhelmed and can continue to serve real users.
What is Standards?
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for the exchange of
information among devices. It is important to follow Standards which are created by various
Standard Organizations like IEEE, ISO, ANSI, etc.
Types of Standards
 De Facto Standard: The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or “By
Convention”.These are the standards that have not been approved by any
Organization but have been adopted as Standards because of their widespread use.
Also, sometimes these standards are often established by Manufacturers.
For example : Apple and Google are two companies that established their own
rules for their products which are different. Also, they use some same standard rules
for manufacturing their products.
 De Jure Standard: The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By
Regulations”.Thus, these are the standards that have been approved by officially
recognized bodies like ANSI, ISO, IEEE, etc. These are the standards that are
important to follow if it is required or needed.
For example : All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP, TCP,
IP, UDP etc. are important to follow the same when we need them.
Protocol and Standard Compliance in Network Security
 Interoperability: Protocols and standards allow devices and systems to
communicate. These protocols ensure network components can function together,
avoiding risks and security gaps produced by incompatible or unsupported systems.
 Security Baseline : Protocols and standards contain security principles and best
practices that help secure network infrastructure. These protocols allow
organizations to protect sensitive data via encryption, authentication, and access
controls.
 Vulnerability Management : Network security protocols and standards help
organizations find and fix vulnerabilities. Many standards requires regular security
assessments, vulnerability scanning, and penetration testing to discover network
infrastructure flaws. Organizations can prevent cyberattacks and address
vulnerabilities by following these compliance criteria.