NARRATION

A Narrative is a story. As a method of development, storytelling can be very

effective for the simple reason that people love to hear stories, and will tune in to a
story when their eyes glaze over at other styles of writing.
In developing a paragraph using narration, sequential presentation of events is
observe. It is normally chronological although at times can use flashbacks.
Narratives contain action words - verbs and adverbs - that help move the story or
process along, and make it more interesting. They also use transitions such as
"first", "then", "soon", "after", "suddenly", etc, which maintain coherence and show
movement from one event to the next.
Concrete Language
makes the story or image seem clearer and more real to us gives information that
we can easily grasp and perhaps empathize with.
Abstract Language
makes the story or Image difficult to visualize leaves your reader feeling empty,
disconnected, and possibly confused.
DESCRIPTION
When you need to elucidate the nature of people, places and things you use
description.
You could start with the physical description - the details of how your subject looks,
sounds, feels, smells or even tastes like. The details can be arranged in any pattern
you think is best. Your perspective will tell you where to begin and where to end.
TWO TYPES OF DESCRIPTIONS
Subjective Description
→ the writer is describing an 'impression' of what is observed

Objective Description

→ is usually employed in reportorial and scientific writing. The goal of the writer is to present an
impartial and actual picture of an object or scene. The writer has to stay away from emotional
impressions or responses, bracketing his/her biases.

DEFINITION

→ A definition identifies a term and sets it apart from all other terms that may be related to it.

→ Generally, it begins by citing the general class to which the term belongs. What follows are the
particulars to differentiate the term from the other members of that class providing clear details to
support the term's definition.
Below are some common methods of definition

1. By characteristics or features → Scientific definitions typically rely on this type of definition. Physical
features as well as behaviors (as in animal or cell)

2. By function → How something works, or what it does can be an important part of definition.

3. By what it is not → Ironically, we can get a pretty good sense of what something is like, by learning
what it is not, or what it is lacking.

4. By what it is similar to → Comparison and analogy help us understand things that are unfamiliar to us.

5. By example → Giving examples illustrating what the term means can be highly effective.

6. By is origin → Providing a history of what a term has meant can help us understand its current
meaning. For example, the slang term "wimp" comes from the term "wimple," which refers to a
headscarf women wore in medieval Europe. Exploring the evolution of the term could yield interesting
insight into the connotations of the ontemporary term

7. By its effect → Discussing what effects the subject produces is important with certain subjects or in
certain contexts. For example, in an essay on global warming, a definition of CO2 emissions emphasizing
the consequences of these emissions to the environment would be important.

EXEMPLIFICATION

→ In developing a paragraph using exemplification (or illustration), the writer develops a general
statement topic sentence, with one or more examples. Illustrations through clear and specific examples
help explain abstract idea and illuminate or clarify meaning in texts. Writers use examples to make a
general idea clear- to exemplify an idea.

How to write/develop an EXEMPLIFICATION:

1. First, choose a topic/thesis statement.

2. Next, decide what examples you're going to use.

3. Write your composition. The examples that you use will make up the main body of your paper. Each
new example should have its own paragraph. Be sure that all your examples reinforce your topic
sentence/ thesis statement; essentially, you should always stay focused on your point.

4. Finally, wrap up your essay with a conclusion that restates your topic sentence. You should not be
bringing up any new information in your closing paragraph. Instead, an effective ending paragraph will
wrap up the points from your example paragraphs and give the reader one last opportunity to see your
thesis

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

→ A paragraph that demonstrates comparison and contrast examines how given subjects are either
similar or different.
→ Comparison examines how the subjects are the same.

→ Contrast examines how the subjects are different.

→ A compare-and-contrast composition/essay, then, analyzes two subjects by comparing them,

contrasting them, or both.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

→ The purpose of conducting the comparison or contrast is not to state the obvious but rather to
illuminate subtle differences or unexpected similarities.

→ If you wanted to focus on contrasting, For example, Red Delicious apples are sweet, while Granny
Smiths are tart and acidic.

→ to focus on comparison, choose two subjects that seem at first to be unrelated. You might try to
compare how apples and oranges are quite similar. The more divergent the two subjects initially seem,
the more interesting a comparison

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

The Structure of a Comparison and Contrast

1. The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are
to be compared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so.

The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis. Thesis of your comparison/contrast paper is
very important: it can help you create a focused argument and give your reader a road map so
she/he doesn't get lost in sea of points you are about to make.

2. You may organize compare-and-contrast essays in one of the following two ways:

a. According to the subjects themselves, discussing one then the other.

b. According to individual points, discussing each subject in relation to each point.

CAUSE AND EFFECT

→It is often considered human nature to ask, "why?" and "how?"

→A cause is something that produces an event or condition; an effect is what results from an event or
condition.

→The cause-and-effect as a method in developing a paragraph is useful in explaining why something

happens.

The Structure of a Cause and Effect

1. The cause-and-effect paragraph opens with a general introduction to the topic, which then leads
to a thesis that states the main cause, main effect, or various causes and effects of a condition or
event.

2. The cause-and-effect paragraph can be organized in one of the following two primary ways:
 a. Start with the "cause" and then talk about the effects. A paragraph emphasizing the 'effect' begins
with a particular cause then explains the consequences of effects of this cause.

b. Start with the "effect" and then talk about the causes. A paragraph emphasizing the 'cause'
normally starts with an effect. The goal of this is to explore such effect came to be.

The most common words and phrases that show "cause" include: because, since, is due to and is
caused by.

While the words and phrases that show "effect" are: for this reason, it follows, as a result, as a
consequence, thus, so, therefore.

Classification/Division

● This pattern allows you to either divide a topic into its component parts, or to categorize (or classify) a
group of related items or events.

● When dividing you begin with one central topic and break that down into multiple parts.

Example: Think about medicine. Medicine is one of several branches of science and it can be divided into
numerous categories or specialties. Doctors can specialize in internal medicine dermatology, the immune
system, feet, ears, eyes etc.

Classification

● putting things together based on shared qualities or characteristics.

Principle of Classification

→The principle of Classification is whatever rule or characteristic, etc. you are to determine which items
are grouped together.

Therefore...

Classification focuses on similarities, while Division illustrates differences.

Classification is sorting

● focus is on similarities

Division is breaking into parts.

● focus is on differences

Outline for Classification/ Division Paragraph

Introduction + Body + = Classification/Division

What is process analysis?

● how to do something (play a computer game, change a tire),

● how to make something (a butterfly sanctuary, DIY craft), or

● how something happens (how the modern firehouse has evolved).

● It explains a sequence of actions with a specified result (the process) by dividing it into its component
steps (the analysis). Basically, it answers the question how something happens.

What is the purpose of process analysis?

● The main purpose of process analysis is to explain; however, it might also prove something about the
process itself (perhaps its ease or difficulty) or evaluate it (perhaps its close parallel to guidelines issued
by an authoritative agency).

What varieties of process analysis are available?

Processes might include:

1. mechanical (a car engine),

2. natural (cell division),

3. psychological (acquisition of sex roles), or

4. political (the electoral process)

What are the two main types of process analysis?

1. A Directive Process

● tells how to do or make something: repair a wagon wheel, negotiate an argument, write an essay.

● should outline the individual steps completely so that anyone can duplicate them and achieve the
specified result.

● it permits the use of second-person 'you', concentrating on words that tell the reader what to do,

● the use of imperative (commanding) mood of verbs ("Add an egg and stir vigorously").

2. An Explanatory Process

● provides the information necessary for readers to understand the process, but more to satisfy their
curiosity than to teach them how to do something.

● third person he, she, it, and they is more common with this type process than is second- person.

What kind of thesis is required for a process analysis?

A process analysis thesis should contain two elements:

(1) the main point of the analysis and, if possible, 3

(2) the organizational format for exploring the main idea

Outline for a Process Analysis Paragraph:

Introduction + Body + Conclusion= Process Analysis

Introduction

Introduction Outline:

1. Certain skills needed for online courses

2. Discussion on board posts are essential

3. Knowing how to post well

4. Thesis

Body

Body Outline:

1. Preparing your post (directions)

2. Reviewing your post (directions)

3. Posting your comment (directions)

Conclusion

Conclusion Outline:

1. Summarize value of good discussion posts

2. Remind audience of main steps

3. Remind audience of thesis

What is persuasion?

→ A persuasion pattern of development organizes ideas to show how a set of evidence leads to a logical
conclusion or argument. Specifically, this pattern presents the issue, the position, and the supporting
evidence that supports the position.

→ Persuasion can be in a form of:

1) Speech

2) Editorial

3) Commercial (TV, Radio, Ads)

There are three common techniques that you can use in developing a persuasive paragraph:

1. Using evidence

You can use strong evidence such as facts and statistics, statements of expert authorities, and research
findings to create impact and establish credibility. Readers will more likely be convinced to side with your
position or agree with your opinion if it is backed up by verifiable evidence.

2. Giving examples
Another technique to persuade readers is by giving examples. Providing examples can enhance your idea
or opinion and make it concrete. These examples can be based on observations or from your own
personal experience. When using examples, they must be concrete, relevant, and reasonable.

3.Attacking an opposing view

In this persuasive technique, you assert your opinion by attacking or criticizing someone or an opposing
idea. Belittling someone's idea, dismissing the credibility of someone or an idea, and making fun of
someone's idea are some forms of attack that can be used to strengthen your opinion. However, this
technique can insult or alienate the readers if excessively done.

Problem-Solution Paragraph

● identifies a problem, or problems, and recommends a plausible solution(s).

This method of internal organization splits the paragraph, or paragraph block, into easily- recognizable
parts:

1. Use a topic sentence to explore the paragraph's main idea, or claim (the problem that will be
explored).

2. Provide a description of the problem for the reader.

3. Provide a description of the solution(s) for the reader

There are probably more ways to organize a problem-solution approach, but here are three
possibilities:

1. Describe the problem, followed by the solution.

2. Propose the solution first and then describe the problems that motivated it.

3. A problem followed by several solutions, one of which is selected as the best.

● When the solution is stated at the end of the paper, the pattern is sometimes called the delayed
proposal.

● For a hostile audience, it may be effective to describe the problem, show why other solutions do not
work, and finally suggest the favored solution.

● You can emphasize the words "problem" and "solution" to signal these sections of your paper for your
readers.

Signal Words for Problem-Solution:

but

the problem

one solution is

first, second

the solution
nonetheless

one way is

one reason for the

Problem-Solution paragraph answers the following questions:

1. What is the main idea of the paragraph?

2. What is the topic sentence?

3. How is the first paragraph developed?

4. What solutions does the writer offer?

5. What details support or explain the solution?

6. What are the supporting ideas?

7. What do the supporting ideas show?

8. Is there a concluding sentence in the paragraph?

WHAT IS ORGANIZATION?
• Strong Organization constitutes proper paragraphing and logical order of
presentation of ideas.
• Paragraphing
→ is dividing a text into paragraphs
→Ostrom (1978) averred that it is a way of making visible to the reader the stages
in the writer's thinking.
→Although conventions about the length of paragraphs vary (i.e. one sentence, five
sentences or half a page) most guides suggest that you adapt paragraph length to
your topic and audience.
→The paragraph is essentially a unit of thought, not of length.
→Length as well as the appearance does not define a paragraph. Paragraphing is
determined by rhetorical situation.
Blakesley and Hoogeveen (2008) in the Thomson Handbook, shed light on the
nature of rhetorical situation, to wit:
→The form, length, style, and positioning of paragraphs will vary, depending on the
nature and conventions of the
a. Medium (print or digital)
b. Interface (size, type of paper, screen resolution)
c. Genre
The Basics of a well-organized paragraph: STTC
1. Each paragraph must be built around a single idea termed as the "controlling
idea";
2. Create a topic sentence which is generally written as opening sentence of a
paragraph;
3. Employed an appropriate technique from a variety of ways of developing a
paragraph to develop the topic sentence/key idea; and,
4. In order to achieve unity, appropriate connectives between and within
paragraphs must be used.
COHERENCE AND COHESION
● coherence and cohesion are two basic features that facilitate textual continuity.
● the terms are used to describe the properties of text.

Cohesion
→ relates to the micro level of the text (i.e. the words and sentences)

Cohesive (adj.)
→ united and working together; and fitting together well

Guide to Effective Coherence

Coherence is based more on the logic of the ideas and how they are presented
rather than on the language that is used to express these.

When writing essay, coherence involves such features as:

1. Presenting ideas in a logical sequence;
2. Beginning each paragraph with a 'topic sentence', following by supporting
sentences;
3. Repeating key words; and
4. Using pronouns.

Guide to Effective Cohesion

Cohesion, refers to the degree to which sentences (or even different parts of one
sentence) are connected so that the flow of ideas is easy to follow. Cohesion has
nothing to do with the content but rather on whether the paragraph has well
connected or merely a group of unrelated sentences. It helps locate meanings and
accommodate the understanding of a conversation.

To achieve good cohesion, you need to know:

1. How to use cohesive devices; and,
2. Which are the certain words or phrases that serve the purpose of connecting two
statements.
Transitional Devices
Addition
Again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too
EXAMPLE: Our city mayor works hard during this pandemic. Furthermore, he finds
ways to support education of the learners. Also, in the same way, likewise, similarly
Comparison
EXAMPLE: Many medical practitioners are sacrificing their lives in battling COVID-19.
Likewise, police officers and public servants are also doing their part to unmask this
invisible enemy
Contrast
Although, and yet, all the same time, but at the same time, despite that, even so,
even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless,
notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still,
though, yet
EXAMPLE: The pandemic has caused panicking among many Filipinos. On the
contrary, the government is calm to address the turmoil. Certainly, indeed, in fact,
of course, mainly
Emphasis
EXAMPLE: Our government is serious in their mission to defeat COVID-19. Mainly, it
is testing, tracing, and treating the infected.
Example or Illustration
After all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in
fact, in other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to
illustrate, thus, truly
EXAMPLE: Mayor Vico makes ways to prevent the infection of the virus,
Summary
for instance, he procured drones for disinfection purposes. All in all, altogether, as
has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in
simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to
summarize
EXAMPLE: President implemented community quarantine nationwide. As a result,
possibility of a speedy infection is controlled
Time Sequence
After a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length, at that
time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further, furthermore, in
addition, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second, shortly,
then, thereafter, too, until, when
EXAMPLE: Teachers make sure that all learners will be enrolled this school year.
Then, they prepare modules for them.
On Appropriate Language
1. Levels of Formality
● writing in a style that your audience expects and that fits your purpose to
successful writing.
2. In-Group Jargon
● only use in-group jargon when you are writing for members of that group. You
should never use jargon for a general audience without first explaining it.
3. Slang and idiomatic expression
● avoid using or idiomatic expressions in general academic writing.
4. Biased Language
● avoid using any biased language including language with a racial, ethnic, group,
or gender bias or language that is stereotypical.
The Six Characteristics of Effective Language
1. Concrete and Specific Language
→includes descriptions which create tangible images with details the reader can
visualize. Abstract language is vague and obscure, and does not bring to mind
specific visual images.
2. Concise Language
→a hallmark of effective writers is the ability to express the desired message in as
few words as possible. Good writers, in other words, use language which is
straightforward and direct-to-the-point.
3. Familiar Language
→ is that which the readers easily recognize and understand because they use it on
a regular basis.
4. Precise and Clear Language
→ The use of appropriate language is a tricky matter because the meaning of words
is relative and situational.
5. Constructive Language
→ Readers are likely to become defensive when the writer's language expresses any
or all of the following:
• Negative evaluation or judgement of the reader (as opposed to neutral
descriptions or observations)
• Command or control over the reader
• Skepticism or doubt about the reader's credibility or the legitimacy of their claims
6. Formality of Language
→ the formality of language one uses should match the formality of the situation
and the relationship between the writer and reader.
Mechanics
→ Describe the technical aspects of writing. It specifies the established conventions
for words that you use- spelling, punctuation, capitalization, etc.
→ If your story is the mechanically well-written, many educated readers will not
even bother to read it, either because it's too hard for them to figure out what
you're trying to say, or they just assume the story won't be good because it doesn't
appear to be well written.
→ Despite the phrase, "Don't judge a book by its cover," appearance matters in
fanfic. If your story doesn't look worth reading, people may not read it. Good
mechanics make a story easy to read, and that will attract more readers.
Language Mechanics
→ It incorporates the proper use of spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar,
and other factors deemed necessary for high-quality captioned media.
→ For conventional words, dictionaries and style guides must be followed.
Spelling and Capitalization
→ Do not emphasize a word using all capital letters except if it is an "Initialism" or
an "Acronym" or if it intends to indicate 'screaming' or 'shouting'.
→ Be consistent in the spelling of words throughout the media. This includes
vocabulary that can be spelled either as one or two words or in hyphenated form.
Punctuation
→ The use of incorrect punctuation can change the meaning of the whole sentence.
Types of Claim
Claim of Fact
Claim of Value
Claim of Policy
EXPLICIT CLAIM
Directly stated or Well- explained
IMPLICIT CLAIM
Implied or Indirect
Claim of Fact
• Makes an assertion about something that can be proved or disproved with factual
evidence
• They have to be debatable
• Cannot simply consist of a proven fact
• It needs to focus on assertion which uses facts to back it up, but for which the
evidence might still be debatable
Claim of Value
Claims of value make a judgment.
• Claims of value express disapproval and/or approval.
• Claims of value attempt to prove that some action, belief, or condition is right or
wrong, good or bad, etc.
• Some claims of value are simply expressions of taste, preferences, and prejudices.
Defending a Claim of Value
1. Make clear that the values you are defending should have priority on a scale of
values over competing values or principles others might defend.
2. Suggest that adherence to the values you are defending will bring about good
results.
3. Since values are abstract, you should use real- world examples and illustrations
to clarify meanings and make distinctions.
4. It is highly persuasive to use the testimony of others to prove that knowledgeable
or highly regarded people share your values.
CLAIM OF POLICY
→ Decisions about whether we should take an action or not are the most complex of
arguments. They turn on many claims about what happens if we do take an action
or what happens if we fail to act.
→Argument usually turns on whether the reasons for taking the action outweigh the
possible costs of taking the action.
DEFENDING CLAIMS OF POLICY
1. When you are defending a claim of policy, you must make your proposal clear.
Terms should be precisely defined.
2. When you are defending a claim of policy, if necessary, establish that there is a
need for change.
3. When you are defending a claim of policy, consider the opposing arguments. You
may want to state them in a brief paragraph in order to answer them in the body of
your argument.
4. When you are defending a claim of policy, devote the major part of your research
paper to proving your proposal is an answer to the opposing arguments.
5. Support your proposal with solid data, but don't neglect moral and/or common
sense reasons, which may be even more persuasive.