MIT Art Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

Department of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering

Subject - Electrical & Electronics

Engineering

NOTES: Unit IV

Class – F.Y. (SEM-I)

A.Y. 2024 - 2025

 Electrical and Electronics Engineering

UNIT IV
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Main Topic-1: Introduction, digital signals, Basic logic gates and universal gates: AND, OR, NOR,
NOT, NAND, EX-OR, EX-NOR.
Main Topic-2: Arithmetic circuits: Half Adder, Full Adder.
Main Topic-3: Introduction of VLSI systems and digital applications.

Introduction: Analog and digital signals are used to transmit information (such as any audio or
video), usually through electric signals. In digital technology, the translation of information is into
binary format (either 0 or 1) and information is translated into electric pulses of varying amplitude
in analog technology.
Features of Digital Systems:
• Uses binary code: Digital systems use binary code, which is a combination of zeros and ones,
to represent information.
• Accuracy: Digital systems are more accurate than analog systems because the information
is represented in a precise and consistent manner.
• Processing speed: Digital systems are capable of processing large amounts of data quickly
and accurately.
• Noise immunity: Digital systems are immune to noise and interference, which means that the
transmitted information is less likely to be corrupted.
Features of Analog Systems:
• Uses continuous signals: Analog systems use continuous signals to represent information,
such as electrical voltages or sound waves.
• Real-world representation: Analog systems are better suited for representing real-world
phenomena such as sound and light, which are continuous in nature.
• Smooth transitions: Analog systems provide smooth and continuous transitions between
different values, which can be important in certain applications such as music or video.
• Complexity: Analog systems can be more complex than digital systems due to the need for
additional circuitry to process and transmit the signals.
Similarities between Digital and Analog Systems:
a. Both can be used to process and transmit information.
b. Both can be used in a variety of applications such as audio, video, and telecommunications.

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c. Both can be used in combination with each other to achieve certain goals, such as using
digital signal processing to enhance analog signals.
d. Both require some level of circuitry or hardware to function.
Comparison between Digital System and Analog System:

Analog System Digital System

Analog signal represents physical Digital signals are discrete and

Signal
measurements. generated by digital modulation.

Waves Sine Waves Square Waves

Continuous range of values to Uses discrete values to represent

Representation
represent information information

Samples analog waveforms into a

Technology Records waveforms as they are. limited set of numbers and then
records them.

Data Affected by noise during Noise-immune during transmission

transmissions transmission and write/read cycle. and write/read cycle.

Response to
More likely to get affected Less likely to get affected
Noise

Flexibility Hardware is not flexible. Hardware is flexible.

More bandwidth to carry out the

Bandwidth Less bandwidth.
same information

Stored data in the form of wave

Memory Stored data in the form of binary bit
signal

Power Consumes large power Consumes negligible power

Best suited for audio and video Best suited for Computing and
Uses
transmission. digital electronics.

Cost Cost is low Cost is high

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Analog System Digital System

Human voice in air, analog

Example Computers, CDs, DVDs,
electronic devices.

Basic logic gates and universal gates

A logic gate is a digital circuit with a single output whose value depends upon the logical
relationship between the input(s) and output. In simple words, the relationship between the input
values and the output is based on a certain ‘logic’, hence these circuits are addressed as logic
gates.
The logic gates have only one output for single input or a number of inputs. To understand the
operation of a logic gate, a Truth Table is prepared by stating all the combinations of inputs
together with the output.

There are 3 types of logic gates-

1) Basic Gates: OR, AND, and NOT Gates.
2) Universal Gates: NAND, and NOR Gates.
3) Derived Gates: XOR Gates, and XNOR Gates.

Let’s understand all three logic gates in deep.

1) Basic Gates:

There are three types of basic logic gates- OR, AND, and NOT gates. A Basic logic gate behaves
the same as the corresponding logic operator.
A) OR Gate:

For two or more inputs, OR gate produces a HIGH (1) output only if one or all the inputs are HIGH
(1). It works similarly to the OR Logic operation.
The logical expression for an OR Gate is
Y= A OR B

Fig. OR Gate Symbol

• Case 1: A= 0, B= 0; Y= 0
In this case, both the inputs are LOW (O), so the OR Gate produces LOW (0) output.
• Case 2: A= 0, B= 1; Y= 1

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In this case, one of the inputs is HIGH (1), so the OR Gate produces the HIGH (1) output.
• Case 3: A= 1, B= 0; Y= 1
In this case, one of the inputs is HIGH (1), so the OR Gate produces the HIGH (1) output.
• Case 4: A= 1, B= 1; Y= 1
In this case, both the inputs are HIGH (1), hence the OR Gate produces the HIGH (1)
output.

OR Gate Truth Table:

A B Y=A OR B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1
B) AND Gate:
For two or more inputs, AND gate produces a HIGH (1) output only if both the inputs are HIGH
(1). It produces a LOW (O) output even if one of the inputs is LOW (0). It works similarly to the
AND Logic operation
The logical expression for an AND Gate is:
Y= A AND B

Fig. AND Gate Symbol

• Case 1: A= 0, B= 0; Y= 0
In this case, both the inputs are LOW (O), so the AND Gate produces LOW (0) output.
• Case 2: A= 0, B= 1; Y= 0
In this case, one of the inputs is LOW (0), hence the AND Gate produces a LOW (0)
output.
• Case 3: A= 1, B= 0; Y= 0
In this case, one of the inputs is LOW (0), so the AND Gate produces a LOW (0) output.
• Case 4: A= 1, B= 1; Y= 1
In this case, both the inputs are HIGH (1), the AND Gate produces HIGH (1) output.

AND Gate Truth Table:

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Y=A AND
A B
B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1
C) NOT Gate:
For a single input, NOT gate produces the output as a complement of the input. NOT gate
produces a HIGH (1) output only if the input is LOW (0) and a LOW (0) output if the input is HIGH
(1). It works similarly to NOT logic operation.
The logic expression for a NOT Gate is Y=Aˉ

Fig. NOT Gate Symbol

• Case 1: A=0; Y= 1
The input of the NOT gate is LOW (0), the output becomes HIGH (1).
• Case 2: A=1; Y= 0
The input of the NOT gate is HIGH (1), so the output becomes LOW (0).

NOT Gate Truth Table:

A Y=Aˉ

0 1

1 0

2) Universal Logic Gates:

The Universal Logic Gates can implement any Boolean expression on its own, this means they
don’t require any other gate for implementation. A single Universal Logic Gate is capable of
building a logic circuit. There are two types of Universal Logic Gates

A) NAND Gate:

A NAND Gate is a complement of AND Gate or simply, a combination of NOT Gate and AND
Gate. It is called NAND as N stands for NOT, meaning a NOT AND Gate. For two or more inputs,
the NAND gate produces a HIGH (1) output only if one of the inputs is LOW (0).

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The NAND Gate Boolean Expression is denoted by a complement of AND.

Y= (AB)ˉ

Fig. NAND Gate Symbol

• Case 1: A= 0, B= 0; Y= 1
In this case, both the inputs are LOW (O), the NAND Gate produces HIGH (1) output.
• Case 2: A= 0, B= 1; Y= 1
In this case, one of the inputs is LOW (0), the NAND Gate produces a HIGH (1) output.
• Case 3: A= 1, B= 0; Y= 1
In this case, one of the inputs is LOW (0), the NAND Gate produces a HIGH (1) output.
• Case 4: A= 1, B= 1; Y= 0
In this case, both the inputs are HIGH (1), the NAND Gate produces LOW (0) output.

NAND Gate Truth Table:

A B Y=A NAND B

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

B) NOR Gate:
A NOR Gate is a complement of OR Gate or a combination of NOT Gate and OR Gate. It is called
NOR as N stands for NOT, meaning a NOT OR Gate. For two or more inputs, the NOR gate
produces a HIGH (1) output; only both inputs are LOW (0).

The NOR Gate Boolean expression is denoted by a complement of OR.

Y= (A+B)ˉ

Fig. NOR Gate Symbol

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• Case 1: A= 0, B= 0; Y= 1
In this case, both the inputs are LOW (O), the NOR Gate produces HIGH (1) output.
• Case 2: A= 0, B= 1; Y= 0
In this case, one of the inputs is HIGH (1), the NOR Gate produces the LOW (0) output.
• Case 3: A= 1, B= 0; Y= 0
In this case, one of the inputs is HIGH (1), the NOR Gate produces the LOW (0) output.
• Case 4: A= 1, B= 1; Y= 0
In this case, both the inputs are HIGH (1), the NOR Gate produces the LOW (0) output.

NOR Gate Truth Table:

A B Y=A NOR B

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

3) Derived Logic Gates:

The derived or special gates are made for specific applications such as half adders, full adders,
and subtractors. There are two derived logic gates made from OR and NOR gates.

A) Exclusive OR, EX-OR or XOR Gate

Ex-OR gate has two or more inputs but a single output. Ex-OR gate generates a HIGH (1) output
if both the inputs are not at the same logic level A≠B.

Fig. XOR Gate Symbol

• Case 1: A= 0, B= 0; Y= 0
In this case, both the inputs are LOW (O) at the same logic level. As a result, the Ex-OR
Gate produces a LOW (0) output.
• Case 2: A= 0, B= 1; Y= 1
In this case, one of the inputs is LOW (0) and the other is HIGH (1). Hence, they are not
on the same logic level. As a result, the Ex-OR Gate produces the HIGH (1) output.
• Case 3: A= 1, B= 0; Y= 1

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In this case, one of the inputs is HIGH (1) and the other is LOW (0). Hence, they are not
on the same logic level. TAs a result, the Ex-OR Gate produces the HIGH (1) output.

• Case 4: A= 1, B= 1; Y= 0
In this case, both the inputs are HIGH (1) at the same logic level. As a result, the Ex-OR
Gate produces the LOW (0) output.

XOR Gate Truth Table:

A B Y=A XOR B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

B) Exclusive NOR, EX-NOR, or XNOR Gate

EX-NOR gate has two or more inputs but a single output. EX-NOR gate generates a HIGH (1)
output if both the inputs are at the same logic level A=B.

Fig. XNOR Gate Symbol

• Case 1: A= 0, B= 0; Y= 1
In this case, both the inputs are LOW (O) at the same logic level. As a result, the EX-NOR
Gate produces a HIGH (1) output.
• Case 2: A= 0, B= 1; Y= 0
In this case, one of the inputs is LOW (0) and the other is HIGH (1). Hence, they are not
on the same logic level. As a result, the EX-NOR Gate produces the LOW (0) output.
• Case 3: A= 1, B= 0; Y= 0
In this case, one of the inputs is HIGH (1) and the other is LOW (0). Hence, they are not
on the same logic level. As a result, The EX-NOR Gate produces the LOW (0) output.
• Case 4: A= 1, B= 1; Y= 1
In this case, both the inputs are HIGH (1) at the same logic level. As a result, the EX-NOR
Gate produces the HIGH (1) output.

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XNOR Gate Truth Table:

A B Y=A XNOR B

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Universal Gates/NAND and NOR gate

• In Boolean Algebra, the NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates because any digital
circuit can be implemented by using any one of these two i.e., any logic gate can be created
using NAND or NOR gates only.
• A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function without need to use any
other gate type. The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates. In practice, this is
advantageous since NAND and NOR gates are economical and easier to fabricate and are
the basic gates used in all IC digital logic families.

1. Implementation of AND Gate using Universal gates.

a) Using NAND Gates
The AND gate can be implemented by using two NAND gates in the below fashion:

b) Using NOR Gates

Implementation of AND gate using only NOR gates as shown below:

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2. Implementation of OR Gate using Universal gates.

a) Using NAND Gates
The OR gate can be implemented using the NAND gate as below:

b) Using NOR Gates

Implementation of OR gate using two NOR gates as shown in the picture below:

3. Implementation of NOT Gate using Universal gates.

a) Using NAND Gates

b) Using NOR Gates

Arithmetic circuits: Half Adder, Full Adder:

• An Adder is a device that can add two binary digits. It is a type of digital circuit that performs
the operation of additions of two number. It is mainly designed for the addition of binary

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number, but they can be used in various other applications like binary code decimal, address
decoding, table index calculation, etc.
• There are two types of Adders. One is Half Adder, and another one is known as Full Adder.
The detailed explanation of the two types of adders is given below.

Half Adder:

• There are two inputs and two outputs in a Half Adder. Inputs are named as A and B, and
the outputs are named as Sum (S) and Carry (C).
• The Sum is X-OR of the input A and B.
• Carry is AND of the input A and B.
• With the help of half adder, one can design a circuit that is capable of performing simple
addition with the help of logic gates.
Let us first take a look at the addition of single bits.
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 10

These are the least possible single bit combinations. But the result for 1 + 1 =10. This problem
can be solved with the help of an EX-OR gate. The sum results can be re-written as a 2-bit
output.
Thus, the above combination can be written as:
0 + 0 = 00
0 + 1 = 01
1 + 0 = 01
1 + 1 = 10

Here the output “1” of “10” becomes the carry-out. SUM is the normal output and the CARRY is
the carry-out. The truth table of the half adder is shown below:

Inputs Outputs
A B Sum Carry
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

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With the help of the Truth Table, we can design a Karnaugh Map or K-Map for Half Adder to
obtain a Boolean Expression.

Karnaugh Map for Sum:

Fig. Half Adder Karnaugh Map for SUM

By solving this,
S= A’B + AB’

Karnaugh Map for Carry:

Fig. Half Adder Karnaugh Map for Carry

By looking at the K-map, we can conclude;

This Boolean expression helps us to design a half adder with an XOR Gate and AND gate.
The Half Adder Circuit is shown below:

The main disadvantage of this circuit is that it can only add two inputs and if there is any carry, it
is neglected. Thus, the process is incomplete.
To overcome this difficulty Full Adder is designed. While performing complex addition, there may
be cases when you have to add two 8-bit bytes together. This can be done with the help of Full
Adder.

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Full Adder:

The full adder is a little more difficult to implement than a half adder. The main difference between
a half adder and a full adder is that the full-adder has three inputs and two outputs. The two inputs
are A and B, and the third input is a carry input CIN. The output carry is designated as COUT, and
the normal output is designated as S.
The schematic representation of a single bit Full Adder is shown below:

The truth table of the Full Adder Circuit is shown below.

Inputs Outputs
A B D S (Sum) Carry (C)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

With the help of the Truth Table, we can design a Karnaugh Map or K-Map for Full Adder to obtain
a Boolean Expression.

Karnaugh Map for Sum of Full Adder:

Fig. Full Adder Karnaugh Map for SUM

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By Solving this,

The terms and form a complement of each other, the whole

equation becomes an EX-OR operation;

Simplifying further,

Karnaugh Map for Carry:

Fig. Full Adder Karnaugh Map for Carry

The equation becomes,
C= AB + AD + BD

The output S is an EX-OR between the input A and the half-adder SUM output B. The COUT will
be true only if any of the two inputs out of the three are HIGH or at logic 1.

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Thus, a full adder circuit can be implemented with the help of two half adder circuits. The first half
adder circuit will be used to add A and B to produce a partial sum. The second half adder logic
can be used to add CIN to the sum produced by the first half adder circuit. Finally, the output S is
obtained.
If any of the half adder logic produces a carry, there will be an output carry. Thus, COUT will be an
OR function of the half adder CARRY outputs.
The Full adder circuit diagram is shown below:

With the help of this type of symbol, one can add two bits together, taking a carry from the next
lower order of magnitude and sending a carry to the next higher order of magnitude.

Difference between Half adder and full adder:

Parameter Half Adder Full Adder

Basics The Half Adder is a type of The Full Adder is also a type of
combinational logic circuit that combinational logic that adds three of the
adds two of the 1-bit binary 1-bit binary digits for performing an
digits. It generates carry and addition operation. It generates a sum of
sum of both the inputs. all three inputs along with a carry value.

Adding the The Half Adder does not add the The Full Adder, along with its current
Previous carry obtained from the previous inputs A and B, also adds the previous
Carry addition to the next one. carry.

Hardware A Half Adder consists of only one A Full Adder consists of one OR gate and
Architecture AND gate and EX-OR gate. two EX-OR and AND gates.

Total Inputs There are two inputs in a Half There are a total of three inputs in a Full
Adder- A and B. Adder- A. B. C-in.

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Usage The Half Adder is good for digital The Full Adder comes into play in various
measuring devices, computers, digital processors, the addition of
calculators, and many more. multiple bits, and many more.

Logical Here is the logical expression of Here is the logical expression of Full
Expression Half Adder: Adder:
C=A*B Cout = (AB) + CinA ⊕ CinB
S=A⊕B S =A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin

Implementation of full adder using two half adders:

The logic diagram of the full adder using two half adders is shown in Figure-3:

The block diagram of a full adder using two half adders is shown in above figure.

From the logic diagram of the full adder using half adders, it is clear that we require two XOR
gates, two AND gates and one OR gate for the implementation of a full adder circuit using half-
adders.
However, the implementation of full adder using half adder has a major disadvantage that is the
increased propagation delay. That means, the input bits must propagate through several gates
in succession that increases the total propagation delay of the full adder circuit.

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VLSI systems
• Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of creating an integrated circuit (IC) by
combining thousands of transistors into a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when
complex semiconductor and communication technologies were being developed.
The microprocessor is a VLSI device.
• Before the introduction of VLSI technology, most ICs had a limited set of functions they could
perform. An electronic circuit might consist of a CPU, ROM, RAM and other glue logic. VLSI
lets IC designers add all of these into one chip.
• The electronics industry has achieved a phenomenal growth over the last few decades,
mainly due to the rapid advances in large scale integration technologies and system design
applications. With the advent of very large-scale integration (VLSI) designs, the number of
applications of integrated circuits (ICs) in high-performance computing, controls,
telecommunications, image and video processing, and consumer electronics has been rising
at a very fast pace.
• The current cutting-edge technologies such as high resolution and low bit-rate video and
cellular communications provide the end-users a marvelous number of applications,
processing power and portability. This trend is expected to grow rapidly, with very important
implications on VLSI design and systems design.
• The VLSI IC circuits design flow is shown in the figure below. The various levels of design are
numbered and the blocks show processes in the design flow.
• Specifications comes first, they describe abstractly, the functionality, interface, and the
architecture of the digital IC circuit to be designed.

Fig. VLSI Design Flow

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• Behavioural description is then created to analyse the design in terms of functionality,

performance, compliance to given standards, and other specifications.
• RTL description is done using HDLs. This RTL description is simulated to test functionality.
From here onwards we need the help of EDA tools.
• RTL description is then converted to a gate-level netlist using logic synthesis tools. A gate
level netlist is a description of the circuit in terms of gates and connections between them,
which are made in such a way that they meet the timing, power and area specifications.
• Finally, a physical layout is made, which will be verified and then sent to fabrication.

Advantages of VLSI technology

• Compact size: VLSI circuits are much smaller than traditional circuits, enabling the
development of compact electronic systems, thus making miniaturization possible.
• Lower power consumption: VLSI circuits consume less power compared to traditional circuits,
making them more energy efficient. This is particularly relevant in applications where battery
life is a critical factor, such as mobile devices.
• Higher performance: By integrating a large number of transistors on a single chip, VLSI
circuits can perform complex operations at extremely fast speeds. This enables the
development of high-performance electronic systems such as supercomputers, data centres,
edge computing, etc.
• Mass production: VLSI technology has enabled the mass production of complex electronic
systems. With the integration of multiple functions and components on one chip, by this
reliability has improved. This, in turn, has made electronic systems more affordable and
accessible to a wider range of users, promoting widespread adoption and innovation.

Applications of VLSI Systems.

VLSI technology has diverse application in various industries and sectors. Here are some key
areas where VLSI plays a significant role.
• Consumer Electronics: VLSI technology has transformed the consumer electronics
industry, enabling the development of smart phones, tablets, gaming consoles, and smart
watches. These devices offer advanced functionalities, high-speed processing, and energy
efficiency, enhancing user experiences and productivity.
• Automotive Industry: In the automotive sector, VLSI technology has revolutionized vehicle
functionality and safety. Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), infotainment systems,
and Engine Control Units (ECUs) utilize VLSI chips to enable features such as autonomous
driving, object/lane/signal detection, and real-time vehicle diagnostics.

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• Telecommunications: VLSI technology has played a vital role in the telecommunications

industry. It has facilitated the development of high-speed network infrastructure, 5G wireless
communication, and advanced mobile devices. VLSI-based chips are used in routers,
modems, base stations, and network switches to enable fast and reliable data transmission.
• Healthcare: VLSI technology has had a significant impact on healthcare, enabling the
development of medical imaging devices, wearable health monitors, and implantable medical
devices. These devices provide accurate diagnostics, real-time monitoring, and
improved patient care.

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