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Investigating Dynamic Behavior and Control Systems of the F-16 Aircraft:

Mathematical Modelling and Autopilot Design

Article in International Journal of Aviation Science and Technology · December 2023

DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

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 International Journal of Aviation Science and Technology, Volume 4, Issue 2, (2023), 75-86

International Journal of Aviation

Science and Technology

Research Article

Investigating Dynamic Behavior and Control Systems of the F-16 Aircraft:

Mathematical Modelling and Autopilot Design
Masoud Norouzi1*, Elbrus Caferov2,
1
Istanbul Technical University, Aerospace Engineering Department, Istanbul, Turkiye
[email protected] 0000-0002-7326-5021
2
Istanbul Technical University, Aerospace Engineering Department, Istanbul, Turkiye
[email protected] 0000-0002-7742-2514

Abstract Keywords

The development of control systems for aerial vehicles necessitates a Flight Dynamics
meticulous examination of their dynamic behavior. This research delves into Longitudinal Motion
an in-depth investigation of the dynamic behavior of the F-16 aircraft, Lateral Motion
Displacement Autopilots
employing refined mathematical models to analyze both its longitudinal and LQR
lateral motions, as well as their corresponding modes. These mathematical PID
models are formulated in two conventional representations: state space F-16 Aircraft
equations and transfer functions. By utilizing these mathematical
representations, two displacement autopilots have been developed, consisting Time Scale of Article
of a pitch attitude autopilot based on the longitudinal equations and a roll
attitude autopilot designed using the lateral equations. Proportional Integral
Received 24 July 2023
Derivative (PID) controllers, encompassing inner loops, as well as Linear Revised to 15 November 2023
Quadratic Controllers (LQR), have been recruited as control system units. The Accepted 15 November 2023
control structures have undergone analysis utilizing Simulink models. The Online date 30 December 2023
analyses have yielded favorable damping characteristics and faster responses
in both longitudinal and lateral movements and modes.

advantage of choosing task-specific control laws. For

1. Introduction instance, a specialized control augmentation system is
indispensable for high-performance fighter aircraft like
The F-16 aircraft represents a multi-role fighter the F-16, as it allows the pilot to execute intricate
renowned for its exceptional maneuverability. Its maneuvers, pushing the aircraft to its performance
prowess has been demonstrated in both air-to-air and limits while performing tasks such as precision target
air-to-surface missions. This high level of agility is tracking (Stevens and Lewis, 1992).
attained by intentionally shifting the center of The issue of aircraft control has engendered a novel
gravity(CG) from the stable region to the unstable conundrum for control engineers within the scientific
region, resulting in a state of relaxed static stability domain. It is widely acknowledged that aircraft dynamics
(Reichert, 1993). Whenever the CG position falls within exhibit a profoundly nonlinear nature, manifesting a
the unstable region, the F-16 aircraft can only sustain robust interplay between longitudinal and lateral
flight by relying on a flight control system known as the dynamics. This coupling intensifies markedly as the
Control Augmentation System (CAS). This sophisticated aircraft undertakes maneuvers at escalated angular rates
flight control system alters the dynamic characteristics and heightened angles of attack. Consequently, the
of the F-16, ensuring its stability even when the CG development of a dependable controller becomes
position is situated within the unstable CG region. imperative to counteract such effects, all the while
Moreover, this control system offers the pilot the preserving noteworthy resilience against unaccounted-
*: Corresponding Author Masoud Norouzi, [email protected]
DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

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 Norouzi and Caferov, IJAST, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2023, DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

for dynamics and parameter variations. Within the realm conditions. Consequently, the controller parameters or
of flight control systems, the requisites for optimal gains are "scheduled" or adjusted based on the flight
performance fluctuate at varying attack angles. Notably, operating conditions (Vo and Seshagiri, 2008). The F-16
when the angle of attack is low, the primary performance Air Combat Fighter leverages the concept of relaxed
objective lies in attaining impeccable maneuverability. static stability (RSS) in the pitch axis, imparting amplified
Conversely, at high angles of attack, where the aircraft aerodynamic lift and mitigated trim drag. This
approaches or enters the stall regime, utmost emphasis technological breakthrough constitutes a paramount
must be placed upon preserving flight stability, albeit at achievement for the F-16, entailing a state where the
the expense of some flight quality compromise. aircraft attains equilibrium along the pitch axis during
Moreover, in the context of fighter aircraft, the subsonic flight conditions, such that the wing's center of
performance requisites may also undergo lift aligns with or precedes the center of gravity.
metamorphosis contingent upon the specifics of flight Consequently, the inclusion of a lifting tail becomes
operations, encompassing factors like speed, attitude, imperative. The RSS system exhibits a tendency to
pilot commands, and others (Ijaz et al., 2021). Stability swiftly deviate if continuous activation of pitch stability
analysis emerges as a momentous phenomenon augmentation is not sustained (Ammons, 1978).
necessitating comprehensive consideration to achieve In the present work, the progression towards the goals
the envisaged mission in consonance with the specific will be methodically executed through a gradual step-
aircraft archetype. Noteworthy determinants by-step approach, ensuring a meticulous achievement of
encompass passenger comfort, the pilot's command each milestone. Consequently, the study is divided into
over aircraft manipulation, the meticulous calculation of two distinct sections, with each section comprising two
flight performance, sensor precision, and a myriad of groups. The initial section requires substantial effort and
other criteria divulged through an intricate evaluation of serves as the foundation for subsequent advancements,
the aircraft's inherent stability. The ever-evolving wherein the tools and knowledge gained from the first
technological landscape, characterized by amplified section are utilized. In the second section, control
technical capacities, heightened maneuverability in systems are designed for the constructed model. Both
temporal domains, and the proliferation of time-varying longitudinal and lateral aspects are individually
data such as ammunition and fuel specifics, impels the addressed within each section, resulting in the
urgency of performance and efficiency computations subdivision of each section into two distinct groups. The
alongside rigorous precision assessments. These dynamics model of system will be constructed by
verifications entail the meticulous utilization of considering its geometrical, mechanical and
aerodynamic efficiency data stemming from the aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft. Wherever
aircraft's architectural blueprint, coupled with motion possible, extracted parameters from literature were
equations predicated upon aerodynamic coefficients, listed in tables as much as possible and other needed
control surface efficacy evaluations, flight performance parameters were calculated employing presented
computations, and a host of other multifaceted formulations from referred sources. Mathematical
considerations (Özcan and Caferov, 2022). Traditionally, model of aircraft was developed in convenient
flight control systems have been meticulously fashioned representations to study its dynamic behavior. Then
through the utilization of mathematical aircraft models, appropriate control systems for both longitudinal and
which undergo linearization at multiple operation lateral dynamics of modeled system were designed. The
points, leading to the programming of controller PID control method is widely utilized in the aviation
parameters contingent upon prevailing flight conditions industry due to its combination of simplicity and
(Andrade et al., 2017). performance. In addition to the classical PID approach,
Autopilot systems have demonstrated a significant the LQR method, recognized as a modern control
function in advancing aviation, as they actively enhance technique, has been implemented as an alternative
navigation protocols, aviation management, and the approach within the control systems structure.
overall stability and control of the aerial vehicles (Nelson
1998). The inclusion of nonlinear terms in control 2. Flight Dynamics and Modes of Motion; State
algorithms introduces intricacy and heightened
computational expenses. As a result, PID control
Space Equations
algorithms have proven to be effective, owing to their
The study commenced by deriving the flight dynamic
straightforward nature, ease of implementation, and
equations and identifying the associated parameters.
commendable performance across various instances
The resulting model will be presented in both state-
(Kada and Ghazzawi 2011). Due to this nonlinearity, the
space and transfer function formats, encompassing both
conventional approach to designing flight control
longitudinal and lateral behaviors. The characteristics of
systems involves the utilization of mathematical models
these motions and their modes will be elucidated
of the aircraft that are linearized at different flight
through the examination of the eigenvalues of the state

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 Norouzi and Caferov, IJAST, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2023, DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

matrix. The state space representation of an aircraft is a 𝑀𝑤 =

𝑄𝑆𝑐
𝐶𝑚𝛼 (10)
𝑢0 𝐼𝑦
mathematical presentation that describes the dynamic
behavior of that aircraft using a set of state variables and 𝑀𝑞 =
𝑄𝑆𝑐 2
𝐶𝑚𝑞 (11)
input-output equations. This representation is 2𝑢0 𝐼𝑦

commonly used in control engineering and flight 𝑍𝛿𝑒 =

−𝑄𝑆
𝐶𝑍𝛿𝑒 (12)
dynamics analysis. 𝑚
𝑄𝑆𝑐
The state space model can be articulated in the 𝑀𝛿𝑒 = 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 (13)
𝐼𝑦
subsequent manner (Eq 1):
1 𝜕𝑋
𝑥̇ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 , 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 (1) 𝑋𝛿𝑒 = (14)
𝑚 𝜕𝛿𝑒
1 𝜕𝑋
A :State Matrix 𝑋𝛿𝑇 = (15)
𝑚 𝜕𝛿𝑇
B :Input Matrix Which the including constants are as follow:
C :Output Matrix 𝑀2
𝐶𝐿𝑢 = 𝐶𝐿0 (16)
1−𝑀2
x :State Vector, Longitudinal; 〖x=[u,w,q,θ]〗^T
𝑙𝑡 𝑑𝜀
𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ = −2𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝑉𝐻 (17)
x :State Vector, Lateral; 〖x=[ u,w,q,θ]〗^T 𝑡 𝑐 𝑑𝛼
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
u :Input Vector 𝑉𝐻 = (18)
𝑆𝑤 𝑐𝑤

Developing a specific state space representation for an 𝑑𝜀 2𝐶𝐿𝛼

= 𝑤
(19)
aircraft requires detailed knowledge of the aircraft's 𝑑𝛼 𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑤

dynamics, aerodynamics, and control systems. The three 𝐶𝑚𝑢 =

𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑀 (20)
matrices A to C are typically determined through system 𝜕𝑀

identification techniques, simulations, or flight test data 𝐶𝑍𝛿𝑒 = −𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜏. 𝜂

𝑆𝑡
(21)
𝑡 𝑆
analysis. Once the state space model is established, it can
𝑙𝑡
be used for various analyses, including stability analysis, 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 = 𝐶𝑍𝛿𝑒 (22)
𝑐
control design, and performance evaluation.
Initial flight condition is supposed to be an altitude of
The initial aim of this investigatin is to determine the
30,000 ft and flying angle of attack to be five degrees.
matrices A and B, which are constructed using stability
Starting from atmospheric calculation using given
derivatives. The system matrix (state matrix) and input
altitude and Mach number. Temperature at an altitude is
matrix (control matrix) for the longitudinal motion of the
calculated using equation 𝑇𝐼𝑆𝐴 = 𝑇0 − 𝐵ℎ and B is 2°C
aircraft are provided as follows:
drop in temperature for each 1000 ft ascent. Under ISA
𝑋𝑢 𝑋𝑤 0 −𝑔 conditions, at sea level T0=15°C so 𝑇𝐼𝑆𝐴 = −45°𝐶 =
𝑍𝑢 𝑍𝑤 𝑢0 0 228.15 𝐾 at desired altitude. Speed of sound calculated
𝐴=[ ] (2)
𝑀𝑢 + 𝑀𝑤̇ 𝑍𝑢 𝑀𝑤 + 𝑀𝑤̇ 𝑍𝑤 𝑀𝑞 +𝑀𝑤̇ 𝑢0 0
using (Eq 23):
0 0 1 0
𝑋𝛿𝑒 𝑋𝛿𝑇 𝑎 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 = 303 𝑚/𝑠 (23)
𝑍𝛿𝑒 𝑍𝛿𝑇 𝛾 :specific heat ratio (~1.4 for normal air at S.T.P)
𝐵=[ ] (3)
𝑀𝛿 + 𝑀𝑤̇ 𝑍𝛿 𝑀𝛿𝑇 +𝑀𝑤̇ 𝑍𝛿𝑇
0 0 𝑅 :gas constant (287.26 for air)

Parameters inside matrices are combination of the 𝑇 :absolute temperature (k)

stability derivatives. All these elements will be calculated Then the initial speed of the aircraft can be reached
separately. using (Eq 24):
1 𝜕𝑋 −𝑄𝑆(𝐶𝐷𝑢 +2𝐶𝐷0 )
𝑋𝑢 = = (4) 𝑢0 = 𝑀 × 𝑎 = 0.6 × 303 = 182
𝑚
(24)
𝑚 𝜕𝑢 𝑚𝑢0 𝑠

𝑋𝑊 =
𝑄𝑆(𝐶𝐿0 −𝐶𝐷𝛼 )
(5) For calculating air density, following equation (Eq 25) is
𝑚𝑢0
used:
−𝑄𝑆(𝐶𝐿𝑢 +2𝐶𝐿0 )
𝑍𝑢 = (6) 𝜌 𝐵ℎ 𝑅𝐵
𝑔
𝑇
𝑚𝑢0
= (1 − ) ( 0 ) = 0.374 (25)
𝜌0 𝑇0 𝑇0 −𝐵ℎ
−𝑄𝑆(𝐶𝐷0 +𝐶𝐿𝛼 )
𝑍𝑤 = (7)
𝑚𝑢0 Air density at sea level (ρ0) is 1.225 kg/m3 so at the given
𝑄𝑆𝑐 altitude ρ=0.46 kg/m3 then dynamic pressure can be
𝑀𝑢 = 𝐶𝑚𝑢 (8)
𝑢0 𝐼𝑦 obtained using (Eq 26):
−𝑄𝑆𝑐 2 𝜌𝑢02
𝑀𝑤̇ = 𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ (9) 𝑄= = 7618.52 (26)
2𝑢02 𝐼𝑦 2

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 Norouzi and Caferov, IJAST, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2023, DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

The Table 1 contains the mass and geometric attributes for biconvex airfoil of tail at M=0.6 achieved 2.86 from
of the aircraft. The mathematical model is based on literature (Nguyen et al., 1979). It’s assumed that 𝜂 = 1.
streamlined high-fidelity data sourced from NASA Calculated data are listed in Table 2. Before starting to
Langley wind-tunnel experiments performed on a scaled calculate stability derivatives, the required
model of the studying airplane (Nguyen et al., 1979). “𝒍𝒕 ” nondimensional coefficients can be found in Table 3
and “𝑺𝒕 “will be calculated using model geometry, further from literature (Nguyen et al., 1979) or obtained using
explanation is shown in Fig. 1 (Wikimedia drawing). ” 𝑪𝑳𝜶𝒕 ” given above relations (Eq 16-22).

Table 1. Geometric Characteristics of the Aircraft

Parameter Weight 𝑰𝑿 𝑰𝒀 𝑰𝒁 𝑰𝑿𝒁 b S c CG AR HT rc HT tc 𝒃𝒕
[N] [kg.m2] [kg.m2] [kg.m2] [kg.m2] [m] [m2] [m] location [m] [m] [m]
Value 91188 12875 75674 85552 1331 9.144 27.87 3.45 0.35 c 3.0 3.03 0.64 5.48

Table 2.Geometric Characteristics of the Horizontal Tail

Parameter 𝒍𝒕 [m] 𝑺𝒕 [m2] VH d𝜀/dα 𝑪𝑳𝜶𝒕
Value 4.4 10.05 0.46 1.35 2.86

Table 3.Non-Dimensional Derivatives of Longitudinal Stability

Parameter 𝑪𝑫𝟎 𝑪𝑳𝟎 𝑪𝒎𝒒 𝑪𝑳𝜶 𝑪𝑿𝒒 𝑪𝒁𝒒 𝑪𝒎𝜶 𝑪𝑳𝜶𝒘 𝑪𝑫𝜶 𝑪𝑳𝒖 𝑪𝒎𝜶̇ 𝑪𝒎𝒖 𝑪𝒁𝜹𝒆 𝑪𝒎𝜹𝒆
Value 0.006 0.367 -5.45 3.11 2.46 -30.5 0.092 6.36 0.285 0.206 -4.530 0.159 -1.031 -1.315

Fig. 1. Three view drawing of the F-16 aircraft (Wikimedia drawing), Linear dimensions are in meters

Table 4.Engine Characteristics

Parameter 𝐈𝐝𝐥𝐞 𝐓𝐡𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐭 𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐓𝐡𝐫𝐮𝐬𝐭 Military Thrust
[N] [N] [N]
Value 1557 41300 20728

Table 5.Longitudinal Stability Derivatives

Parameter 𝑿𝒖 𝑿𝑾 𝒁𝒖 𝒁𝒘 𝑴𝒘̇ 𝑴𝒖 𝑴𝒘 𝑴𝒒 𝒁𝜹𝒆 𝑴𝜹𝒆 𝑿𝜹𝒆 𝑿𝜹𝑻
Value −0.0016 0.0103 -0.1179 -0.3907 0.0023 0.0085 0.0049 -0.5 23.5329 -12.7322 3.651 4.2711

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 Norouzi and Caferov, IJAST, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2023, DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

Now the main parameters, i.e., stability derivatives can 𝐿𝛿𝑎 =

𝑄𝑆𝑏
𝐶𝑙𝛿𝑎 (41)
𝐼𝑥
be achieved using mentioned relations (Eq 4-15). They
𝑄𝑆𝑏
are listed in Table 5 and thus forming of state and input 𝑁𝛿𝑟 = 𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 (42)
𝐼𝑧
matrices is feasible anymore. Two intended matrices
𝑄𝑆𝑏
(Eq 2&3) are introduced in the following: 𝑁𝛿𝑎 = 𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑎 (43)
𝐼𝑧
−0.0016 0.0103 0 −9.8 Due to accessibility of all needed non dimensional
−0.1179 −0.3907 182 0
𝐴=[ ] (27) coefficients from direct data or guessing using available
0.0082 0.0040 −0.0814 0
0 0 1 0 plots in literature (Nguyen et al., 1979). There is no need
to recalculate them, these data are listed in Table 6. The
3.6510 4.2711
vertical tail characteristics are listed in Table 7 to be used
23.5329 0
𝐵=[ ] (28) for determining some coefficients that have to be
−12.6781 0
0 0 calculated.
2𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜏
Previous matrices indicate longitudinal motion of the 𝐶𝑙𝛿𝑎 = 𝑤 2 𝑦
∫𝑦 𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑦 (44)
𝑆𝑏
aircraft. The lateral motion is studied in the succeeding. 1

State matrix “A” and Input matrix “B” are introduced 𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑎 = 2𝐾𝐶𝐿0 𝐶𝑙𝛿𝑎 (45)
below:
For simplification of presented relation in (Eq 44) an
𝑌𝛽 𝑌𝑝
0
𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃0
0
𝑌 𝛿𝑟
illustration of the model is shown in Fig.2, an equation
𝑢0 𝑢0 𝑢0 𝑢0
can be developed to determine (Eq 44). Using Thales’s
𝐴 = 𝐿𝛽 𝐿𝑝 𝐿𝑟 0 𝐵 = 𝐿 𝛿𝑎 𝐿 𝛿𝑟 (29) theorem for blue triangle in the Fig.2, it’s been resulted:
𝑁𝛽 𝑁𝑝 𝑁𝑟 0 𝑁𝛿𝑎 𝑁𝛿𝑟
𝑏
[0 1 0 0 ] [ 0 0 ] (𝑐−𝑐𝑡 ) −𝑦 (𝑐𝑟 −𝑐𝑡 )
= 2
→ 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟 − 𝑏 𝑦 (46)
(𝑐𝑟 −𝑐𝑡 ) 𝑏/2
Parameters inside matrices are a combination of the ( )
2

stability derivatives. All these elements will be calculated By substituting of this term instead of “c” integral term
separately as previously it’s done for longitudinal in (Eq 44) will be solved easily:
section.
𝑦
2 2 𝑦 (𝑐𝑟−𝑐𝑡 )
𝑌𝛽 =
𝑄𝑆
𝐶𝑌𝛽 (30) ∫𝑦 𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑦 (𝑐𝑟 𝑦 − 𝑏 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦
1 1
𝑚 2
𝑄𝑆𝑏 𝑦2 𝑦2
𝐿𝛽 = 𝐶𝑙𝛽 (31) =
𝑐𝑟
𝑦 2 |𝑦 −
(𝑐𝑟 −𝑐𝑡 )
𝑦 3 |𝑦 (47)
𝐼𝑥 2 3𝑏
1 1
2
𝑄𝑆𝑏
𝑁𝛽 = 𝐶𝑛𝛽 (32) Two recently calculated derivatives have been included
𝐼𝑧
𝑄𝑆𝑏 in Table 6. The elements of the studying matrices have
𝑌𝑝 = 𝐶𝑌𝑝 (33) been obtained using (Eq 30-43), and the resulting
2𝑚𝑢0
𝑄𝑆𝑏 parameters are listed in Table 8. The state and input
𝑌𝑟 = 𝐶𝑌𝑟 (34)
2𝑚𝑢0 matrices for lateral motion can be formed using relations
𝑄𝑆𝑏 2 of (Eq 29). Controllability and observability matrices of
𝐿𝑝 = 𝐶𝑙𝑝 (35)
2𝐼𝑥 𝑢0 “A” are full rank, i.e., state matrix “A” is controllable and
𝑄𝑆𝑏 2 observable.
𝐿𝑟 = 𝐶𝑙𝑟 (36)
2𝐼𝑥 𝑢0
−0.1504 0.0021 −0.9970 0.0538
𝑄𝑆𝑏 2 −28.0786 −1.6441 0.3334 0
𝑁𝑝 = 𝐶𝑛𝑝 (37) 𝐴=[ ] (48)
2𝐼𝑥 𝑢0 5.4806 −0.0810 −1.5039 0
𝑄𝑆𝑏 2 0 1 0 0
𝑁𝑟 = 𝐶𝑛𝑟 (38)
2𝐼𝑥 𝑢0 0 0.0252
𝑄𝑆
(39) 47.9237 9.5907
𝑌𝛿𝑟 = 𝐶𝑌𝛿𝑟 𝐵=[ ] (49)
𝑚 −1.4297 −1.9086
𝐿𝛿𝑟 =
𝑄𝑆𝑏
𝐶𝑙𝛿𝑟 (40) 0 0
𝐼𝑥

Table 6.Non-Dimensional Derivatives of Lateral Stability

Parameter 𝑪𝒀𝒓 𝑪𝒏𝒓 𝑪𝒍𝒓 𝑪𝒍𝜷 𝑪𝒀𝜷 𝑪𝒀𝒑 𝑪𝒏𝒑 𝑪 𝒍𝒑 𝑪𝒏𝜷 𝑪𝒀𝜹𝒓 𝑪𝒍𝜹𝒓 𝑪𝒏𝜹𝒓 𝑪𝒍𝜹𝒂 𝑪𝒏𝜹𝒂
Value 0.939 -0.397 0.088 -0.186 -1.199 0.679 -0.021 -0.434 0.241 0.201 0.064 -0.084 0.318 -0.063

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 Norouzi and Caferov, IJAST, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2023, DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

Fig. 2.Top View of the F-16, to Determine Some Geometric Dimensions (Wikimedia drawing).

Table 7. Geometric Characteristics of the Vertical Tail

Parameter 𝑺𝒗 𝑺𝑹 τr τa 𝑺𝒇 K lv zv Vv 𝑪𝑳𝜶𝒗
[m2] [m2] [m2] [m] [m]
Value 4.0 1.08 0.49 0.40 2.78 -0.27 3.8 1.3 0.06 2.86

Table 8.Lateral Stability Derivatives

Parameter 𝒀𝜷 𝑳𝜷 𝑵𝜷 𝒀𝒑 𝒀𝒓 𝑳𝒑 𝑳𝒓 𝑵𝒑 𝑵𝒓 𝒀𝜹𝒓 𝑳𝜹𝒓 𝑳𝜹𝒂 𝑵𝜹𝒓 𝑵𝜹𝒂
Value -27.38 -28.08 5.481 0.389 0.538 -1.644 0.333 -0.081 -1.504 4.588 9.591 47.92 -1.908 -1.429

The values of present constants in above equations are

3. Flight Dynamics and Modes of Motion; Transfer
listed in Table 9.
Functions
Table 10.Transfer Functions of Longitudinal Modes
A very useful concept in the analysis and design of Modes
control systems is the transfer function. The transfer Short-Period
function gives the relationship between the output of ∆𝛼 (0.1293)𝑠 + (−12.7968)
and input to a system. In the case of aircraft dynamics, it ∆𝛿𝑒 𝑠 2 + (0.4721)𝑠 + (−0.6964)
specifies the relationship between the motion variables ∆𝒒 (−12.7863)𝑠 + (5.0898)
and the control input. To avoid undue mathematical ∆𝜹𝒆 𝑠 2 + (0.4721)𝑠 + (−0.6964)
complexity, simpler mathematical models are developed Phugoid
using longitudinal and lateral approximation so that the ∆𝒖 (3.6510)𝑠 + (1.2684)
idea behind various autopilots can be examined (Nelson, ∆𝜹𝒆 𝑠 2 + (0.0016)𝑠 + (0.0063)
1998). For longitudinal modes, short-period (Eq 50) and ∆𝜽 (−0.1293)𝑠 + (0.0021)
phugoid mode (Eq 51) are introduced. ∆𝜹𝒆 𝑠 2 + (0.0016)𝑠 + (0.0063)
Substituting model characteristics in contents of Table 9
∆𝛼 𝐴𝑠+𝐵 ∆𝑞 𝐴𝑠+𝐵
= , = (50) and using (Eq 50-51), resulted transfer functions are
∆𝛿𝑒 𝐴𝑠 2 +𝐵𝑠+𝐶 ∆𝛿𝑒 𝐴𝑠 2 +𝐵𝑠+𝐶
listed in Table 10.
∆𝑢 𝐴𝑠+𝐵 ∆𝜃 𝐴𝑠+𝐵
= , = (51) The below relations (Eq 52) also used in (Eq 50)
∆𝛿𝑒 𝐴𝑠 2 +𝐵𝑠+𝐶 ∆𝛿𝑒 𝐴𝑠 2 +𝐵𝑠+𝐶
determination.
Table 9.Constants A, B and C in the (Eq 50) and (Eq 51). 𝑀𝛼 = 𝑢0 𝑀𝑤 , 𝑀𝛼̇ = 𝑢0 𝑀𝑤̇ , 𝑍𝛼 = 𝑢0 𝑍𝑤 (52)
Fraction A B C
The same process is applying for lateral modes; Roll
part
dynamics (Eq 53) and Dutch roll mode (Eq 54).
Short-Period
∆𝜹 1 −(𝑀𝑞 + 𝑀𝛼̇ + 𝑍𝛼 /𝑢0 ) 𝑍𝛼 𝑀𝑞 /𝑢0 − 𝑀𝛼 ∆𝑝
=
𝐿 𝛿𝑎
,
∆∅
=
𝐿 𝛿𝑎
(53)
∆𝜶 𝑍𝛿 /𝑢0 𝑀𝛿 − 𝑀𝑞 𝑍𝛿 /𝑢0 - ∆𝛿𝑎 𝑠−𝐿𝑝 ∆𝛿𝑎 𝑠(𝑠−𝐿𝑝 )

∆𝒒 𝑀𝛿 + 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑍𝛿 /𝑢0 𝑀𝛼 𝑍𝛿 /𝑢0 − 𝑀𝛿 𝑍𝛼 /𝑢0 - ∆𝛽 𝐴𝑠+𝐵 ∆𝑟 𝐴𝑠+𝐵

= , = (54)
Phugoid ∆𝛿𝑟 𝐴𝑠 2 +𝐵𝑠+𝐶 ∆𝛿𝑟 𝐴𝑠 2 +𝐵𝑠+𝐶
∆𝜹 1 −𝑋𝑢 −𝑍𝑢 𝑔/𝑢0 ∆𝛽 𝐴𝑠+𝐵 ∆𝑟 𝐴𝑠+𝐵
∆𝒖 𝑋𝛿 𝑔𝑍𝛿 /𝑢0 - = , =
∆𝛿𝑎 𝐴𝑠 2 +𝐵𝑠+𝐶 ∆𝛿𝑎 𝐴𝑠 2 +𝐵𝑠+𝐶
∆𝜽 −𝑍𝛿 /𝑢0 𝑋𝑢 𝑍𝛿 /𝑢0 − 𝑋𝛿 𝑍𝑢 /𝑢0 -

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mode are “λ1,2= -0.8272 ± 2.2374i”. These values indicate a

Table 11.Constants A, B and C in the (Eq 54) For Dutch
stable situation for this mode.
Roll Mode
̇ 𝑌𝛽 /𝑢0 (𝑌𝑟 /𝑢0 ) − 1 ∆𝛽
Fraction A B C [∆𝛽 ] = [ ] [ ]→𝐴 =
∆𝑟̇ 𝑁𝛽 𝑁𝑟 ∆𝑟
part −0.1504 −0.9970
∆𝜹 1 −(𝑌𝛽 + 𝑢0 𝑁𝑟 )/𝑢0 (𝑌𝛽 𝑁𝑟 − 𝑌𝑟 𝑁𝛽 [ ] (58)
5.4806 −1.5039
+ 𝑢0 𝑁𝛽 )/𝑢0
𝜹𝒓 ∆𝜷 𝑌𝑟 /𝑢0 (𝑌𝑟 𝑁𝛿𝑟 − 𝑌𝛿𝑟 𝑁𝑟 - Furthermore, it is important to mention that the spiral
− 𝑢0 𝑁𝛿𝑟 )/𝑢0 mode, which is considered one of the lateral modes, has
∆𝒓 𝑁𝛿𝑟 (𝑁𝛽 𝑌𝛿𝑟 − 𝑌𝛽 𝑁𝛿𝑟 )/𝑢0 - not been considered in this study. The corresponding
𝜹𝒂 ∆𝜷 0 (𝑌𝑟 𝑁𝛿𝑎 − 𝑢0 𝑁𝛿𝑎 )/𝑢0 - eigenvalue for the spiral mode has been determined to
∆𝒓 𝑁𝛿𝑎 −𝑌𝛽 𝑁𝛿𝑎 /𝑢0 - be “𝝀𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒂𝒍 = −𝟏. 𝟒𝟑𝟖𝟖”. Typically, this value is in close
Presented constants in (Eq 54) detailed in Table 11. Using proximity to the origin.
model characteristics in (Eq 53-54), resulted transfer This pole arrangement on s-plane is usual for an aircraft
functions for lateral modes are listed in Table 12. with aft CG (Denieul et al., 2017). As manufacturer says
and pilots confirm; this aircraft is very unstable.
Table 12.Transfer Functions of Lateral Modes Moreover, flap effectiveness of this kind of elevator
(Stabilator) is one. All these are preconditions for having
Modes
an agile vehicle. For simulation, engine is supposed to
Roll Dynamics
work in half of its maximum thrust (𝛿𝑇 = 0.5) that is about
∆𝑝 47.9237
in military thrust range (Nguyen et al., 1979). For lateral
∆𝛿𝑎 𝑠 + 1.6441
∆∅ 47.9237 states behavior, roll angle is the most affected to aileron
∆𝛿𝑎 𝑠(𝑠 + 1.6441) input, after that roll rate is sensitive to this control
Dutch Roll surface. Rudder deflection causes sideslip and yaw
∆𝛽 (0.0029)𝑠 + (1.9408) moment, since yaw and roll motions inevitably related to
∆𝛿𝑟 𝑠 2 + (1.6543)𝑠 + (5.6906) each other, as a lateral motion we study, both yaw and
∆𝑟 (−1.9086)𝑠 + (−0.1489) roll rates and also sideslip and roll angles are affected
∆𝛿𝑟 𝑠 2 + (1.6543)𝑠 + (5.6906) enormously
∆𝛽 (1.4254)
∆𝛿𝑎 𝑠 2 + (1.6543)𝑠 + (5.6906)
∆𝑟 (−1.4297)𝑠 + (−0.2150) 4. Control Modelling; Autopilot Design
∆𝛿𝑎 𝑠 2 + (1.6543)𝑠 + (5.6906)
Eigenvalues of matrix A are roots of the characteristic In previous section it was discussed about two types of
equation of system and are obtained by solving this aircraft stability and achieved related mathematical
equation: |𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴| = 0. Matrix A for short-period mode is model in both state space and transfer function
shown in (Eq 55). representations. In this section the objective is
embedding an appropriate controller in these models
𝑍𝛼 /𝑢0 1 and reaching desired and reasonable states. A simple
𝐴=[ ]→𝐴𝑠ℎ =
𝑀𝛼 + 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑍𝛼 /𝑢0 𝑀𝑞 + 𝑀𝛼̇ pitch control autopilot has been developed to maintain
−0.3907 1
[ ] (55) longitudinal stability of the model; using conventional
0.7282 −0.0814
PID and LQR, trying to hold pitch angle close to desired
Eigenvalues for short period mode are resulted “λ1= - input as much as possible without any noise in final
1.1033”, “λ2= 0.6312”. This mode is including an unstable signal. By using inner rate feedback loop we are able to
pole in the right side of the origin. Eigenvalues for stabilize system. The model’s block diagram is shown in
phugoid mode are “λ1,2= -0.0008 ± 0.0767i” which shows Fig. 3.
almost a stable situation. Matrix A for phugoid mode is In the event that the PID controller parameters (namely,
shown in (Eq 56). the gains of the proportional, integral, and derivative
𝑋𝑢 −𝑔 terms) are inappropriately selected, the controlled
−0.0016 −9.81
𝐴=[ 𝑍𝑢 ]→𝐴𝑝ℎ = [ ] (56) process input may become unstable, exhibiting a
− 0 0.0006 0
𝑢0
diverging output, either with or without oscillations, and
Determined eigenvalue for roll mode can be acquired limited solely by saturation or mechanical failure. The
using (Eq 57) that is resulted”𝝀𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 = −𝟏. 𝟔𝟒𝟒𝟏” which is a underlying cause of instability lies in an excessive gain,
stable and reasonable root in the left side of the origin. especially in the presence of significant lag. Generally,
response stabilization is imperative, ensuring the
𝜆𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙 = 𝐿𝑝 (57)
absence of oscillations under all combinations of process
For Dutch roll mode we neglected rolling moment conditions and set points, although, on certain
equation and stated that depend on sideslip and yawing occasions, marginal stability (bounded oscillation) may
rate as is shown in (Eq 58). Eigenvalues for Dutch roll be deemed acceptable or desirable. Introducing a PID

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controller to an F-16 aircraft will lead to an enhanced improved transient response, thus yielding greater
steady-state solution, reduced rise time, and an accuracy in its performance (Sayegh, 2014).

Fig. 3. Pitch/Roll autopilot block diagram in state space form using PID controller
It can be demonstrated that if the system is state- based on the coefficients of the open-loop characteristic
controllable, it becomes feasible to devise a linear equation, and "𝑎̅" and "a" represent the coefficients of the
control law that can achieve any desired closed-loop desired closed-loop characteristic equation and the
eigenvalue structure. For a single-input system, the coefficients of the open-loop plant matrix characteristic
control law is represented by (Eq 59), where "η" denotes equation, respectively (Nelson, 1998). This parameters
the control input, and "k" is a column matrix or vector of for studying model are listed in Table 13. By
unknown gains. The Bass-Gura method offers a incorporating the "k" parameter into the block diagram
straightforward approach to determine the gains illustrated in Fig. 3, and leveraging the inner loop(s) and
required for a specific eigenvalue structure. The plant PID controller, a robust methodology can be established
matrix, in general, may not be in the companion form. If to address instability and achieve desirable outcomes
the system is not in the companion form, we can employ within the control systems architecture.
a transformation using (Eq 60), wherein "V" denotes the
𝜂 = −𝑘 𝑇 𝑥 (59)
controllability test matrix, "W" forms a triangular matrix
𝑘 = [(𝑉𝑊)𝑇 ]−1 [𝑎̅ − 𝑎] (60)

Table 13.Performance values of PID

a ̅
𝒂 V W
longitudinal
0.4737 0.8 3.7 0.2 100.4 0 1 0.47 −0.69 0.64
- 0.6942 0.8 23.5 −2317 1115 −2151 0 1 0.47 −0.69
[ ] [ ]
0.0640 0.1 −12.7 1.2 −9.4 6 0 0 1 0.47
0.0268 0.1 0 −12.7 1.2 −9.4 0 0 0 1
Lateral
3.2984 3.3 0 1.5 3.9 −22 1 3.29 8.49 13.22
8.4961 8.5 48 −79 87 −247 0 1 3.29 8.49
[ ] [ ]
13.2236 13.2 −1.4 −1.7 17.4 −11.8 0 0 1 3.29
0 48 −79 87 0 0 0 1
2.1735 2

Fig. 4. Pitch/Roll autopilot block diagram using LQR controller

LQR controller as a modern control approach is another Results from two approaches are shown in Fig. 5. For
strategy which is used here to build the pitch autopilot. longitudinal pitch control. Investigating the results for
This autopilot’s block diagram including state-space Pitch revealed that rise time from PID method is about
matrices and controller gains is shown in Fig. 4. 0.1 second, settling time for two percent of final value is
around 1 second, with 14 percent overshoot. Without

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 Norouzi and Caferov, IJAST, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2023, DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

accounting on inner loop, the system at most could be damping of the system is obvious. From LQR results rise
marginally stable with lots of disturbing oscillations and time was around 2.3 seconds and settling time around 4
here the importance of the inner loop in increasing seconds with no overshoot, which is too slow.

Fig. 5. Pitch control using top) PID down) LQR controller

In the F16 aircraft, both the aileron and the stabilator, been considered in this study. The roll attitude autopilot
which functions as a differential tail, contribute to roll design is presented in Fig. 3, while the control block
and lateral motion to enhance maneuverability. When diagram for the roll autopilot, utilizing the LQR
the aileron is deflected by 4 degrees, the differential tail approach, is depicted in Fig. 4. The system's response to
deflects approximately 1 degree. However, the these configurations is illustrated in Fig. 6.
involvement of the differential tail in the system has not

Fig. 6. Roll control using top) PID down) LQR controller

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 Norouzi and Caferov, IJAST, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2023, DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

Moreover, it is important to acknowledge that a variety

5. Results and Discussion of results may be observed within an acceptable range,
attributable to the collection of information from diverse
PID control is a classical control method widely used in sources under distinct operating conditions.
various engineering applications, including aircraft Furthermore, by altering the Q and R matrices in the LQR
control systems. It operates based on error feedback, strategy, superior results can be attained. Nevertheless,
continuously adjusting the control inputs (control it is preferable to adhere to the main approach to avoid
surfaces) in proportion to the contrast between the the complexities of model instability and ensure the
desired and current states. On the other hand LQR is a validity of the simulation data.
modern control technique based on optimal control
theory. It considers a cost function that quantifies the 6. Conclusions
system's performance and aims to minimize it. LQR is
capable of providing an optimal control law that balances Within this study, state-space representations were
the trade-off between control effort and performance. constructed for both longitudinal and lateral dynamics
The choice between PID and LQR control for the F-16 of the system. Additionally, transfer functions were
pitch and roll autopilot design depends on several derived to describe the dynamic modes. Subsequently,
factors, including performance requirements, two autopilots were designed for pitch and roll control,
implementation complexity, and available resources. employing both PID and LQR methods. The PID
LQR generally provides superior performance compared technique has demonstrated its remarkable
to PID control in terms of precision, stability, and ability effectiveness in the design of autopilots, surpassing the
to handle disturbances. LQR's optimal control performance achieved by the LQR control system. This
formulation allows for fine-tuning control efforts to superiority is evident in Table 14, where the results of the
achieve desired performance. PID control is relatively PID approach outperform those of the LQR control
straightforward to implement and tune. It has been used system across various performance criteria under this
successfully in many control systems, including older typical simulation conditions.
aircraft models. However, it may require more tuning
effort to achieve desired performance. LQR is more Table 14.Performance values of PID and LQR
adaptable to various operating conditions and can Method Rise time Settling time Overshoot
handle a broader range of aircraft dynamics. As aircraft Pitch Autopilot
become more advanced and incorporate additional
PID 0.10 s 1.07 s 13.9 %
complexities, LQR's flexibility becomes advantageous. LQR 2.28 s 3.85 s 0
PID control is computationally lighter and may be Roll Autopilot
preferred for systems with limited processing power. PID 0.17 s 2.88 s 7.9 %
LQR, being an optimal control approach, might require LQR 2.18 s 3.75 s 0
more computational resources. Finally, the In future research endeavors, it is recommended to
implementation complexity and available resources enhance the realism of the study by incorporating the
should also be taken into consideration when making the dynamics of actuators through the utilization of
final design decision. appropriate transfer functions. Additionally, the
Whitin this study, the PID controller yields a rise time of dynamic representations obtained can be employed to
approximately 0.2 seconds and a settling time of about 3 design additional autopilot systems using both the PID
seconds for two percent of the final value, accompanied and LQR approaches. While it can be acknowledged that
by an overshoot of 8 percent. On the other hand, modern control theories, such as "Adaptive Control",
employing the LQR approach results in a rise time of "Model Predictive Control (MPC)", "Sliding Mode Control
around 2 seconds and a settling time of approximately 4 (SMC)", "H-infinity Control", "Fuzzy Logic Control" and
seconds, with no overshoot. The second approach "Neural Networks" are known to exhibit robust
demonstrates the absence of overshoot; however, it is performance in autopilot design and contribute to the
slower in comparison. In contrast, the first approach overall effectiveness and safety of aircraft operations,
exhibits a slight overshoot, which is inevitable, but offers The primary aim of this study was to establish a
significantly faster performance. The detailed results comprehensive understanding of the principles
obtained from the simulations are presented in Table 14. underlying analytical modelling of aircraft dynamics and
The outcomes for both the pitch and roll autopilots are the analysis of its control systems. The main focus was
deemed satisfactory and reasonable when compared to to take the initial step in this field of study with precision,
the existing literature (Ahmed et al., 2019), (Stachowiak thereby establishing a solid groundwork for future
and Bosworth, 2004) and (Lu and Wu, 2005). Here, research and exploration.
considerably superior outcomes are achieved in
comparison to those presented in the initial literature.

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 Norouzi and Caferov, IJAST, Volume 4, Issue 2, 2023, DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm04is02.0203

Nomenclature of Aeronautics and Astronautics ,pp.1-14. DOI:

10.2514/1.C034268
S.T.P : Standard Temperature and Pressure
Ijaz, S., Fuyang, C., Hamayun, M.T. and Anwaar, H. (2021).
b : Wing Span
Adaptive integral-sliding-mode control strategy for
S : Wing Area
maneuvering control of F16 aircraft subject to
c : Mean Aerodynamic Chord
CG : Centre of Gravity aerodynamic uncertainty. Applied Mathematics and
AR : Wing Aspect Ratio Computation 402 (2021) 126053,
HT : Horizontal Tail www.elsevier.com/locate/amc
rc : Root Chord
Kada, B. and Ghazzawi, Y., (2011), Robust PID Controller
tc : Tip Chord
bt : Tail Span
Design for an UAV Flight Control System. World
lt : Distance Between CG and Aerodynamic Centre of HT Congress on Engineering and Computer Science
St : Horizontal Tail Area (WCECS), San Francisco, USA, ISBN: 978-988-19251-
VH : Tail Volume Ratio 7-6
d𝜀/dα : Downwash Change Li, B. and Wu, F., (2005). Probabilistic Robust Control
𝜂 : Flap Effectiveness
Design for An F-16 Aircraft. AIAA Guidance,
Sv : Vertical Tail Area
Navigation, and Control Conference and Exhibit,
SR : Rudder Area
τr : Rudder Effectiveness
San Francisco, California
τa : Flaperon Effectiveness Nelson, R.C., (1998). Flight Stability and Automatic
Sf : Flaperon Area Control, WCB/McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-046273-9
K : Empirical Factor
VT : Vertical Tail Nguyen, L.T., Ogburn, M.E, Gilbert, W.P., Kibler, K.S.,
lv : Horizontal Range Between Aerodynamic Centre of Brown, P.W. and Deal, P.L., (1979). Simulator Study
VT and CG of Stall/Post-Stall Characteristics of a Fighter
Zv :Vertical Range Between Aerodynamic Centre of VT Airplane With Relaxed Longitudinal Static Stability,
and CG NASA Technical Paper 1538, Langley Research
Center, Hampton, Virginia, available at:
CRediT Author Statement https://www.cs.odu.edu/~mln/ltrs-pdfs/NASA-
79-tp1538.pdf (accessed 20 April 2022)
Masoud Norouzi: Methodology, Software, Data
Curation, Validation, Formal Analysis, Writing-Original Özcan, A.B. and Caferov, E., (2022). Frequency Domain
Draft, Visualization, Writing-Review & Editing. Elbrus M. Analysis of F-16 Aircraft in a Variety of Flight
Caferov: Conceptualization, Project Administration, Conditions. International Journal of Aviation
Supervision, Resources. Science and Technology, Volume 3, Issue 1, (2022),
21-34, DOI: 10.23890/IJAST.vm03is01.0103
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Lateral Dynamics. International Journal of

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Wikimedia drawing, A 3-view line drawing of the General
Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, Page URL:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gener
al_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon_3-
view_line_drawing.svg

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