IAS 2 • Unauthorized Access: Access without permission by

a rightful owner of devices or networks.

Types of Security • Impersonation, Worms, Viruses.
➢ Computer Security: A generic term for the collection
of tools designed to protect data and thwart hackers. Risk Management vs. Cost of Security
➢ Network Security: Measures to protect data during
transmission. ▪ Risk Mitigation: The process of selecting appropriate
➢ Internet Security: Measures to protect data during controls to reduce risk to an acceptable level.
transmission over interconnected networks. ▪ Level of Acceptable Risk: Determined by comparing
the risk of security hole exposure to the cost of
Goals of Security (CIA) implementing and enforcing security policy.
▪ Assess the cost of certain losses and avoid spending
✓ Confidentiality: Prevents unauthorized use or more to protect something than it is worth.
disclosure of information. ▪
✓ Integrity: Safeguards the accuracy and completeness Attack Sources
of information.
✓ Availability: Ensures authorized users have reliable • Active vs. Passive:
and timely access to information.
o Active: Writing data to the network, often
disguising one’s address.
Terminology o Passive: Reading data on the network,
breaching confidentiality.
Access Control: Ability to permit or deny the use of an object
by a subject. It provides three essential services: • On-Path vs. Off-Path:

❖ Identification and Authentication: Who can log in. o On-Path: Routers can read, modify, or remove
❖ Authorization: What authorized users can do. any transmitted datagram.
❖ Accountability: Identifies what a user did. o Off-Path: Hosts can send datagrams appearing
to come from other hosts but cannot receive
AAA datagrams meant for them.
• Insider vs. Outsider: Definition of perimeter/border.
Authentication
Authorization • Deliberate Attack vs. Unintentional Event:
Accountability Configuration errors and software bugs can be as
harmful as deliberate attacks.
Authentication - Validating a claimed identity of an end user
or a device (e.g., host, server, switch, router). Must differentiate Security Aims
between user, device, or application authentication.
✓ Controlling data/network access.
Authorization - Granting access rights to a user, groups of ✓ Preventing intrusions.
users, system, or program, typically done in conjunction with ✓ Responding to incidents.
authentication. ✓ Ensuring network availability.
✓ Protecting information in transit.
Non-Repudiation - A property of a cryptographic system Security Services
preventing a sender from denying later that they sent a
message or performed a certain action. ❖ Authentication
❖ Authorization
Audit - A chronological record of system activities enabling the ❖ Access Control
reconstruction and examination of a sequence of events. ❖ Data Integrity
❖ Data Confidentiality
Vulnerability - A weakness in security procedures, network ❖ Auditing/Logging
design, or implementation that can be exploited to violate a ❖ DoS Mitigation
corporate security policy, such as:
Layer 2 Attacks
✓ Software bugs
✓ Configuration mistakes ▪ ARP Spoofing
✓ Network design flaws ▪ MAC Attacks
▪ DHCP Attacks
Exploit - Taking advantage of a vulnerability. ▪ VLAN Hopping
Risk - The possibility that a vulnerability will be exploited. MAC Flooding
✓ Risk Analysis: The process of identifying security Exploits the limitation of switches – fixed CAM table
risks, determining their impact, and identifying areas size.
requiring protection. CAM (Content Addressable Memory): Stores
Threat - Any circumstance or event with the potential to cause mapping of individual MAC addresses to physical
harm to a networked system, such as: ports on the switch.

• Denial of Service (DoS): Attacks that make VLAN Hopping

resources unavailable to intended users.
• An attack on a network with multiple VLANs.
 • Two Primary Methods: ➢ Enables attackers to inject scripts into webpages
o Switch Spoofing: Attacker initiates a trunking viewed by others.
switch. ➢ Types:
o Double Tagging: Packet is tagged twice. o Persistent XSS: More devastating.
o Non-persistent XSS: More common.
o Example: BeEF (Browser Exploitation
DHCP Attacks Framework).
➢ DHCP Starvation Attack: Broadcasting numerous
DHCP requests with spoofed MAC addresses SQL Injection - A subset of unverified user input vulnerability
simultaneously. that injects malicious code into SQL queries, executed when
➢ Rogue DHCP Server Attacks. passed to the SQL server.

DNS Cache Poisoning - Caching incorrect resource records

Layer 3 Attacks from unauthorized sources, redirecting connections (web,
email, network) to a target controlled by the attacker.
• ICMP Ping Flood
• ICMP Smurf Common Types of Attacks
• Ping of Death
❖ Man-in-the-Middle Attack: Intercepts messages
intended for a valid device.
TCP Attacks ❖ Ping sweeps and port scans.
❖ Hijacking and Spoofing: Setting up a fake device to
• SYN Flood: An attacker sends SYN requests in trick others into sending messages.
succession, causing the host to retain bogus half- ❖ Sniffing: Capturing packets as they travel through the
connections, exhausting resources for new legitimate network.
connections. ❖ DoS and DDoS.

Routing Attacks
Wireless Attacks
➢ Attempt to poison routing information.
➢ Distance Vector Routing: Announces zero distance WEP: The first security mechanism for 802.11
to all nodes, causing blackhole traffic and wireless networks, vulnerable to "FMS attacks"
eavesdropping. discovered by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir.
➢ Link State Routing: Can randomly drop links or claim
direct links to other routers. Man-in-the-Middle Attacks (Wireless) - Creates a fake
➢ BGP Attacks: ASes can announce arbitrary prefixes access point for clients to authenticate, capturing traffic to see
or alter paths. usernames, passwords, etc., sent in clear text.

Cryptography - Has evolved into a complex science in the

Application Layer Attacks field of information security.

▪ Applications that don’t authenticate properly. What is Cryptography?

▪ Authentication Information in Clear: Vulnerabilities
in protocols like FTP, Telnet, and POP. Part of a field of study known as cryptology, which includes:
▪ DNS Insecurity: Includes DNS poisoning and DNS
▪ Cryptography: Study of methods for secret writing,
zone transfer.
transforming messages into unintelligible form, and
recovering messages using some secret knowledge
Common Types of Application Layer Attacks (key).
▪ Cryptanalysis: Analysis of cryptographic systems,
❖ Scripting vulnerabilities inputs, and outputs to derive confidential information.
❖ Cookie poisoning
❖ Buffer overflow
❖ Hidden field manipulation Key Concepts in Cryptography
❖ Parameter tampering
✓ Encryption: Process of transforming plaintext to
❖ Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)
ciphertext using a cryptographic key.
❖ SQL Injection
✓ Symmetric Key Cryptography: Uses a single key for
both encryption and decryption (also known as private
Server-Side Scripting key).
✓ Asymmetric Key Cryptography: Uses separate keys
• Programs executed on the server rather than the for encryption and decryption (public and private key
user's browser (e.g., ASP.NET, PHP, mod_perl, CGI, pairs).
Ruby, Python). ✓
• Benefits: Cross-platform, no plugin required. Terminology of Cryptography
• Disadvantages: Dynamic scripts create security
concerns, exploiting code flaws. • Cipher: Cryptographic technique (algorithm) applying
a secret transformation to messages.
• Plaintext/Cleartext: Original message or data.
Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) • Ciphertext: Unintelligible encrypted plaintext.
 • Decryption: Transforming ciphertext back into original By combining one’s private key and the other’s public
plaintext. key, both parties can compute the same shared secret
• Cryptographic Key: Secret knowledge used by a number.
cipher to encrypt or decrypt a message.
DH Man-in-the-Middle Attack - Diffie-Hellman is subject to a
man-in-the-middle attack. Digital signatures of the ‘public
Symmetric Key Algorithm values’ can enable each party to verify the authenticity of the
generated value.
➢ Stream Ciphers: Encrypt bits of the message one at
a time. Trusted Network
➢ Block Ciphers: Takes a block of bits and encrypts
them as a single unit. • Standard defensive-oriented technologies:

o Firewall
Digital Signatures - Sender encrypts the message with their o Intrusion Detection
own private key instead of the intended receiver’s public key. • Build trust on top of the TCP/IP infrastructure:
Message Digests - Produces a condensed representation of a o Strong authentication
message (hashing). o Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Strong Authentication
Secret Key Algorithms
• An absolute requirement involving:
• DES (Data Encryption Standard):
o Two-factor authentication (something you
o Block cipher using shared key encryption know and something you have).
(56-bit).
o Developed by IBM for the US government in • Examples: Passwords, Tokens, Tickets, Restricted
1973-1974, approved in Nov 1976. access, PINs, Biometrics, Certificates
o Block size: 64 bits.
• 3DES (Triple DES): Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

o Applies DES three times to each data block • A framework that builds the network of trust.
using a key bundle (K1, K2, K3) of 56 bits
each (excluding parity). • Combines public key cryptography and digital
o Disadvantage: Very slow. signatures to ensure:
• AES (Advanced Encryption Standard):
o Confidentiality
o Published in November 2001 as a o Integrity
replacement for DES. o Authentication
o Symmetric block cipher with a fixed block o Non-repudiation
size of 128 bits and key sizes of 128, 192, or o Access control
256 bits. • Protects applications that require a high level of
o Based on Rijndael cipher developed by Joan security.
Daemen and Vincent Rijmen.
PKI Components
Hash Functions - A hash function takes an input message of
arbitrary length and outputs a fixed-length code, called the ➢ Certificate Authority (CA): A trusted third party.
hash or message digest. ➢ Registration Authority (RA): Binds keys to users.
➢ Validation Authority (VA): Validates user identities.
Uses of Hashing Digital Certificates

o Verifying file integrity: If the hash changes, the data is ✓ Basic element of PKI; secure credential that identifies
either compromised or altered in transit. the owner (also called a public key certificate).
o Digitally signing documents. ✓ Addresses binding a public key to an entity, which is
o Hashing passwords. crucial for eCommerce.
Components of a Digital Certificate

Common Hash Functions • User’s public key.

• User’s ID.
❖ MD5: Outputs a 128-bit fingerprint of an arbitrary- • Additional information (e.g., validity period).
length input. • Examples: X.509 (standard), PGP (Pretty Good
❖ SHA-1: Outputs a 160-bit message digest, widely Privacy).
used in security applications (TLS, SSL, PGP, SSH, X.509
S/MIME, IPsec).
➢ An ITU-T standard for a public key infrastructure for
single sign-on and Privilege Management
Diffie-Hellman Infrastructure (PMI).
➢ Assumes a strict hierarchical system of Certificate
Protocol: Requires both sender and recipient to have
Authorities (CAs).
key pairs.