https://www.youtube.

com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
SEMESTER- I
Notes for All Chapters
By Prof. Sanjiv Badhe
K J Somaiya Institute of Technology, Sion
2024-25
 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Module Module Name Link of the playlist
No.

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQzUXa8lZVq
1 Quantum Physics
8Zciw0MsOdPJ1t-bpPKV6_

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQzUXa8lZVq
2 Crystallography
-p_F4PJGbz0pRv2Iqe6rol

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQzUXa8lZVq
3 Semiconductor Physics
8lfZN5836sohUpRCt2b6oB

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQzUXa8lZVq
4 Interference in Thin Films
-tbELniG9R_NHKm7OQVUk9

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQzUXa8lZVq
5 Superconductors
-tbELniG9R_NHKm7OQVUk9

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLQzUXa8lZVq
6 Supercapacitors
-tbELniG9R_NHKm7OQVUk9
https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

Module 1. QUANTUM PHYSICS

Session 1 : De Broglie Hypothesis of Mater Waves
Session 2 : Problems on De Broglie hypothesis
Origin of Quantum Physics

The concept of quantum physics was first used by Max Planck to explain the result obtained
black body radiation experiment. A black body is designed to absorb 99.9% of radiation incident
on it. This can be done with a hollow sphere with a narrow hole. Inner surface of this hollow
sphere s coated with carbon black. When radiation enters through a narrow hole, it hits the wall
of the sphere and get almost fully absorbed. Remaining radiation is reflected back. And collide
again with the wall. After number of reflections, almost all the radiation is absorbed.

Due to absorption of radiation, temperature of the body increases and it starts emitting radiation
from narrow hole. This radiation contains all wavelengths. It is called as black body radiation.

When intensity vs wavelength curve is plotted, it is found that radiation for longer wavelengths is
very low. For shorter wavelengths, intensity is more. For a particular wavelength, ,
maximum energy is radiated. This is called peak wavelength.

Even though all wavelengths are emitted, there is a maximum intensity only for a peak
wavelength. Black body appears of the colour corresponding to that wavelength.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

If we increase temperature of the black body, shifts towards left side and the colour of the
black body changes.

This shift in the peak wavelength was explained by Wien‟s displacement law as -

But taw could explain the part of the curve towards the lower wavelengths. Also, if the
temperature is close to zero, will be infinite. But when the temperature is lowered, the
radiation curve changes the behaviour which could not be explained.

Rayleigh and Jean also tried to explain this radiation curve using their Rayleigh-Jeans radiation
law ( ) based on classical statistics. As per this law, energy density is proportional
to square of the frequency i.e. inversely proportional to square of the wavelength. This law is
applicable to higher wavelengths. But fails at the lower wavelengths.

Max Planck suggested that radiated energy must be depending on the frequency of radiation. He
represented this energy and replaced the average energy kT in Rayleigh-Jeans radiation
law by calculated by him using Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

So Planck‟s radiation law is written as - ( ) ( )

This equation now, gives correct explanation for the black body radiation curve. Thus, while
explaining black body radiation, Planck introduced a revolutionary idea which says – “Energy of
radiation depends on frequency ( )” .

Einstein used idea of Planck to explain his photoelectric effect. He confirmed that light consists
of discrete units of energy known as photons carrying energy - . Thus photoelectric effect
confirmed the particle nature of light. Wave nature of light is already known due to phenomena
like interference, diffraction, polarization etc. This dual nature of light is known as wave-particle
duality.

Also, Motion of macroscopic particles can be explained by classical theory of Mechanics. But it
fails to explain the motion of microscopic particles like electron, proton etc. Quantum mechanics
was developed from Quantum theory to explain the properties associated with such particles. de
Broglie wave-particle duality hypothesis, Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty Principle and Schrodinger‟s
equation provide base on which quantum mechanics is built.

De Broglie wave-particle duality hypothesis, Heisenberg‟s Uncertainty Principle and

Schrodinger‟s equation provide base on which quantum mechanics is built.

De Broglie Hypothesis

It states that - There is a wave associated with every moving particle moving with velocity v, and
the wavelength of this wave is given by –

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

Proof of de Broglie relation

Let us consider the case of the photon. Energy of the photon, according to Plank‟s theory of
radiation is given by –
E  h  -------------------------------------------------------(1)
where h is Plank‟s constant and  is frequency of radiation.

If we consider a photon as a particle of mass m, its energy is given by Einstein Mass Energy
relation as –
E  m c 2 ----------------------------------------------------(2)
From equation (1) and (2), we get,
h   m c 2 --------------=-------------------------------------(3)

As photon travels with velocity of light „c‟ in free space, its momentum „p‟ is given by –

p  mass  velocity  m c ------------------------------------(4)

Dividing equation (3) by (4) we get –

h m c2
  c
p mc
h c
 
p 
h  c 
 λ    λ
p   

de Broglie assumed that above relation holds good for all material particles like electrons,
neutrons etc. For such particles,

where „m‟ is the mass of the particle and „v‟ is the velocity of the particle.

Justification for De Broglie Hypothesis using Bohr’s Postulates

According to Bohr‟s Postulate, the angular momentum „L‟ of an electron revolving in a

stationary orbit is quantized.

nh
 L  n 
2

We may consider the stationary electron orbits in an atom to be analogous to the circular loop of
string. The stationary electron-wave pattern can form in the orbit if an integral number of
electron wavelengths fit into the orbit as shown in following fig.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

h h
Thus circumference of the orbit 2  r  n   n as   from De Broglie hypothesis .
mv mv
h
 m vr  n
2
 L  n  where L  mvr is angular momentum

Thus Bohr‟s postulate can be obtained using De Broglie Hypothesis. So if Bohr‟s postulate is
true, De Broglie Hypothesis is also true.

De Broglie wavelength in terms of Kinetic Energy

Consider a particle moving with velocity v. Its momentum p = mv and the de Broglie wavelength
of matter wave associated with it is given by –
h h
λ                   (1)
p mv
The Kinetic energy of the particle is –
1 1 1 2
E  mv 2  m2 v2  p
2 2m 2m
 p 2  2mE
 p  2mE                     (2)

Substituting (2) in (1), we get –

h
λ 
2mE

Experimental Verification of de Broglie Experiment

(Davisson and Germer Experiment)

The first experimental evidence of de Broglie hypothesis came from the experiments performed
by Davisson and Germer. Following figure shows the experimental arrangement used by
Davisson and Germer.

The various constructional parts are shown in following fig. –

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

i) Electron gun : It consists of a tungsten filament F. Electrons are emitted by thermionic

emission. Due to the action of electric field across the gun, a fine stream
of electrons emerges out of this gun.
ii) Anode (A) : It accelerates the electrons towards the target.
iii) Target (T) : It is a single crystal of Nickel. It can be rotated about its axis, which is
parallel to the axis of electron beam. The position of the crystal can be
adjusted. A thin pencil beam of electrons is allowed to reflect from the
crystal surface in different directions.
iv) Collector (C) : Collect the reflected electrons. It is a Faraday cylinder connected to a
sensitive galvanometer G. It can be moved along the circular scale to
locate the position of maxima and minima between the angle 200 and
900. The inner and outer walls of the cylinder are insulated from each
other and a retarding potential is applied between them so that only
fastest moving electrons can enter the cylinder.
v) Outer Chamber : The whole arrangement is enclosed in an evacuated chamber.

In this experiment, the beam of electrons was made to fall normally on the surface of a crystal
and then the collector (C) was moved to various positions on the scale. The galvanometer current
for each position was noted. This current is a measure of the intensity of the diffracted beam of
electrons. Graph of this current (intensity of diffracted beam) against the angle between the
incident beam and the beam entering the collector was plotted. This procedure was repeated for
different voltages and several curves were drawn as shown in following Fig.-

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

In one set of experiment, Davisson and Germer found that when the accelerating potential is
raised to 54 volts, a maximum appears when the angle between incident and diffracted beam (=
) was 500 for the first order spectrum. This maximum confirms the existence of diffraction
phenomenon and hence the wavelike behavior of electrons. Hence, by using the de Broglie
relation, the wavelength of the wave associated with the electron can be calculated and is given
by – h  6.62  10 -34 Joules - sec, m  9.1 10 -31 Kg, e  1.6  10 -19 Coulomb, V  54 volts
h h 6.62  10 -34
λ   
p 2meV 2  9.1 10 -31 1.6  10 -19  54
 1.67  10 -10 m  1.67 A 0

The wavelength of the wave can also be calculated by using Bragg‟s relation which is
established result in optics.

From Bragg‟s diffraction law, we have

2 d sin θ  n λ
2 d sin θ
 λ 
n
where d  a sin   2.15  10 -10  sin 25 0  9.086  10 -11 is the inter - planar spacing
a  2.15  10 -10 m is the inter - atomic spacing

  90 0 -  90 0 - 25 0  65 0 is the angle between the diffracted beam
2
and atomic planes.
n  1 is the order of the spectrum
λ is the wavelength of the electron wave which is to be determined .

Substituting all these values in Bragg‟s law,

2 d sin θ 2  9.086 x 10 -11  sin 65
λ    1.65 A 0
n 1
This value matches with the wavelength calculated using de Broglie relation. This confirms the
correctness of de Broglie relation.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

Properties of Matter Waves

1. Waves associated with moving particles are called matter waves.

h h
2. Wavelength of matter wave is give by λ  
p mv
3. Wavelength of matter wave is inversely proportional to mass and velocity.
c2
4. Phase velocity of matter wave v p   c
v
5. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves and can be associated with any particle
whether charged or uncharged.
6. Matter waves can propagate in a vacuum, hence they are not mechanical wave.

Numericals based on De Broglie Hypothesis

1. An electron beam is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 200 V.

i) Calculate the associated wavelength.
ii) This beam is passed through a diffraction grating of spacing 3 A0. At what angle of
deviating from the incident direction will be the first maximum observed?

) 9 C
olt λ

ℎ
𝜆
√ 𝑚𝑒𝑉 √ 9

𝑚 𝐴

) d ord r

d θ λ

λ
∴ θ ( )
d
2. Calculate the wavelength of the wave associated with a neutron moving with energy 0.025eV. Mass of
neutron is 1.676 x 10-27 kg.

√ √

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

3. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the proton moving with a velocity equal to th of velocity of

light. Mass of proton is 1.6 x 10-27 kg.

4. Calculate velocity and de Broglie wavelength of an of energy 1 keV. Mass of

is 6.68 x 10-27 kg.

√ √

5. An enclosure filled with helium is heated to 400K. A beam of He-atoms emerges out of the enclosure.
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength corresponding to He-atoms. Mass of He-atoms = 6.7 x 10-27 kg.
ℎ

ℎ ℎ
√ √
9 9

6. Find the energy of neutron in units of electron volt whose de Broglie wavelength is 1A 0. Given – mass of
neutron = 1

( )
∴
√ ( )

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

7. A bullet of mass 40 gm and an electron both travel with the velocity of 1100 m/s. What wavelengths can
be associated with them? Why the wave nature of bullet can not be revealed using diffraction effect?

𝑖) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ℎ 𝐽𝑠 𝑚 9 𝑘𝑔 𝑒 𝐶
𝑚
𝑣 𝑠
𝜆

ℎ
𝜆
𝑚𝑣 9

𝑚 𝐴

𝑖𝑖) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 ℎ 𝐽𝑠 𝑚 𝑔𝑚 𝑘𝑔

𝑚
𝑣 𝜆
𝑠

ℎ
𝜆
𝑚𝑣
5
𝑚

As the wavelength associated with bullet is of the order of 10-35m, to reveal the
wave nature of wave associated with bullet, a diffraction grating having width
of the slit of the order of 10-35m is needed. Such diffraction grating is not
available. So the wave nature of the bullet can not be revealed.
8. Find the energy of neutron in units of electron volt whose de Broglie wavelength is 1A0. Given – mass of
neutron = 1

√
( )
( )

9. An electron accelerated through 1000 volts and is reflected from a crystal. The first order reflection
occurs when glancing angle is 700. Calculate the interplanar spacing of the crystal.
9
C olt d ,

√ √ 9

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 9 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/R3YIlcCZWxQ and https://youtu.be/TBDrutCvKN4

Using Bragg‟s law, d

∴d

10. An electrons accelerated through 100 volts are reflected from a crystal. Calculate the glancing angle at
which the first order reflection occurs. Given lattice spacing = 2.15 A 0.
G 9 d
C olt ,

√ √ 9
9
Using Bragg‟s law, d
9
∴ ( )
d
∴

11. An electron and photon each have a wavelength of 2 A 0. What are their momentum and energy?

Given:
o tro o l tro 9
l o t t
or l tro

o t

( 5 )
r = 6.038

or oto

o t

r = 9.945

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 10 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

Module 1. QUANTUM PHYSICS

Session 3 : Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Session 4 : Problems on HUP
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP)

According to the classical mechanics, the position and momentum of the moving particle can be
determined with great accuracy. However, when the particle is considered as a wave, it is not
possible to know the exact location of the particle on the wave as the wave extends throughout
the region in the space.

The de Broglie wavelength associated with a moving particle traveling with a uniform velocity
‘v’ is given by –
h
λ 
mv
This is a monochromatic wave of infinite extent. The phase velocity ‘vp’ of such monochromatic
wave is given by –
hλ h E mc 2 c2
v p  λ      --------------------(1)
h h p mv v
λ
This phase velocity is always greater than the velocity of light in vacuum. Hence it is
theoretically impossible for a monochromatic de Broglie wave-train to transport a particle or
energy.

Further the stability of the material particle demands that it should be concentrated over a small
region of space at any instant of time. Thus, mass of a particle is a localized entity whereas the
de Broglie wave with which we represent the moving particle of infinite extent.

From Einstein’s theory of velocity, it follows that the speed of light is maximum velocity that
can be attained by a particle in nature. It means that the velocity of the particle ‘v’ is always less
than the speed of light ‘c’. From equation (1) it follows that the de Broglie wave velocity must be
greater than ‘c’, which is not acceptable. Further, it follows from this result, that the wave
associated with the particle would travel faster than the particle itself, thereby leaving the particle
far behind. Hence it was concluded that a material particle would not be equivalent to a single
wave-train.

Schrodinger solved this difficulty by postulating that a material particle in motion is equivalent
to a wave packet rather than a single wave. A wave packet consists of a group of waves (each
having slightly different velocity and wavelength). The phases and amplitudes of these waves are
chosen in such a way that they undergo interference constructively over only a small region of
space where the particle can be located. Outside this region, they undergo destructive
interference so that that the amplitude reduces to zero rapidly. Such wave packet is shown in the
following fugure-

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

This wave packet moves with its own velocity ‘vg’, called as group velocity. The individual
waves forming the packet have an average velocity ‘vp’ called as a phase velocity. It can be
proved that the velocity of the material particle is same as the group velocity of wave packet.

The phase velocity is the velocity with which a particular phase of the wave propagates in the
medium.
Let the equation of the wave travelling in x-direction with vibrations in y-direction is –
y  A sin(t - kx)
where A  amplitude of vibration ,
2
k is propagatio n constant,   2 is angular frequency

 2
   and  
2 k
 2 
phase velocity, vp       ---- (1)
2 k k
wavelength of De Broglie wave associated with a particle of mass ' m' moving with
velocity ' v' is given by -
h 2 2 m v
 k  
mv  h
To find frequency ( ), let us equate energy e with relativist ic total energy mc 2
mc 2 2 m c 2
i.e. h  mc 2   and   2 
h h
2 m c 2
 h c2
 from (1), phase velocity (v p )   
k 2 m v v
h
Thus, the phase velocity of the wave under consideration is always greater than the velocity of
light. Further the stability of the material particle demands that it should be concentrated over a
small region of space at any instant of time. Thus, mass of a particle is a localized entity whereas
the single monochromatic wave with which we represent the moving particle of infinite extent.
So a single monochromatic wave cannot be associated with the moving particle.

Schrodinger postulated that a material particle in motion is equivalent to a wave packet rather
than a single wave. A wave packet consists of a group of waves (each having slightly different
velocity and wavelength). The phases and amplitudes of these waves are chosen in such a way
that they undergo interference constructively over only a small region of space where the particle

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

can be located. Outside this region, they undergo destructive interference so that that the
amplitude reduces to zero rapidly. Such wave packet is shown in the following figure-

This wave packet moves with its own velocity ‘vg’, called as group velocity. The individual
waves forming the packet have an average velocity ‘vp’ called as a phase velocity. It can be
proved that the velocity of the material particle is same as the group velocity of wave packet.
If two waves have their angular velocities differing by d and
propagatio n constants differing by dk (due to difference d in their w avelengths ),
their equations can be written as -
y1  A sin (t - kx)
and y 2  A sin [(  d ) t - (k  dk)x]
The resultant displaceme nt ' y' at time ' t' is - y  y1  y 2
 2  d 2k  dk   d dk 
y  2A sin  t- x  cos  t- x
 2 2   2 2 
As d and dk are very small compared to  and k respectively,
 d dk 
y  2A sin t - kx  cos  t- x
 2 2 
The sine term in the above equation represents a wave of angular frequency  and
propagatio n constant k.
d
The cosine term modulates this wave with angular frequency to produce
2
d
wave groups traveling with velocity vg  which is group velocity.
dk
d
 vg  dv - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(2)
dk
dv
mc 2 2 m c 2
Now, h  mc 2   and   2 
h h
m0 2 c 2 m0
As m  ,  
v2 h v2
1- 1-
c2 c2
3 / 2
d 2 m 0  v 2 
  v 1 - 2  - - - - - - - (3)
dv h  c 

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

2 2 m v 2 v m0
Also, k   
 h h v2
1- 2
c
3 / 2
dk 2 m 0
 v2 
  1 - 2  - - - - - - - (4)
dv h  c 
d
From (2), (3) and (4), vg  dv  v
dk
dv
Thus, de Broglie group velocity associated with a wave packet is equal to
the velocity of the particle

The association of group of waves (wave packet) with a moving particle means that, the position
of the particle at any instant of time cannot be specified with desired degree of accuracy. All that
we can say is, the particle is somewhere within the wave packet. The probability of finding the
particle at a point in a wave packet is directly proportional to the amplitude of the wave at that
point.

If the width of the wave packet is small as shown in fig. (a) then the particle can be located
somewhat accurately, but the determination of wavelength (And hence the momentum) becomes
a problem. If width of the wave packet is more (fig. (b)), then wavelength measurement (and
hence determination of momentum) is accurate. However, position of the particle cannot be
determined accurately.

With this discussion, Heisenberg, put forward his uncertainty principle which states that –

It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the position and momentum of the moving particle
accurately. In any simultaneous determination of position and momentum of the particle, the
product of uncertainties is equal to or greater than i.e. .

where x is the fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of position and

px is fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of momentum along X-axis.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

Experimental Verification of HUP

In order to confirm HUP, the following ideal experiments were performed.

1) Heisenberg’s Gamma Ray Microscope Experiment and
2) Single Slit Diffraction Experiment.

As we do not have any ideal instruments, these experiments are performed in thought without
violating any physics concepts. Hence, they are called as thought experiments or hypothetical
experiments.

Heisenberg’s Gamma Ray Microscope Experiment

In this experiment, we try to measure both position and momentum of electron. For this, let us
set up a high power -ray microscope as shown in the following fig.

Let ‘O’ be the electron, ‘’ be the wavelength of -rays and ‘’ be the semi-vertical angle of the
cone of rays that enter the microscope objective. As the gamma ray photons collide with
electrons, some of them bounce into the microscope and enable the observer to see the electron.
According to the classical mechanics, the observer should be able to find out the exact position
and momentum of the electron. However, there are two fundamental limitations in this
experiment –
i) The accuracy in determining the position of electron by a microscope is limited by the
laws of Optics. According to Optics, the resolving power of a microscope is given by –
λ
x 
2 sin 
where x is minimum distance between two points that can be distinguished as separate.
 is wavelength of scattered gamma ray photon.
Due to this, if position of the electron changes by x, the microscope would not be able
to detect it. To make x very small, radiation of very short wavelength such as X-rays or
Gamma rays should be used. Thus x will be an error or uncertainty in determination of
position of the electron.
λ
 x  ----------------------------------------(1)
2 sin 
ii) While determining the momentum of the electron, the interaction of electron with gamma
ray photon will result in change of momentum of electron because of its recoil.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

In order that this change is to be as small as possible, consider a single gamma ray photon
incident on an electron along the X-axis. A scattered photon of wavelength ‘’ will enter
the objective anywhere between OA and OB. The momentum of scattered photon is p. If
it enters the objective along OA, X-component of its momentum would be  p sin 
Hence, momentum imparted to the electron along X - axis  p' - p sin     (2)

If scattered photon enters the microscope along OB, then X-component of its momentum
would be  p sin 
The momentum given to the electron can therefore have any value between those given
Hence, momentum imparted to the electron along X - axis  p' - (- p sin )
 p'  p sin     (3)
by equation (2) and (3)
 p x  p'  p sin - p' - p sin 
h
 p x  2 p sin   2 sin  --------------------------------(4)
λ
From equation (1) and (4), the product of uncertainties is given by –
λ h
x . p x  . 2 sin 
2 sin  λ
h
 h 
4π
Which confirms the HUP.

Diffraction of abeam of electrons through a narrow slit

Consider a narrow slit AB of width x as shown in the figure. Let a beam of electrons fall on this
slit. After passing through the slit, the electron beam produces a diffraction pattern containing a
central maximum. The first minimum is obtained on either side of the central maximum at an
angle  given by the relation –

d sin θ  n λ where, d  Δx and n  1

 Δx sin θ  λ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

We cannot locate the exact position of the electrons in the beam when it passes through the slit.
The uncertainty in the measurement of the position of the electron n the slit is equal to the width
of the slit, which is given by –

λ
Δx                          (2)
sin θ

Let p be the momentum of the electron. The electron can be incident on the screen anywhere
between central position and the first minimum. If the electron moves in the direction EC after
diffraction, the change in momentum ‘p’ is given by

Δp  p sin θ ----------------------------------------( 3)

This p will be uncertainty in determination of the momentum. If we take product of

uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum, we get –

Δx  Δp
λ
  p sin θ
sin θ
h h
 λ  p   p  h 
p 4π

which confirms the HUP.

Why electron cannot exist in nucleus?

Approximate radius of nucleus r = 5 x 10-15 m

Therefore, uncertainty in position Δx  2 r  2 x 5 x 10 -15 m

From this equation, the uncertainty of velocity is more than c ( ). For this to happen,
velocity of an electron must be greater that c. which is not possible. So the position of electron
can't be in nucleus.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

Time-Energy Uncertainty Relation :

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (HUP) is applicable to all conjugate or complimentary pairs

of physical variables whose product has the dimension of Planck’s constant ‘h’. Some common
such pairs are Position-Linear momentum, Energy-Time, Angular momentum-Angular
displacement etc.

The Time-Energy Uncertainty Principle states that –

In any simultaneous determination of the time and energy of the particle, the product of
uncertainties is equal to or greater than Planck’s constant ‘h’.
h
i.e. E . t 
4π
where E is the fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of energy and
t is fundamental error or uncertainty in measurement of time.

It can be proved from HUP as follows –

Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ so that its K.E. is –

1
E  mv 2
2
1
 E  m 2 v v
2
 v p ( mv  p)
x x
 p (v  )
t t
h
 E . t  x . p 
4π
Problems based on HUP:
1. A position and momentum of 1 keV electron are simultaneously measured. If position is located
within 10 nm then what is the percentage uncertainty in its momentum?

√ √

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

2. An electron has a speed of 400 m/s with uncertainty of 0.01%. Find the accuracy in its position.

3. An electron has a speed of 900 m/s with an accuracy of 0.001%. Calculate the uncertainty in the
position of the electron.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 9 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/nC_OAaG7T50 and https://youtu.be/caAPH4RT_Ec

4. The speed of an electron is measured to within an uncertainty of 2 x 104 m/s.

What is the minimum space required by the electron to be confined to an atom?

5. An electron confined in a box of length 10-8 m. Calculate minimum uncertainty in its velocity.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 10 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo

Module 1. QUANTUM PHYSICS

Session 5: Schrodinger’s Time Independent and Time Dependent Equation
Session 6 : Particle trapped in an Infinite Potential Well
Session 7 : Applications of Quantum Physics

THE WAVE FUNCTION  :

Schrödinger assumed that a quantity  represents a De Broglie wave. It is called as a wave

function. This wave function mathematically describes the motion of particle. It is not possible to
locate the particle precisely at point (x,y,z). This wave function gives a probability of finding the
particle at (x,y,z) at time t. It is a function of space and time coordinates.
The wave function  introduced in Schrödinger’s wave mechanics is an abstract mathematical
quantity. It is this wave function, which takes care of the wave nature or wavelike behaviour of
particles. It may be complex in nature
(x,t) = A(x,t) + iB(x,t)
where, A is real part and B is the imaginary part.
Its complex conjugate is *(x.t) = A(x,t) - iB(x,t)
If dV = dx dy dz is an infinitesimally small volume element surrounding point (x,y,z) the
probability of finding the particle in that volume element is given by -
* = A2 – i2B2 = A2 + B2 = ||2
And the product * = A2 – i2B2 = A2 + B2 = ||2 gives the probability of finding the
particle at (x,y,z) at time (t).
If particle exists, probability of finding the particle somewhere in the space must be unity.


   * dxdydz  1


This condition is called as normalization condition. The wavefunction is normalized. It means, it

satisfies this condition.
The wave function is required to fulfill the following conditions –
1.  must be finite, continuous and single valued everywhere.
ψ ψ
2. Its derivative, or must also be finite, continuous and single valued
x t
everywhere.
3.  must have atleast some physically acceptable solutions.
4.  must obey the principle of linear superposition i.e.  can anytime be expressed as a
linear combination of two wavefunctions say
 (x,t) = A1(x,t) + B2(x,t)
However, except condition 4, a particular condition may not be satisfied for a certain application.
SCHRODINGER’S EQUATION
Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 10
https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo

It is an equation which describes the behaviour of the wave function associated with microscopic
particles.

In 1926, Schrodinger developed a rigorous mathematical theory using De Broglie’s idea of

matter waves. This theory is known as ‘Wave Mechanics’. The essential feature of this theory is
that it incorporates the expression for De Broglie wavelength into the general classical equation
derived for a moving particle is known as Schrodinger’s wave equation.

Derivation of Schrodinger’s Time Inependent Wave Equation (STIE):

According to the De Broglie theory, a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ is associated
h
with a wave of wavelength λ  . Though, we do not know, what it is that vibrates, this
mv
vibration is represented by ‘’, the periodic changes which are responsible for
h
λ  -------------------------------------------- (1)
mv
The wave equation of stationary wave associated with the particle in terms of Cartesian co-
ordinate system at any instant is given by –
ψ  ψ 0 sin ωt

ψ  ψ 0 sin 2π t
-------------------------------------------- (2)
Where o is the amplitude at the point under consideration which is a function of x, y, z and  (
is frequency of vibration).

The classical differential equation of wave motion can be written as –

2ψ 2  ψ  2ψ  2ψ 
2
 v 
 x 2   2 
t 2  y 2 z 
 ψ
2
 v2  2 ψ -------------------------------------------------- (3)
t 2

  2
 2
2 
Where  2   2    is called as Laplacian operator.
 x y 2 z 2 
In one dimensional case we can write –
 2ψ 2  ψ
2
 v -------------------------------------------------- (4)
t 2 x 2
Differentiating equation (2)
ψ
 ψ 0 2π cos 2πt -------------------------------------- (5)
t
Differentiating it further –
2ψ
 - ψ 0 4π 2 2 sin 2πt
t 2

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo

2ψ
 - 4π 2 υ 2 ψ ---------------------------------------------- (6)
t 2

velocity (v)
Also, frequency ( ) 
wavelength ( )
Equation (6) becomes) –
 2ψ 4π 2 v 2
 - ψ ---------------------------------------------- (7)
t 2 2
From equation (4) and (7) we get –
2ψ 4π 2 v 2
v2  - ψ
x 2 2
 2ψ 4π 2
  ψ  0 ---------------------------------------- (8)
x 2 2

h
Now, we will introduce wave mechanical concept by replacing  by from De Broglie
mv
theory. Thus equation (8) becomes –
 2ψ 4π 2 m 2 v 2
  ψ  0 ------------------------------------- (9)
x 2 h2
The total energy of electron E is given by the sum of its kinetic energy and potential energy.

i.e. E  K.E.  P.E.

1
 E  mv 2  V
2
 mv  2 (E - V)
2

 m 2 v 2  2 m (E - V) ------------------------------------- (10)
Substituting (10) in (9) we get –

2ψ 8π 2 m
  (E - V) ψ  0
x 2 h2
h
If   it becomes –
2π
 2ψ 2m
  (E - V) ψ  0 ---------------------------- (11)
x 2
2
This equation (11) is known as one dimensional Schrodinger’s Time Independent Equation. This
is also termed as Schrodinger’s fundamental wave equation with respect to space.

This equation is independent of time and gives a steady value. It is particularly useful when the
energy of the particle is very small as compared to its rest energy. In most atomic problems,
energy of the particle is very small when compared to rest energy.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo
Derivation Of Schrodinger’s Time Dependent Wave Equation (STDE)

Let us consider a free particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ in one dimension. Let ‘p’ be
the momentum and ‘E’ be the energy of the particle. By the term free particle, it means that no
forces are acting on it and its total energy E is entirely kinetic energy.

1 1 p2
 E  Kinetic energy  m v2  m 2 v2  ----------- (1)
2 2m 2m

This moving particle is associated with De Broglie waves which have wavelength  and
frequency . These are related as –

h h 2
p     k ----------------------------------------- (2a)
 2 
h
E  hυ  2 υ   ω ----------------------------------------- (2b)
2

2π
Where k  represents the propagation constant and  = 2 represents angular
λ
frequency of the waves.

From equation (1) and (2) we get –

2k 2
ω  ----------------------------------------- (3)
2m

Now, a wave equation is needed which will describe these traveling waves. This wave equation
will also involve equation (3) in it. Further the function should be harmonic one, because such
functions can be superimposed, thereby giving a wave packet which will represent a particle. It
means that it must be sine, cosine or exponential function of (kx – wt). Let Such function is
ψ  A e i(kx - wt) .

Now,

i

 i
 
 A e i(kx - wt)
t t

i  i  (-i  ) A e i(kx - wt)
t
ψ
i  ω ψ  E ψ ------------------------------------------------ (4)
t
and

  2  2  2
 ik 2 A e i(kx -wt)
2m x 2
2m

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo

 2  2ψ 2k 2 p2
 ψ  ψ ----------------------------- (5)
2m x 2 2m 2m
From (3), (4) and (5), we can write –

2 k2
ω ψ  ψ
2m

ψ  2 2ψ
i.e. i   ----------------------------- (6)
t 2m x 2
If we include the effect of forces acting on the particle i.e. when the particle is not free, the
potential energy of the particle is V.

Now, total energy of the particle is

p2
E   V
2m
If we represent these as operators


E  i
t
 2
p  - i , p2  - 2
x x 2
V = V

And operator on wave function , then we can write –

p2
E    V
2m
ψ - 2 2ψ
i.e. i   Vψ ----------------------------- (7)
t 2 m x 2
This equation (1.6.7) represents the Schrodinger’s Time Dependent Equation (STDE).

Physical significance of STIE and STDE is that it is used to find the allowed energy levels of
quantum mechanical systems. The associated wave function gives the probability of finding
position of the particle. As Newton’s laws predict the future behavior of a dynamic system in
classical mechanics, Schrodinger’s equations are used to predict future behavior in quantum
mechanics.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo
PARTICLE (ELECTRON) IN AN INFINITE POTENTIAL BOX

a a
The particle is free to move within the walls from  to  as there is no potential in that
2 2
region.
At boundaries, potential is . Therefore, the particle can neither cross these boundaries nor it can
a
be located at x   .
2
a a
 and its derivatives are finite, continuous and single valued within   x   but it is
2 2
discontinuous at boundaries and does not exist outside the boundaries.

Only real part solution is required as the particle must be present somewhere within the well
(box).

Schrodinger’s Time Independent Equation is –

 2 d 2 ( x)
  V(x)  ( x)  E  ( x) --------------------------------- (1)
2m dx 2
a a
for region between   x   ; V=0
2 2
 2 d 2 ( x)
   E  ( x)
2m dx 2
d 2 ( x) 2mE
 2
  ( x)  0 --------------------------------- (2)
dx 2
Real solution of the above equation is given by –
a a
 sin kxcos kx ;   x  
2 2 --------------------------------- (3)
a
 0 ; x 
2
At the boundaries, (x) = 0.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo
a ka ka
  (x  - )  - sin cos  0 --------------------------------- (4)
2 2 2
a ka ka
  (x   )  sin cos  0 --------------------------------- (5)
2 2 2
Adding two equations (4) and (5),

ka
2 B cos  0
2
n
 kn  ; n  1, 3, 5, .......... ---------------------- (6)
a
Subtracting (1.7.5) from (1.7.4),
ka
2 B sin  0
2
n
 kn  ; n  2, 4, 6, .......... ---------------------- (7)
a

Now, momentum of the particle is given by –

n n 
Pn   k    ; n  1, 2, 3, ............. ------ (8)
a a
Energy of the particle is given by –
Pn2 n2 2  2 n2 h2
En    ----------------------------------- (9)
2m 2 m a2 8 m a2
Thus, energy of the particle in infinite potential well (Box) is quantized.

1. An electron is bound in a one dimensional potential well of width 2 A0 and of infinite height. Find its
energy values in ground state and first two excited states.

( )
( )

( )
( )

( )
( )

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo
2. An electron is trapped in a one dimensional box of length 0.1 nm. Calculate the energy required to excite
the electron from its ground state to the 4 th excited state.

( )
( )

( )
( )

3. An electron is bound by a potential which closely approaches an infinite square well of width 2.5 x 10 -10
m. Calculate the first lowest permissible energy for the electron.

( )
( )

Applications of Quantum Physics

 Much of modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant.
Quantum tunnelling is vital in many electronic devices, being the basis for transistor
operation.Flash memory chips, found in USB drives, use quantum tunnelling to erase their
memory cells.
 The MRI scanner has powerful magnets, which cause the protons of hydrogen atoms in
water to align. The signal given off by the protons is processed and used to build up a
picture.
 Lasers work using the quantum phenomenon known as stimulated emission.
 Quantum dots are tiny particles of a semiconductor material, with a width of about 50 atoms.
By controlling the size of the dot, the light it emits or absorbs can be very precisely
controlled.
o Lighting Solar cells Light detectors Security marking
 light-sensing devices used in Modern digital cameras and solar cell
 One of the ultimate applications will be nanotechnology. At nano scale, the quantum effect
is dominant.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo

Quantum Computing

Quantum computing means developing a computer that uses quantum mechanical phenomena to
perform operations on data through devices such as superposition and entanglement.

Quantum superposition is a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics. It states that, much

like waves in classical physics, any two (or more) quantum states can be added together
("superposed") and the result will be another valid quantum state.

Quantum entanglement is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which the quantum states of

two or more objects have to be described with reference to each other, even though the
individual objects may be spatially separated. This leads to correlations between observable
physical properties of the systems. For example, it is possible to prepare two particles in a single
quantum state such that when one is observed to be spin-up, the other one will always be
observed to be spin-down and vice versa, this despite the fact that it is impossible to predict,
according to quantum mechanics, which set of measurements will be observed. As a result,
measurements performed on one system seem to be instantaneously influencing other systems
entangled with it.

Quantum computing uses the power of atoms and molecules to perform memory and processing
tasks.

Quantum computing uses quantum bits or qubits which can either take value 0 or 1 or both
simultaneously.

A bit of data is represented by a single atom that is in one of two states denoted by |0> and |1>.
A single bit of this form is known as a qubit
A physical implementation of a qubit could use the two energy levels of an atom. An excited
state representing |1> and a ground state representing |0>.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 9 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv Quantum Physics
https://youtu.be/P6YnCbvvvHY and https://youtu.be/EtNBK8uoFDY and
https://youtu.be/4Lvnk0FwHEo
Advantages of Quantum Computing
 The main advantage of quantum computing is it can execute any task very fast when
compared to the classical computer. So a very high speed can be achieved.
 In quantum computing qubit is the conventional superposition state and so there is an
advantage of exponential speedup which is resulted by handling number of calculations.
 The other advantage of quantum computing is even classical algorithm calculations are
also performed easily which is similar to the classical computer.
 The size of quantum computers will be very small compared to classical computers and
power consumption will also be very less.
Disadvantages of Quantum Computing:
 The main disadvantage of computing is that the technology required to implement a
quantum computer is not available at present. The reason for this is the consistent
electron is damaged as soon as it is affected by its environment and that electron is very
much essential for the functioning of quantum computers.
 The research on this problem is still going on and requires time, efforts and high cost.

Classical Computer Quantum Computer

1 It is large scale integrated multi-purpose It is high speed parallel computer based on

computer. quantum mechanics.

2 Information storage is bit based on voltage Information storage is Quantum bit based
or charge etc. on direction of an electron spin.

3 Information processing is carried out by Information processing is carried out by

logic gates e.g. NOT, AND, OR etc. Quantum logic gates.

4 Circuit behaviour is governed by classical Circuit behaviour is governed explicitly by

physics. quantum mechanics.

5 Classical computers use binary codes i.e. Quantum computers use Qubits i.e. 0, 1
bits 0 or 1 to represent information. and both of them simultaneously to run
machines faster.

6 Operations are defined by Boolean Operations are defined by linear algebra

Algebra. over Hilbert Space and can be represented
by unitary matrices with complex elements.

7 No restrictions exist on copying or Severe restrictions exist on copying and

measuring signals measuring signals

8 Circuits are easily implemented in fast, Circuits must use microscopic technologies
scalable and macroscopic technologies that are slow, fragile and not yet scalable
such as CMOS. e.g. NMR (Nuclear magnetic resonance).

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 10 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/wRgrsfZaeAg

CHAPTER -2 CRYSTALLGRAPHY
Session 1 : Unit cell, Space lattice, Crystal structure

INTRODUCTION:
The elements and their chemical compounds occur in nature in three states – the solid state, the
liquid state and the gaseous state. In solids, the constituent atoms or molecules are very tightly
packed and strongly bonded to each other. Solids constitute a very large proportion of materials
used in engineering and technology. Therefore, it is necessary to study their properties.

The solid state of matter is divided in two broad categories on the basis of their structure –
Crystalline solid and Non crystalline (Amorphous) solid. In engineering studies, we will be
dealing mainly with crystalline solids. A detail study of crystal structure and its relationship with
properties of materials is very useful in choosing appropriate materials for specific applications
and also in fabricating the materials with desired properties.
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AND AMORPHOUS SOLIDS :

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

1. In crystalline solids, the atoms are 1. The substances which possess properties
arranged in a regular manner forming a of solids, but do not have any definite
three dimensional pattern. This pattern arrangement of atoms in them are called
can be obtained by a three dimensional as amorphous solids.
repetition of a certain pattern unit. This
repetition thus represents certain
periodicity.
2. 2.

Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids

3. Crystalline solids have sharp melting 3. Amorphous solids do not have sharp
point. melting point.
4. Crystalline solids can be cleaved along 4. Amorphous solids undergo irregular
definite planes. breakage.
5. As crystalline solids may have different 5. Amorphous solids do not have
periodic arrangements in different directional properties and therefore they
directions, physical properties may vary are called isotropic.
with direction and therefore they are
called anisotropic.
6. e.g. copper, silver, aluminium, silicon 6. e.g. silicate glass, fibre glass, Teflon,
naphthelene

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/wRgrsfZaeAg

Why to Study Crystal Physics ?

At the initial stage of study of crystals, their physical properties were attributed to their external
form. This could achieve a very limited success in explaining various properties of materials.
However, with the development of quantum mechanics and advances made in the energy band
theory of solids, a better correlation of the structure of crystals could be developed with the
mechanical, thermal, electrical and magnetic properties of solids. This knowledge has resulted in
developing newer materials with varied and more remarkable and useful properties for
technological applications.
The study of crystal physics aims at interpreting the macroscopic properties of solids in terms of
the properties of the microscopic particles and their interactions in context of the crystal structure.
The science of crystal physics deals with the study of geometrical forms and other physical
properties of crystalline solids by using X-rays, electron beams, neutron beams etc.
TERMINOLOGY IN CRYSTAL PHYSICS
Various terms used in crystal physics are defined as follows –
Unit Cell :
Atoms in a crystal are arranged in a periodic way. It is possible to isolate a representative unit cell
in crystals. The smallest fundamental building unit having definite arrangement of atoms, ions or
molecules which is repeated to form a crystal is called as the unit cell. The entire crystal can be
constructed by repeated transnational repetition of unit cell in three dimensions.

Unit Cell

Two dimensional consideration Three dimensional consideration

Unit Cell

Space Lattice And Atomic Basis :

Atoms or molecules are periodically arranged in a crystal. We can look at it in two ways-
i) Physical view (In this, we consider actual atoms or molecules)
ii) Geometrical view (In this, we consider arrangement of atoms or molecules)

Thus we can write –

Crystal = [An arrangement of points] + [Atom or group of atoms associated with each point].

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/wRgrsfZaeAg

We define Space lattice as the regular ordered arrangement of points. Atomic basis is defined as
the atoms or group of atoms that is associated with each point in space lattice. Thus, we can write

Crystal = Space lattice + Atomic Basis. Basis

Space Lattice Crystal

Space lattice and Atomic Basis

We can obtain different crystals from same space lattice by associating different atomic basis with
points. If atomic basis consists of only one atom, the crystal is said to be monatomic. If the atomic
basis consists of two atoms, the crystal is called diatomic and so on.
Crystal Axes Or Lattice Axes :

A three-dimensional space lattice is characterized by three axes – X, Y and Z. These axes are
called as lattice axes or crystal axes. The transnational vectors ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ joining two nearest
points along given axis are called as basis vectors. They are independent and non-coplanar. They
are shown in the following fig. –

Z
Y

b
c

X
a, b and c are basis vectors along 3 axes

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/wRgrsfZaeAg

Lattice parameters of the unit cell :

Following figure shows a unit cell of a three-dimensional crystal lattice-
Z

  b Y

a 

X
Lattice parameters of unit cell
A lattice unit cell can be completely described by the three vectors ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ and the three angles , 
and  between them. Taking any lattice point as the origin, all other points on the lattice can be
obtained by a repeated operation of the lattice vectors ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗. The lattice vectors ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ and the
interfacial angles ,  and  constitute the lattice parameters of the unit cell. The actual form and
size of the unit cell can be determined if these lattice parameters are known.
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS AND BRAVAIS LATTICES (no question)
Space lattice of a crystal is described by means of a 3-directional co-ordinate system in which the
co-ordinate axes coincide with any three edges of the crystal intersecting at one point. Based on
the relative values of a, b, c and angles ,  and , there arise only seven different crystal systems.
Bravais showed mathematically that there are only 14 different ways of arranging lattice points in
a space lattice so that each point gets an identical surrounding. These 14 different ways are called
as Bravais lattices. Following table shows these seven basic crystal systems with their
characteristic features and bravais space lattice types occurring in each one of them.

Sr.
Crystal system Sides Angles bravais lattice Examples
No.
1. Cubic a=b=c  =  =  = 900 Simple, Po,
Body Centered, Li, Na, Cr
Face Centered. Ni, Cu, Ag
2. Tetragonal a = b  c  =  =  = 90 0
Simple,
In, Sn
Body Centered.
3. Orthorhombic a  b  c  =  =  = 90 0
Simple,
Body Centered, Ga, P, S,
Base Centered, KNO3
Face Centered.
4. Monoclinic a  b  c  =  = 90 ,   90
0 0
Simple,
Pu, CaSO4
Base Centered.
5. Triclinic a  b  c       90 0
Simple. CuSO4
6. Trigonal a = b = c  =  =   90 0
Simple. Hg, Bi
7. Hexagonal a = b  c  =  = 90 ,  = 120
0 0
Simple. Zn, Mg, Cd
Crystal Systems and Bravais lattices

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/wRgrsfZaeAg

RELATION BETWEEN MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND DENSITY:-

Let volume of unit cell = V

Let  = density of the crystal
 Mass of each unit cell  ρ  V ------------------------------(1)
Let ‘n’ be the number of atoms per unit cell
‘M’ be the molecular weight
‘NA’ be the Avagadro number
M
 Mass of each molecule 
NA
M
 Mass of each unit cell  n  ------------------------(2)
NA
From (1) and (2), we get
M
ρV  n
NA
nM
 V 
ρ  NA
nM
 ρ  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (3)
V  NA

1. Molybdenum has BCC structure. Calculate atomic radius and mass density.
Given that lattice constant a = 3.15 A0, atomic weight of Mo = 95.94 and
Avogadro’s Number = 6.023 x 1026 / kg-mole.
n= 2 (BCC structure)
M = 95.94
NA = 6.023 x 1026 / kg-mole.
a = 3.15 A0 = 3.15 x 10-10 m
For atomic radius,
3 3  3.15  10 -10
r  a   1.364  10 -10 m
4 4
For Mass density,
n M 2  95.94
ρ  
NA a3 6.023  10 26  (3.15  10 -10 ) 3
191.88
 3
 1.0193  10 4 kg / m 3
18.825  10

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/wRgrsfZaeAg

2. Aluminium has density 2.7 gm/cm3. Its atomic weight is 27 and lattice parameter is 4.05 A0.
Determine the type of crystal structure followed by Aluminium.
NA = 6.023 x 1023 / gm-mole.
1
 n M  3
a   
 NA  
a3 NA 
 n 
M


4.05  10  -8 3
 2.7  6.023  10 23
27
 4.001  4
Thus n = 4 indicates that Aluminium has FCC structure.
3. Calculate density of GaAs using following data :
Atomic weight of Ga = 69
Atomic weight of As = 74
Lattice constant for GaAs = 5.6 x 10-8 cm
Number of molecules per unit cell = 4
Avogadro’s Number = NA = 6.023 x 1023 /gm-mole
Molecular weight of GaAs = M = 69 + 74 = 143
n M
We know, a3 
 NA
n M 4  143
   
NA a3 
6.023  10 23  5.6  10 -8 3

572
  5.408 gm / cm3
105.77

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 6

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3LF3g_iIsPk

CHAPTER -2 CRYSTALLGRAPHY
Session 2 : Miller Indices of Planes and Directions
PLANES AND DIRECTIONS (MILLER INDICES) :
In discussing crystals, it is very useful to be able to refer to planes and directions within the lattice.
Planes :

The notation system generally adopted to identify a plane within the lattice uses a set of three
integers to describe the position of a plane within the lattice. The three integers describing a
particular plane are found in the following way –

1. Find the intercepts of the plane on three crystal axes (say X, Y, Z axes). Let these
intercepts be ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗. Express these intercepts as multiples of basis vectors
i.e. p, q and r.
2. Take reciprocals of three numbers .

3. Convert these reciprocals into smallest set of integers h, k, l, which will have same ratio
relationship to each other as the three reciprocals.
4. The three integers h, k and l are called as miller indices.
Miller indices are written as (h k l).
e.g.

X Y Z
Z
Intercepts 1a 2b 3c

Multiples of
basis vectors 1 2 3

Reciprocals 1 1/2 1/3

Miller Indices 6 3 2

(h k l) = (6 3 2)
x

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3LF3g_iIsPk

Important Features of Miller Indices :

a) These three integers (h k l) define a set of parallel planes in the lattice.

b) The advantage of taking the reciprocals is avoidance of infinities in the notation. If a plane
is parallel to a certain axis, then its intercept on that axis will be infinity. But the reciprocal
of infinity is zero.
c) If an intercept occurs on negative branch of an axis, a minus sign is placed above the miller
index for convenience. e.g. ( h k l ) .
d) Miller indices for parallel planes are same. Hence, to find the integral intercepts for a
plane, we can move it without changing its orientation.
e) From a crystallographic point of view, many planes in a lattice are equivalent. That is, a
plane with given Miller Indices, can be shifted about in the lattice, simply by the choice of
the position and orientation of the unit cell. The indices of such equivalent planes are
enclosed in braces { } instead of parentheses. For example, in the cubic lattice of following
figure, all the cube faces are crystallo-graphically equivalent. The unit cell can be rotated
in various directions (or by the choice of crystal axes) each of these faces can have same
set of miller indices. These six faces are designated as {100}.

Some Basic Planes in Cubic structure:

Z Z Z

Y Y Y

X X X
(010) (011) (111)

Basic Planes in Simple Cubic Crystal

To draw given planes in cubic unit cell-

To draw given planes in cubic unit cell following procedure

i) Take reciprocals of the Miller indices
ii) Mark these reciprocals as intercepts on respective axes.
iii) Draw the plane by joining the intercepts.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3LF3g_iIsPk

( 0 1 1)
X Y Z
1 Miller Index 0 1 1
Y
Reciprocal /
 1 1
Intercept

Z
( 1 2 1)
X Y Z
2 Miller Index 1 2 1
Y
Reciprocal / 1
 1
Intercept 2
X

( 2 0 1)
X Y Z
3 Miller Index 2 0 1
Y
Reciprocal / 
 1
Intercept 
X

Z
( 2 0 0)
X Y Z
4 Miller Index 2 0 0

Reciprocal /  Y
 
Intercept 
X

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3LF3g_iIsPk

( 1 2 3)
X Y Z
5 Miller Index 1 2 3

Reciprocal /   Y
1
Intercept  
X

( 1 2 3) Y

X Y Z
6 Miller Index 1 2 3
X
Reciprocal /  
1
Intercept  

( 1 3 1)
Y
X Y Z
7 Miller Index 1 3 1
X

Reciprocal / 
1 
Intercept 

( 1 1 1)
X Y Z
Y
8 Miller Index 1 1 1
X
Reciprocal /
1 1 1
Intercept

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3LF3g_iIsPk

RELATION BETWEEN INTERPLANAR SPACING AND CUBE EDGE a IN A CUBIC

CRYSTAL :

Inter-planar spacing is the perpendicular distance dhkl between the two successive parallel hkl
planes. Let dhkl be the distance between two adjacent parallel planes having Miller Indices (hkl).

Z
(hkl)
C

Interplanar Spacing
N

 Y
O  B

A
X

Let the plane ABC be one of the planes that has intercepts OA, OB and OC on X, Y and Z axes
respectively.
a
 OA  ;
h
b
OB  ;
k
c
OC 
l

Let the next plane parallel to plane ABC passes through origin. Let ON be the perpendicular
drawn on plane ABC from O. Hence ON = dhkl represents inter-planar distance. Let ,  and  be
the angles between the coordinate axes X, Y, Z and ON respectively. As we are considering the
cubic crystal, a = b = c = a. where a is length of the cube edge.

a a a
 OA  ; OB  ; OC  ----------------------(1)
h k l

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3LF3g_iIsPk

Since, ON  NA,
ON
d dh
From  ONA, wehave cos α             (2)
a
OA a
h
Similarly, From Δ ONB and from Δ ONC, we have
ON d dk
cos β                  (3)
OB a a
k
ON d dl
cos γ                  (4)
OC a a
l
Since, cos α  cos β  cos2 γ
2 2
 1, From (2), (3) and (4), we have -
d2  h2 d2  k2 d 2  l2
   1
a2 a2 a2


d2
a 2
 
h 2  k 2  l2  1

a2
 d2 
h 2  k 2  l 2 
a
 d                (5)
h 2  k 2  l2

This relation gives us interplanar spacing in term of lattice constant and miller indices.
Miller indices of directions :

A direction in a lattice is expressed as a set of three integers with the same relationship as the
components of a vector in that direction. The three vector components are expressed in multiples
of basis vectors, and then the three integers are reduced to smallest set of integers retaining the
relationship between them.
e.g. [hkl] read as direction hkl, is the direction indicated by a vector ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ from origin.

As in case of planes, many directions in a lattice are equivalent, depending only on the arbitrary
choice of orientation for the axes. Such equivalent direction indices are placed in angular brackets
< >. For example, the crystals axes in a cubic lattice [100], [010] and [001] are equivalent and are
called as <100> directions.

In cubic lattice, a direction [hkl] is perpendicular to the plane (hkl). This is convenient in analysis
of cubic unit cells. However, it is not necessarily true in non-cubic systems.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3LF3g_iIsPk

Some Important Directions :

⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗
Z
Z Z

Y Y Y

X [111] X [1 2 3] [1 2 1] X

Some directions in Cubic Unit Cell

1. Draw the following [ 0 11 ] , [ 1 2 1 ]

Z Z

[011]

1c [121]
-1b Y Y

[ 1 2 1 ] is indicated by a vector
X
1a+2b+1c i.e. 1/2a+1b+1/2c
X [ 0 1 1 ] is indicated by a vector
0a-1b+1c

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3LF3g_iIsPk

2. Draw the following [ 1 2 3 ] , ( 0 1 1 )

Z
Z

(011)
[12 3]

Y
Y

X X

[ 1 2 3 ] is indicated by a vector
For ( 0 1 1 ) plane, Intercepts on
1a-2b+3c i.e. 1/3a-2/3b+1c
X, Y, Z axes are  , -1 and 1 resp.

3. Draw the following ( 1 2 1 ) , ( 1 2 3)

Z
Z

(121)

Y Y

For ( 1 2 1 ) plane, Intercepts on X

X
X, Y, Z axes are  , 1/2 and 1 resp. For ( 1 2 3 ) plane, Intercepts on
X, Y, Z axes are , -1/2 and 1/3 resp.

4. Silver has FCC structure and its atomic radius is 1.44 A0. Find the spacing of the (220),
(200) and (111) planes.
4r 4  1.44
For FCC structure, a    4.073 A 0
2 2
a
Now, d hkl 
h  k 2  l2
2

4.073
For (220) plane, d 220   1.44 A 0
2  2  0
2 2 2

4.073
For (200) plane, d 200   2.036 A 0
2  0  0
2 2 2

4.073
For (111) plane, d 111   2.35 A 0
1 1 1
2 2 2

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3LF3g_iIsPk

5. A crystal lattice plane (326) makes an intercept of 1.5 A0 on X-axis in a crystal having
lattice constant 1.5 A0, 2 A0 and 2 A0 respectively on X, Y and Z axis. Find Y and Z
intercept.
Given : (h k l) = ( 3 2 6 )
a = 1.5 A0, b = 2 A0, c = 2 A0
a 1.5 A 0
Intercept on X - axis    0.5 A 0
h 3
b 2A 0
Intercept on Y - axis    1 A0
k 2
c 2 A0 1
Intercept on Z - axis    A0
l 6 3
0
But actual intercept on X - axis is given as 1.5 A
which is 3 times more than the actual intercept.
 intercept on Y - axis  1 A 0  3  3 A 0
1 0
intercept on Z - axis  A  3  1 A0
3

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 9 of 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3avAmNMV7JA

CHAPTER -2 CRYSTALLGRAPHY
Session 3 : Determination of crystal structure using X-ray diffraction
X-RAY DIFFRACTION :

a) Diffraction is defined as bending of light rays at an opaque object to produce geometrical

shadow region containing alternatively placed maxima and minima.
b) X-rays are electromagnetic waves like light. So, should exhibit interference and diffraction
phenomena.
c) Wavelength of X-rays is of the order of 1 A0. So, to get an observable diffraction pattern,
we need a diffraction grating in which width of the slit is of the order of 1 A0.
d) A crystal which consists of three dimensional arrays of regularly spaced atoms can be used
as a grating to study diffraction of X-rays. As the separation between the atoms is of the
order of 1 A0, we will get an observable pattern.
e) Hence when X-rays are made incident on the crystal, observable diffraction pattern is
obtained. So, crystal acts as a three dimensional diffraction grating with X-rays.

BRAGG’S LAW OF X-RAY DIFFRACTION :

W. L. Bragg and W. H. Bragg considered the planes having same miller indices (i.e. parallel
planes) which are also called as Bragg planes. They used crystal as a reflection grating.

Monochromatic X-rays of wavelength  were made to be incident on atomic planes in the crystal.
The angle between X-rays and the atomic plane is called as glancing angle (). X-rays reflected
from series of atomic planes interfere with each other to produce diffraction pattern.

Consider an X-ray PA reflected at point A on plane 1 as ray AR and ray OB reflected at an point
B as ray BS. Draw perpendicular AC and AD on OB and BS respectively.
CB = BD = d sin

P R
O
S

 A 

  d
C D

Bragg's law of X-ray diffraction

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 6

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3avAmNMV7JA

The reflected rays may interfere constructively to produce maxima or destructively to produce
minima depending the path difference between them.

Path difference between ray AR and BS is –

 = CB + BD
= d sin  + d sin 
= 2 d sin 
Condition for maximum is –
path difference  = n where n = 1,2,3,4,…… for 1st, 2nd, 3rd order maximum respectively.

i.e. 2 d sin  = n ----------(1)

This is known as Bragg’s law of X-ray diffraction.

BRAGG X-RAY SPECTROMETER :

Bragg’s apparatus to study X-ray diffraction, in which he used crystal as a reflection grating is
called Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer.
In this apparatus, monochromatic X-rays obtained from X-ray tube are allowed to pass through
narrow slits S1 and S2 to obtain a narrow beam. This narrow beam is allowed to strike a crystal
which is mounted on a circular turn-table. The crystal is rotated by means of the turn-table in order
to change the glancing angle at which X-rays are incident at atomic planes in the crystal. Reflected
X-rays are collected by the ionization chamber. A scale is provided on the circular turn-table
which can be used to measure glancing angle .

S1 S2
turn-table

X-ray ionisation
tube S3 chamber

Bragg's X-ray spectrometer I

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 6

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3avAmNMV7JA

When the intensity of X-rays increases for any value of , sudden rise in ionization current is
obtained. The graph of ionization current vs. glancing angle is plotted. The peak values of
ionization current correspond to nth order maxima.

ionisation current

for n = 1 n = 2, n = 3
glancing angle 
Ionisation current vs. glancing angle

Let us consider that, first order spectrum for three planes (100), (110) and (111) is obtained at
angle andrespectively. We select (100), (110) and (111) planes because these plane are
rich enough in terms of atoms and exist in abundance.

2 d sin θ  n λ
λ
 d 
sin θ
1 1 1
 d100 : d 110 : d111  : :
sin θ1 sin θ 2 sin θ 3

By comparing these values with known ratios for various crystal structures, we can identify the
crystal structure.
d100 : d110 : d111
1 1
SC 1 : :
2 3
1
BCC 1 : 2 :
3
1 2
FCC 1 : :
2 3

e.g. For NaCl, first order maxima for (100), (110) and (111) planes are obtained as 5.90, 8.40
and 5.20 respectively.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 6

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3avAmNMV7JA

1 1 1
 d 100 : d 110 : d 111  : :
sin θ 1 sin θ 2 sin θ 3
1 1 1
 : :
sin 5.9 sin 8.4 sin 5.2
 9.73 : 6.84 : 11.04
1 2
 1 : :
2 3

Hence NaCl follows FCC structure.

1. Bragg’s reflection of the first order was observed at 21.70 for parallel planes of a crystal
under test. If the wavelength of X-rays used is 1.54 A0, find the interplanar spacing for the
planes in the crystal.
n = 1, λ = 21.70, θ = 1.54 A0 = 1.54 x 10-10 m.

According to Bragg’s law of x-ray diffraction,

2 d sin θ  n λ
n λ 1  1.54  10 10
 d    2.083  10 10  2.083 A 0
2 sin θ 2  sin (21.70 )
2. The spacing between the principle planes in a crystal of NaCl is 2.82 A0. It is found that the
first order Bragg’s reflection occurs at 100.
a) What is the wavelength of X-rays?
b) At what angle, the second order reflection occurs?
What is the highest order of reflection seen?
d = 2.82 A0 = 2.82 x 10-10 m, n = 1, θ = 100
a) According to Bragg’s law
2 d sin θ  n λ
2 d sin θ 2  2.82  10 10  sin 10 0
     0.979  10 10  0.979 A 0
n 1
b) For n = 2
2 d sin θ  n λ
n λ 2  0.979  10 10
 sin θ    0.347
2 d 2  2.82  10 10
   sin 1 (0.347)  20.310

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 6

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3avAmNMV7JA

c) For the highest order, maximum value of sin θ = 1

2 d sin θ  n λ
2 d (sin θ) max 2  2.82  10 10  1
 nmax    5.76
 0.979  10 10
Thus, highest order that can be seen is nmax = 5
3. Calculate the smallest glancing angle at which k-copper line of 1.549 A0 will be reflected
from crystal having atomic spacing 4.255 A0.
n = 1, λ = 1.549 A0 = 1.549 x 10-10 m, d = 4.255 A0 = 4.255 x 10-10 m.
According to Bragg’s law of X-ray diffraction,
2 d sin θ  n λ
n λ 1  1.549  10 10
 sin θ    0.182
2 d 2  4.255  10 10
   sin 1 (0.182)  10.480

4. Calculate the glancing angle on the cube (100) of a rock salt (a = 2.814 A0) corresponding to
2nd order diffraction maximum for X-rays of wavelength 0.714 A0.
a = 2.814 A0 = 2.814 x 10-10 m, (hkl) = (100),
n = 2, 𝜆 = 0.714 A0 = 0.714 x 10-10 m.
interplanar spacing is given by -
a 2.814
d hkl    2.814 A 0
h 2
 k 2
 l 2
1 00
2

According to Bragg’s law of X-ray diffraction,

2 d sin θ  n λ
n λ 2  0.714  10 10
 sin θ    0.2537
2 d 2  2.814  10 10
   sin 1 (0.2537)  14.700

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 6

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
https://youtu.be/3avAmNMV7JA

5. In comparing the wavelengths of two monochromatic X-ray lines, it is found that line A
gives a 1st order Bragg reflection maximum at a glancing angle of 300 to the smooth face of
a crystal. Line B of known wavelength of 0.97 A0 gives 3rd order reflection maximum at a
glancing angle of 600 with the same face of the same crystal. Find wavelength of line A.
For line A, n = 1, θ = 300, A=?

2 d sin θ  n λ A
2 d sin θ 2 d sin30 0
 A    d
n 1

For line B, n = 3, θ = 600, d =  A,  B = 0.97 x 10-10 m

2 d sin θ  n λ B
 2   A  sin 60 0  3  0.97  10  10
3  0.97  10  10
A   1.68  10  10 m  1.68 A 0
2  sin 60 0

6. Calculate the maximum order of diffraction if X-rays of wavelength 0.819 A0 is incident on

a crystal of lattice spacing 0.282 nm
Given : 𝜆 = 0.819 A0 = 0.819 x 10-10 m. d = 0.282 nm = 0.282 x 10-9 m
nmax = ?
2 d sin θ  n λ
2 d (sin θ) max 2  0.282  10 9  1
 nmax    6.88
 0.819  10 10
Maximum number of orders seen is 6

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/CXFtbpYaBXw

CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Session 1 : Formation of Energy Bands
Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors
Direct and Indirect gap Semiconductors

Formation of Energy Bands :

In an isolated atom, the electrons are tightly bound and have discrete sharp energy levels. When
two atoms are completely isolated from each other, there is no interaction of electrons in these two
atoms and both atoms can have identical energy levels. However, as the spacing between the two
atoms becomes smaller, i.e. when two identical atoms are brought closer, the two atoms form an
interacting system. The wave functions of the electrons of different atoms begin to overlap and
energy levels corresponding to these wave functions spilt into two levels. This is in accordance
with Pauli‟s Exclusion Principle which states that “No two electrons in a given interacting system
can have same quantum state and hence same energy.” Thus there must be a spitting of discrete
energy levels of isolated atoms into new levels belonging to the pair rather than to individual
atom.

When a number of isolated atoms come close to each other, various interactions occur between
neighbouring atoms. The forces of attraction and repulsion between atoms find a balance and a
proper inter-atomic spacing for a solid is adjusted. In this process, important changes occur in the
electron energy level configurations and these changes result in varied electrical properties of
solid.

In a solid, many atoms are brought together, so that the split energy levels form essentially a
continuous band of energies.

Pushing the atoms together, the initial quantized

energy level will split into a band of discrete energy
levels.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/CXFtbpYaBXw

Formation of Enegry Bands (example)

In a solid, many atoms are brought together, so that the split energy levels form essentially a
continuous band of energies. In the following figure, the imaginary formation of a diamond crystal
from N number of Carbon atoms is shown.

Each isolated carbon atom has an electronic structure 1s2 2s2 2p2. Thus each atom has two 1s
states, two 2s states, six 2p states and the higher states. Hence for N atoms, there will be 2N, 2N
and 6N available states of type 1s, 2s, and 2p respectively. As the inter-atomic spacing decreases,
these energy levels split into bands, beginning with the outer (n=2) shell. As the 2s and 2p bands
grow, they merge into a single band composed of mixture of energy levels. There are 8N available
states in this 2s-2p band. As the inter-atomic distance approaches the equilibrium inter-atomic
spacing, this band splits into bands separated by an energy gap Eg. The upper band (called as
conduction band) contains 4N states and the lower band (called as valence band) also contains 4N
states.

The lower 1s band is filled with original 2N electrons,

which were already there in 1s energy levels. The
remaining 4N electrons from 2s and 2p, now occupy states
in the valence band or conduction band. At 00 K, the
electrons occupy the lowest energy states available to them.
Hence, for diamond, valence band is completely filled and
conduction band is completely empty at 00 K.

Thus energy bands for Diamond can be drawn as shown

here –

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/CXFtbpYaBXw

Conduction band, Valance band and Energy Gap :

Conduction band is defined as the lowest empty band in the energy band diagram.

Valence band is defined as uppermost filled band in the energy band diagram.

Forbidden gap or Energy gap is defined as difference between top of the valence band and bottom
of the conduction band.

If energy of top of the valence band is Ev and energy of bottom of the conduction band is Ec then
the energy gap (Eg) is given by Eg = Ec – Ev.

3.1.2 Classification of Solids on the basis of band theory :

There are many energy bands in the solid. As far as the electrical conductivity of the solid is
concerned, only the valence band and conduction band are important. Completely filled band and
completely empty band do not contribute to the conduction. The electrons in the inner shell do not
take part in the conduction.
Electrons in the conduction band are free and can move freely under the influence of electric field.
The electrons in the valence band are attached to the lattice and are not free to move. If they
acquire sufficient energy to cross the forbidden gap Eg, they can occupy the conduction band states
and are available for conduction. Hence, Eg is the parameter which decides whether the material
acts as conductor, insulator or semiconductor.
On the basis of band theory, solids are classified into three categories – insulator, semiconductor
and conductor.

Semiconductors

Semiconductor is a material, which has conductivity level somewhere between the extremes of an
insulators and a conductor. In terms of energy bands, semiconductors are defined as those
materials, which have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a
narrow energy gap of the order of 1 eV between them.
Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 7
https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/CXFtbpYaBXw

Why silicon is preferred over germanium?

Silicon and Germanium are two most widely used semiconductors. Silicon is preferred over
Germanium because of its superior thermal properties. The maximum operational temperature for
Germanium devices is 80 0C while Silicon devices may be used at up to 160 0C. Also, at room
temperature, silicon crystal has almost no free electrons compared with Germanium crystal.

Covalent Bonds in Semiconductors :

Semiconductors like Germanium and Silicon have crystalline structure (i.e. definite geometrical
arrangement is followed by atoms). An isolated silicon atom has four electrons in its valence orbit.
Hence to produce eight electrons in the valence orbit to get stability, a silicon atom combines with
four neighboring silicon atoms as shown below –

The forces that hold the atoms together are known as covalent bonds. The neighboring atoms form
covalent bonds by sharing four electrons with each other.

Intrinsic Semiconductor :

Intrinsic semiconductor is one that is made of semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.
Pure Silicon and pure Germanium are examples of intrinsic semiconductors.

At absolute zero temperature, the electrons in the outer shell of intrinsic semiconductor are tightly
bound with the covalent bonds. Hence, there are no free electrons and it behaves as insulator.
However, at room temperature, some valence electrons absorb enough energy to enable them to
break free from their covalent bonds. When this occurs, the liberated electrons are free to move
about in the crystal. When battery is connected to this crystal, free electrons are attracted to the
positive terminal of the battery and constitute electric current. Greater the temperature, greater is
the current. Free electron means that its motion is quite sensitive to applied electric field.

Generation of free electrons can also be explained on the basis of band theory. The energy band
diagram of intrinsic semiconductor is as shown in following fig. –

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/CXFtbpYaBXw

In intrinsic semiconductor, at 0 0K, the valence band is completely filled and conduction band is
completely empty. These bands are separated by energy gap Eg. In valence band, electrons are
present but vacant energy states are not there so that they can move freely. In conduction band,
vacant energy states are present but electrons are not there to move through these states freely.
However, as the temperature increases, some of the valence band electrons get enough energy to
overcome the energy gap and jump to the conductions band. Now, we have some vacant energy
states in the valence band, which are called, as „holes‟ and number of electrons, which can move
freely through holes when electric field is applied. Also, in conduction band, we have some
electrons, which can move, freely through already available vacant states when electric field is
applied.

Thus, in intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are generated in pairs. At any temperature,
the number of holes valence band and the number of electrons in conduction band are same. As
the temperature increases, the number of electron hole pairs increase. Hence the conductivity of
the intrinsic semiconductor is directly proportional to the temperature.

Recombination :

Occasionally, it happens that the electron in the conduction band looses its energy and falls back
in the valence band. The lost energy is given out in the form of radiation (heat or light). This
merging of a free electron and a hole is called as „recombination‟.

Recombination occurs continuously in a semiconductor. Incoming heat energy keeps producing

electron hole pairs by lifting valence electrons to the conduction band. The time for which the
electron remains in the conduction band is called as the lifetime. Lifetime varies from a few
nanoseconds to several microseconds. After the lifetime of excited electron gets over, it falls back
into the valence band. This concept is used in the production of LEDs and semiconductor lasers.

Doped or Extrinsic Semiconductor :

Doping means adding impurity atoms to the crystal to increase either the number of free electrons
or the number of holes. When the crystal is doped, it is called as an extrinsic semiconductor. There
are two types of extrinsic semiconductors depending on the type of impurity (doping material).
n-type semiconductor :
In n-type semiconductor, a pentavalent impurity such as Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As),
Phosphorous (P) is added to pure semiconductor to get extra conduction band electrons. The
pentavalent atom (Sb) has five electrons in its valence orbit, out of which four electrons form
covalent bonds with four neighbouring semiconductor (Si) atoms and fifth electron remains
loosely bound as shown below-

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/CXFtbpYaBXw

This loosely bound electron can be excited to conduction band easily and can be made free. As
pentavalent atoms donate one electron to the conduction band of pure silicon, they are called as
donor atoms.

From the energy band structure viewpoint, the donor atoms introduce filled states called „donor
levels‟ just below the conduction band. The donor levels have energy approximately 0.1 eV below
the lowest level in the conduction band. Hence, donor electrons in donor levels can be easily
excited to the conduction band. Once they come in conduction band, they can move freely when
electric field is applied. This number of donated electrons in conduction band is much more as
compared to the number of electron hole pairs. Hence, in n-type semiconductor, the electrons are
majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.

p-type of semiconductor :

In p-type semiconductor, a trivalent impurity such as Boron (B), Aluminum (Al) is added to pure
semiconductor to get extra vacant states (holes) in the valence band. The trivalent atom (Al) has
three electrons in its valence orbit. All these three electrons form covalent bond wih four
surrounding semiconductor atoms (Si). But one bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a hole as
shown below –

Valence band electrons can move freely through the holes when electric field is applied. Trivalent
atoms accept one electron from a Silicon atom and in a process causes the semiconductor atom to
have a hole. Hence, they are known as acceptor atoms.

From the energy band structure viewpoint, the acceptor atoms introduce available energy states
called acceptor levels just above the valence band. The electrons from valence band can easily
jump to these acceptor levels leaving hole in the valence band. In p-type semiconductor, the
Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 7
https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/CXFtbpYaBXw

number of holes in valence band is much more than the number conduction band electrons. Hence,
the current is mainly due to holes. Thus, in p-type semiconductor, holes are majority carriers and
electrons are minority carriers.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT BAND GAP:

p2 2k 2
The energy of electron is given by E   where p is momentum,  is Planck constant
2m 2m
and k is propagation constant. Thus E  k 2 which is an equation of parabola.

The graph of E vs k is parabola as shown below-

The upper parabola in the conduction band represents free electrons and lower parabola in the
valence band represents holes.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Session 2 : Fermi level and Fermi function
Fermi level in semiconductor
Effect of temperature on the Fermi level
Effect of doping concentration on the Fermi level

FERMI LEVEL:

A solid is formed by bringing a large number of atoms together. Each atomic level splits into a
large number of closely packed levels and energy bands are formed. In metal, there is one partially
filled band which is s result of conduction band overlapping with valence band. Electrons try to
acquire lowest possible energies. Hence, in this partially filled band, the lowest energy levels are
filled first.

In case of metals, only electrons are the current

carriers. The highest occupied energy level at
absolute zero temperature i.e. 00K is called the
Fermi level and the energy corresponding to it
is called the Fermi energy and is denoted by EF
. At 00K, all energy states below EF are
occupied and all energy states above EF are
empty. At higher temperatures, the thermal
energy can excite the electrons to higher energy
states and there may be some empty states
below EF.
Thus, for conductors, the highest filled energy
level in the highest energy band at 00K is the
Fermi level.

Fermi level is a measure of energy of least

tightly held electrons within a solid. It is much
important in determining thermal and electrical conduction properties of solids. Fermi level can be
changed by changing the temperature of a solid or by adding impurity.

When material with different individual Fermi levels are placed in contact, some electrons flow
from material with higher Fermi level into the other material. This transfer f electrons raises the
lower Fermi level and lowers the higher Fermi level. When the transfer is complete, Fermi levels
of both the materials are equal. This is very important in understanding the electrical properties of
electronic devices obtained by joining different materials.

Fermi energy can be used to calculate velocity of electrons during conduction. During the
conduction, only the electrons that have energy close to that of Fermi energy participate in
process.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

Fermi Dirac Distribution Function

The distribution of electrons over a range of allowed energy levels at thermal equilibrium in
conductors (metals) is given by Fermi-Dirac statistics. According to Fermi-Dirac distribution
law, the probability that an energy state of energy E is occupied at T 0K is given by –
1
f (E)   E-E 
 F
 
1 e  kT 

where, k is Boltzmann constant  8.62  10 -5 eV/ 0 K

E F is Fermi Energy
f (E) is Distributi on function known as Fermi function
This function plotted for different temperatures is shown below –

We can see from these curves –

This indicates all energy levels below are

completely filled at absolute zero temperature

This indicates all energy levels above are

completely empty at absolute zero temperature

Fermi-Dirac Distribution function can not give us

probability of occupancy of Fermi level at 0 K.

At , probability of occupancy for Fermi

level is always half

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

1. Calculate probability of non-occupancy for the energy level which lies 0.01 eV above
the Fermi energy level at 27 0C.
Given : T = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K EF = 5.5 eV
1
Probabilit y of occupancy = f (E C )  E  EF

1 e kT

1
Probabilit y of non - occupancy = 1  f (E C )  1  E  EF

1 e kT

1
 1  0.01
 1  0.406
-5
1  e 8.62  10 300
 0.594
2. Fermi level for silver is 5.5 eV. Find out the energy for which the probability of
occupancy at 300 K is 0.9.
Given : T = 27 0C = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K
EF = 5.5 eV, f(E) = 0.9
1
Probabilit y of occupancy = f(E)  E  EF

1 e kT
E  EF
1
1 e kT
=
f(E)
E  EF
1
e kT
= 1
f(E)
E  EF  1 
 ln   1
kT  f(E) 
 1 
E  E F  kT ln   1
 f(E) 
 1   1 
E  E F  kT ln   1  5.5 8.625  10 -5  300  ln   1  5.443 eV
 f(E)   0.9 
4. Fermi level in potassium is 2.1 eV. What are the energies for which the probability of
occupancy at 300 K are 0.99 and 0.01.
Given : T = 27 0C = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K
EF = 5.5 eV, f(E) = 0.9
1
Probabilit y of occupancy = f(E)  E  EF

1 e kT

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

E  EF
1
1 e kT
=
f(E)
E  EF
1
e kT
= 1
f(E)
E  EF  1 
 ln   1
kT  f(E) 
 1 
E  E F  kT ln   1
 f(E) 
 1 
E  E F  kT ln   1
 f(E) 
For f(E)  0.99
 1 
 2.1 8.625  10 -5  300  ln   1  1.981 eV
 0.99 
For f(E)  0.01
 1 
 2.1 8.625  10 -5  300  ln   1  2.218eV
 0.01 

Fermi level in semiconductor :

In semiconductors, we have two types of current carriers – electrons and holes. In semiconductors,
the Fermi level is defined as the reference level that gives the probability of occupancy of states in
conduction band as well as unoccupied states in valence band. Fermi level in semiconductors may
also be defined as energy level that corresponds to the centre of gravity of conduction band
electrons and valence band holes weighted according to their energies.

Fermi level in Intrinsic semiconductors :

In intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies at the centre of the forbidden band indicating that
the states occupied in conduction band is equal to the states unoccupied in the valence band. It
shows that electron concentration in the conduction band is equal to the hole concentration in
valence band.

Conduction Band
Ec
Energy

Eg
EF

Ev
Valence Band

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

Fermi level in Extrinsic semiconductor :

The position of Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor depends both on doping and on the
temperature. If the intrinsic semiconductor is doped, the Fermi level shifts towards the energy
band that has higher concentration of charge carriers.

Conduction Band Conduction Band

Ec Ec
EF
Energy

Energy
ED

Eg Eg
ED
EF
Ev Ev
Valence Band Valence Band

Fermi level in n-type Fermi level in p-type

semiconductor semiconductor

n-type semiconductor :
In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of free electrons in the conduction band is much higher
than that of holes in the valence band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the conduction band.
At 00K, the Fermi energy level EF lies between the conduction band energy EC and donor energy
level ED. This is shown in the figure.

p-type semiconductor :
In p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes in the valence band is much higher than that
of electrons in the conduction band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the valence band. At
00K, the Fermi energy level EF lies between the valence band energy EV and acceptor energy level
EA. This is shown in the figure.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

EFFECT OF INCREASING TEMPERATURE ON FERMI LEVEL :

In intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies at the centre of the forbidden band indicating that
the states occupied in conduction band is equal to the states unoccupied in the valence band. It
shows that electron concentration in the conduction band is equal to the hole concentration in
valence band. With increasing temperature also, electron concentration in the conduction band is
equal to the hole concentration in valence band. So, the Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor
remains at the centre of the forbidden gap.

In n-type semiconductor :

In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of

free electrons in the conduction band is much
higher than that of holes in the valence band.
Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the
conduction band. At 00K, the Fermi energy
level EF lies between the conduction band
energy EC and donor energy level ED. With the
increase in temperature, more holes are
created in the valence band and the ratio of
concentration electrons and holes changes and
the position of Fermi level also change. With
increasing temperature, the Fermi level shifts
below the donor level but is always well above
the centre of forbidden gap.

p-type semiconductor :

In p-type semiconductor, the concentration of

holes in the valence band is much higher than
that of electrons in the conduction band. Hence,
Fermi level is shifted towards the valence band.
At 00K, the Fermi energy level EF lies between
the valence band energy EV and acceptor energy
level EA. With the increase in temperature,
more electrons are created in the conduction
band and the ratio of concentration of electrons
and holes changes and the position of Fermi
level also change. With increasing temperature,
the Fermi level shifts above the donor level but
is always well below the centre of forbidden
gap.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

EFFECT OF DOPING CONCENTRATION ON FERMI LEVEL :

n-type semiconductor:
Conduction Band Conduction Band Conduction Band
EF
EF
ED Donor Levels
Ei

Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band

Low doping Medium doping high doping

variation of Fermi level in n-type semiconductor with
increasing doping concentration

In n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is much higher
than that of holes in the valence band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the conduction band.
At 00K, the Fermi energy level EF lies between the conduction band energy EC and donor energy
level ED. This is shown in the figure. With the increase in doping concentration, more donor levels
are available which result in broadening of the donor levels. Due to more donor levels near
conduction band, more electrons get transferred from these donor levels to conduction band,
resulting in increase in electron concentration in the conduction band. As the electron
concentration in conduction band increases, Fermi level shifts towards conduction band. With
very high doping concentration of donor atoms, the Fermi level may enter the conduction band.
Presence of Fermi level inside the conduction band indicates very high level of doping.

p-type semiconductor:
Conduction Band Conduction Band Conduction Band

Donor Levels
Ei

EA
EF
EF
Valence Band Valence Band Valence Band

Low doping Medium doping high doping

variation of Fermi level in p-type semiconductor with
increasing doping concentration

In p-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes in the valence band is much higher than that
of electrons in the conduction band. Hence, Fermi level is shifted towards the valence band. At
00K, the Fermi energy level EF lies between the valence band energy EV and acceptor energy level
EA. This is shown in the figure. With the increase in doping concentration, more acceptor levels
Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 10
https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

are available which result in broadening of the acceptor levels. Due to more acceptor levels near
valence band, more electrons from valence band get transferred to these acceptor levels resulting
in increase in hole concentration in the valence band. As the hole concentration in valence band
increases, Fermi level shifts towards valence band. With very high doping concentration of
acceptor atoms, the Fermi level may enter the valence band. Presence of Fermi level inside the
valence band indicates very high level of doping.
CARRIER CONCENTRATION :
The Fermi distribution function can be used to calculate the concentration of holes and electrons in
the semiconductor, if the density of available states in the valence and conduction bands is known.
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is given by –

n   f (E) . N(E) dE ----------------------(1)
E
c
The number of electrons per unit volume in the energy range dE is the product of the density of
states and the probability of occupancy f(E). Thus total electron concentration is integral over the
entire conduction band. Solving equation (1) we get the electron concentration in the conduction
band as –
 (E  E ) / kT
n  NC e C F ----------------------(2)
3
 2 π m *n k T  2
where, N C  2  2

 , m*n is the effective mass of the electron.
 h 
Similarly, hole concentration in the valence band is given by –
 (E  E ) / kT
p  NV e F V ----------------------(3)
3
 2 π m *p k T  2
where, N V  2  , m*p is the effective mass of the hole.
 h 2 
 
At thermal equilibrium, electron and hole concentrations given by equations (2) and (3) are valid
for intrinsic as well as extrinsic semiconductor.

For intrinsic semiconductor, n = ni and p = pi and EF = Ei . Therefore,

 (E  E ) / kT  (E  E ) / kT  (E  E ) / kT
n i . pi  NC e C i . NV e i V  NC NV e C V

 E / kT
 n i . pi  NC NV e g

For intrinsic semiconductor, ni = pi = ni

 E / kT
 n i2  NC NV e g
----------------------(4)
The product of electron concentration (n) and hole concentration (p) is given by –
 (E  E ) / kT  (E  E ) / kT  (E  E ) / kT
n . p  NC e C F . NV e F V  NC NV e C V

 n . p  n i2 ----------------------(5)
This is important relation which will be used in further discussion.
Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 10
https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR LIES IN THE MIDDLE OF THE

FORBIDDEN GAP :

Let at any temperature T > 0 0K

nc = electron concentration in conduction band.

nv = hole concentration valence band.
N = total number of electrons

The total number of electrons in conduction band is –

n c  NC e  (EC  EF ) / kT ----------------------(1)
where NC is the effective density of states in the conduction band.

The total number of holes in valence band is –

n v  N V e  (EF  EV ) / kT ----------------------(2)
where NV is the effective density of states in the valence band.
Effective density of states in conduction band and valence band are same
i.e. NC = NV . -----------------(3)
For intrinsic semiconductor, enectron concentration in conduction band and hole concentration in
valence band are same
 nc  nv
N C e  (EC  E F ) / kT  N V e  (EF  E V ) / kT
e  (EC  E F ) / kT NV

e  (EF  E V ) / kT NC
NV
e  (EC  E F  E F  E V ) / kT 
NC
From (3) N C  NV
This gives -
 (E C  E V  2E F )

e kT
 1  e0
 (E C  E V  2E F )
  0
kT
 EC  EV  2 EF

EC  EV
 EF  ------------------------------(4)
2

Therefore, Fermi level in the intrinsic semiconductor lies exactly in the middle of the forbidden
gap.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 9 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/6ShYjai83bA

1. What is the probability of an electron being thermally excited to conduction band in

intrinsic Si at 27 0C. The band gap energy of Si is 1.12 eV.
Soln: Given : T = 27 0C = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K Eg = 1.12 eV
For intrinsic semiconductor,
E  EV
EF  C
2
Eg 1.12
 EC  EF  EF  EV    0.56 eV
2 2
Probabilit y of finding electron in conduction band -
1 1
f (E C )  E E
 0.56
 3.93  10 10
C F
-5
1 e 1  e 8.62  10 300
kT

6. What is the probability of an electron being thermally promoted to conduction band

in diamond at 270C if bandgap is 5.6 eV wide.

Given : T = 27 0C = 300 0K, k = 8.62 x 10 – 5 eV / 0K

Eg = 5.6 eV
For diamond,
EC  EV
EF 
2
Eg 5.6
 EC  EF  EF  EV    2.8 eV
2 2
Probabilit y of electron being promoted to conduction band -
1 1
f (E C )  E E
 2.8
 9.476  10 48
C F
1  e kT 1  e 8.62  10 300
-5

5. In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies 0.4 eV below the conduction band. If
the concentration of donor atoms is doubled, find the new position of the Fermi level
w.r.t. conduction band.
-

( )
( )

( )
( )
( ) ( )

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 10 of 10

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/67QXoPW0eE0

CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Session 3 : Conductivity, current density and mobility

CONDUCTIVITY AND MOBILITY :

The charge carriers in a solid are in constant random motion, even at thermal equilibrium. At room
temperature, the thermal motion of an individual electron may be visualized as random scattering
from lattice atoms, impurities and other electrons as shown in fig.

Thermal motion of
electron in a solid

As this is a random motion of electrons, net current due to such randomly moving electrons is
zero. However, under the influence of electric field (E), each electron experiences a force
F = – eE. This force is insufficient to change the random motion of electrons but, effect of this
force when averaged over all electrons, results in a net motion of group of electrons in the
direction opposite to the direction of electric field. The net motion of electrons in a particular
direction under the influence of electric field is called drift motion. The current resulting due to
this drift motion is called as drift current.

Drift current density, (J) is defined as the drift current per unit area of cross section of the
conductor.
I
J  -----------------(1)
A
Electric field (E) is the potential drop per unit length of the conductor.

dV V
E    -----------------(2)
dx L

Resistivity () is the resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit cross sectional area.

A
ρ  R -----------------(3)
L

Conductivity () is the reciprocal of resistivity.

1 L
σ   -----------------(4)
ρ RA
From equation (4) and (2)
L V V I
σ E     J
RA L R A A

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/67QXoPW0eE0

 J  σ E -----------------(5)
This is the relation between current density and conductivity.

Drift velocity (v) is defined as net displacement in electron position per unit time under the
influence of electric field.

Mobility () of electrons is defined as average drift velocity acquired by the electrons per unit
electric field.
v
μ  -----------------(6)
E

m2
SI Unit of mobility is .
V - sec
To get the relation between conductivity and mobility :

If v is drift velocity of electrons, length traversed by the electrons in unit time = v

Therefore, volume swept by electrons in unit time = v A

If ‘n’ is number of electrons per unit volume, electrons in volume vA = nvA

If e is charge on electron, charge flowing per unit time = current I = nevA

I
 Current density, J   nev -----------------(7)
A

From equation (5) and (6)

J nev
Therefore, conductivity, σ    n eμ -----------------(8)
E E

Conductivity of Semiconductors :

In semiconductors, the conduction takes place due to electrons in conduction band and holes in
valence band. Hence, the conductivity of semiconductor is equal to the sum of the conductivity
due to electrons and holes.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/67QXoPW0eE0

 Conductivi ty of a semiconductor is -
σ  σn  σp
σ  n  e μn  p  e μp
where, n is electron density (number of electrons per unit volum e)
p is hole density (number of holes per unit volum e)
e is charge on electron
μ n is electron mobility
μ p is hole mobility
Conductivity of Intrinsic semiconductor :

For intrinsic semiconductor, the free electron density (concentration) is equal to free hole density
i.e. n = p = ni = intrinsic carrier concentration.
 Conductivi ty of intrinsic semiconductor is -
σ  ni  e  μn  ni  e  μp
σ  n i  e (μ n  μ p )

Conductivity of Extrinsic semiconductor :

For n- type semiconductor, n >> p. Hence, neglecting the hole concentration, the conductivity of
n-type semiconductor can be written as –
σ  n  e  μn  Nd  e  μn
where, N d is concentration of donor atoms
For p- type semiconductor, p >> n. Hence, neglecting the electron concentration, the conductivity
of p-type semiconductor can be written as –
σ  p  e  μ p  Na  e  μ p
where, N a is concentration of acceptor atoms

Why mobility of holes is less than that of electrons?

Electrons in the conduction band can move more freely as in conduction band large number of
empty states is available. So, mobility of electrons in conduction band is more.

Holes are empty states in the valence band. Holes move in a valence band. Moving holes is
nothing but electrons moving through these empty states. Valence band has large number filled
states i.e. large number of electrons. Empty states i.e. holes are comparatively less. Thus, in
valence band, large number of electrons moves through less number of empty states. So, they
cannot move as freely as electrons. And therefore, mobility of holes in valence band is less.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/67QXoPW0eE0

1 Find resistivity of Ge at 300 0K. Given density of carriers is 2.5 x 1019 / m3. Mobility of
electrons is 0.39 m2/V-sec, mobility of holes = 0.19 m2/V-sec.

Given : ni = 2.5 x 1019 / m3,

n = 0.39 m2/V-sec, p = 0.19 m2/V-sec
For intrinsic semiconductor, conductivity is given by –

= 2.5 x 1019 x 1.6 x 10-19 (0.39 + 0.19)

= 2.32 (ohm-m)-1
1 1
Resistivit y  ρ    0.43 ohm - m.
σ 2.32

2. The resistivity of intrinsic InSb at room temperature is 2 x 10-4 ohm-cm. If the

mobility of electron is 6 m2/V-sec and mobility of hole is 0.2 m2/V-sec, calculate its
intrinsic carrier density.
-4 -6
Resistivity

For intrinsic semiconductor, conductivity is given by –

3. Find resistivity of Copper assuming that each atom contributes one free electron for
conduction. Given density of Cu = 8.96 gm / cm3, atomic weight = 63.5,
Avogadro’s Number = 6.023 x 1023 / gm-mole, Mobility of electron = 43.3 cm2/V-sec.

Number of atoms per unit volume is given by –

6.023  10 23  8.96
Atomic density 
63.5
 8.4985  10 22 /cm3
electron concentration is given by-
n  1  atomic density  8.4985  10 22 /cm3
Resistivity is given by –
1 1 1
ρ   
σ n e μn 8.4985  10  1.6  10  19  43.3
22

 1.698  10  6  - cm

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/67QXoPW0eE0

4. Calculate conductivity of a germanium sample if donor impurity atoms are added to

the extent of one part in 106 germanium atoms at room temperature. Assume that
only one electron of each atom takes part in conduction process.
Given : Avogadro’s number = 6.023 x 1023 atoms / gm-mole
Atomic weight of Ge =72.6, mobility of electrons = 3800 cm2/volt-sec
Density of Ge = 5.32 gm / cm3
72.6 gm Ge contains 6.023  10 23 atoms
6.023  10 23
 3
5.32 gm i.e. 1 cm will have  5.32  4.41  10 22 atoms
72.6
4.41  10 22
As donor impurity is 1 part in 10 , donor concentration, n 
6

10 6
 4.41  1016 / cm3
Now, conductivity,   n e  e  4.41  1016  1.6  10 19  3800  26.8  cm

5. Calculate the number of donor atoms which must be added to an intrinsic

semiconductor to obtain the resistivity as 10-6 ohm-cm. Use mobility of electron = 1000
cm2/V-sec.

6. Silicon sample is doped with 1017 As atoms/cm3. Intrinsic concentration for Silicon at
room temperature is 1.5 x 1010 /cm3. What is the equilibrium hole concentration at
room temperature? Show the position of Fermi level.
Given : n = Nd = 1017 /cm3
ni = 1.5 x 1010 /cm3
For a semiconductor,
n . p  n i2
Therefore, hole concentration is given by
n2
p  i 

1.5  1010 2
 2.25  10 3 /cm3
n 1017
 (E  E ) / kT
n  NC e C F
We know,

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/67QXoPW0eE0

(E  E ) / kT
n  ni e F i

(E  E )
F i
n
  e kT
ni
n  1017 
 (E F  E i )  kT ln ( )  8.62  10 5  300 ln  
10 
ni  1.5  10 
 0.407 eV

Ec
EF
0.407 eV
Ei
1.1 eV

Ev

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/5iEsqeMOZAc

CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Session 4 : Hall Effect

HALL EFFECT :

If a metal or semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field B, an

electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both the direction of current and
magnetic field. This phenomenon is called as Hall Effect. The electric field produced is called as
Hall field.

Consider a rectangular plate of n-type semiconductor. Let I be the current flowing through this
plate in X-direction. This plate is kept in the magnetic field B acting along Z-direction. This
induces electric field E along negative Y direction. The reason behind this electric field is the
magnetic force acts on the electrons in vertically downwards direction. This makes lower surface
of the plate at negative potential with respect to the upper surface and the potential difference VH
is produced across the plate as shown in Fig.

EH
d +
X
VH
B
w I Hall Effect
-

The current through the semiconductor is given by –

I  neAv -----------------(1)
where n is concentration of electrons,
A is area of cross section of the plate,
e is charge on the electron,
v is average drift velocity of electrons.

At equilibrium,
electric force on electrons = magnetic force on electrons
e EH = e v B -----------------(2)
VH
where E H  is the Hall field, VH is called as the Hall voltage.
d
Thus,

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 3

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/5iEsqeMOZAc

VH  E H d
 vB d from (2)
Bn e vd
 multiply and divide by ne
ne
B I d
 from equation (1)
neA
BId w BIA
  multiply and divide by w
neAw neAw

BI BI
 VH   RH -----------------(3)
new w
where,
1 V w V dw V 1 A E
RH   H  H  H  H is called as Hall coefficient. ---(4)
ne BI d BI d B I BJ

Hall coefficient is defined as the Hall field per unit magnetic induction per unit current density.

Importance of Hall Effect is that it helps –

(i) To determine carrier concentration. From equation (3) if VH, B, I, w are known ‘n’ can be
calculated.

(ii) To determine type of the semiconductor. For n-type semiconductor direction of EH is

vertically downward and that for p-type semiconductor will be vertically upward.

(iii)To determine mobility  of the charge carriers if conductivity of the conductor /

semiconductor is known.

1. n-type Ge sample has donor concentration 1021/m3 and thickness = 3 mm is used in a

Hall effect experiment set up. If B = 0.5 T, J = 500 A/m3, Find Hall voltage.

Soln: Given : n = ND = 1021 /m3

d = 3 x 10-3 m
B = 0.5 Wb/m2
J = 500 A/m3
BI BId BJd
VH   
new ne wd ne
3
0.5  500  3  10
  4.68  10 3 volts
10 21  1.6  10 19

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 3

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/5iEsqeMOZAc

2. In a Hall effect experiment, a potential difference of 4.5 μ V is developed across a foil

of zinc of thickness 0.02 mm, when a current of 1.5 A is carrying in a direction
perpendicular to applied magnetic field of 2 tesla. Calculate a) Hall coefficient for zinc
b) concentration of electrons.
Given : VH  4.5 V  4.5  10 -6 volts,
thickness , w  0.02 mm  0.02  10 -3 m,
I  1.5 A, B  2 tesla
1 VH w
Hall coefficient  R H  
ne BI
4.5 10 -6  0.02 10 3
  3 10 -11 m 3 / C
2 1.5
BI
Concentration of electrons  n 
VH e w
2 1.5

4.5 10 1.6 10 19  0.02 10 3
6

 2.083 10 29 / m 3

3. Calculate the current produced in a germanium sample of cross-section 1 cm2 and

thickness of 0.01 m when a potential difference of 2V is applied across it. Given- The
concentration of free electrons in germanium is 2 x 1019 /m3 and mobility of electrons
and holes are 0.36 m2/volt sec and 0.17 m2/volt sec respectively.

Ge
A = 1 cm 2 = 10 -4 m2
sample

t = 0.01 m

V=2V

v
Current produced , I  n e v A  n e  E A as  
E
V
 ne A
t
2
 2  1019  1.6  10 19  0.36   10 4
0.01
 23.04  10 -3 Amp  23.04 mA

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 3

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/Z-mdnY2ObRg

CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Session 5 : (p-n junction diode)

P-N junction:

On joining n-type semiconductor with p-type semiconductor, diffusion of carriers takes place due
to large concentration gradients at the junction. Holes diffuse from p-side to n-side and electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side. Electrons diffusing from n-side to p-side leave behind donor ions
(Nd+) and holes diffusing from p-side to n-side leave behind acceptor ions (Na-). Thus, positive
space charge is developed on n-side near the junction and negative space charge is developed on
p-side near the junction. The region near the junction, where positive donor ions are created on n-
side and negative acceptor ions are created on p-side is called as depletion region. Equilibrium
potential difference across this depletion region is called as contact potential (V0) or barrier
potential.
W
- - + +
- - + +
p - - + +
n
- - + +

E
Forward Biasing a p-n junction :

When an external voltage is applied to the p-n junction with the positive terminal connected to the
p-region and negative terminal connected to the n-region, the p-n junction is said to be forward
biased.
Reduced Depletion
layer

- +
- +
- +
- +
p side n side

Forward Bias
In forward bias condition, negative terminal of the battery repels the free electrons on the n-side
towards the junction. These free electrons recombine with the positive ions present in the
depletion layer. Similarly, the positive terminal of the battery repels the holes on p-side towards
the junction. These holes recombine with the negative ions in the depletion layer. The overall
effect of this is reduction of depletion layer width. As the external voltage increases, the depletion
layer vanishes and the free electrons from n-side, are attracted towards the positive terminal of the
battery and holes from p-side are attracted towards the n-side and the current starts flowing. Thus
in forward bias condition, the current flow is due to majority carriers

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 8

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/Z-mdnY2ObRg

Reverse biasing a p-n junction :

If p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and n-type
semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of the battery, then the p-n junction is said to
be reverse biased. This results in increase in barrier potential and hence in barrier height.

Increased Depletion
layer width

- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
p side n side

Reverse Bias pn junction

The reverse bias pulls the free electrons in the n-region away from the junction towards the
positive terminal of the battery. Also, holes are pulled away from the junction towards the
negative terminal of the battery. The departing electrons leave more positive ions near the junction
and the departing holes leave more negative ions near the junctions. This results in increase in the
width of depletion layer. This wider depletion layer does not allow the majority carriers in both
regions to cross the junction. Hence, there is no current due to majority carriers.

Forward Characteristics :

When the diode is in forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased from zero, hardly any
current flows through the device in the beginning. It is so because the external voltage is being
opposed by the internal barrier voltage Vb whose value is 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge. As soon as
Vb is neutralized, current through the diode increases rapidly with increasing applied supply
voltage. It is found that as a little voltage of 1.0V produces a forward current of about 50mA.

Reverse Characteristics :

When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carrier are blocked and only a small current (due to
minority carrier) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage is increased from zero, the
reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or saturation value Io which is also known as
leakage current. It is of the order of nano Amperes (nA) and micro Amperes (A) for Ge. As seen
from above figure, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called breakdown voltage VBR,
the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases, the curve indicating zero resistance at this
point.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 8

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/Z-mdnY2ObRg

Forward
Reverse Bias
VBR Bias

Vb V

DIFFUSION CURRENT :

In addition to the drift motion of the carriers under the influence of an electric field, the carriers in
semiconductors may move by diffusion. Diffusion occurs whenever there is a non-uniform
distribution of concentration of charge carriers at some places in the crystal.

In the absence of electric field, the carrier density in a homogeneous semiconductor is uniform at
equilibrium due to random thermal motion of electrons and repulsive forces between them. If
excess carriers are introduced locally within such semiconductor, either by heating or injecting
carriers, a non-uniform distribution is created. The excess carriers move from region of higher
concentration to the region of lower concentration in order to produce uniform distribution. This
phenomenon is called as diffusion and it takes place in addition to the drift caused by an electric
field.

P-N JUNCTION (Depletion region and Energy Band Diagram)

On joining n-type semiconductor with p-type semiconductor, diffusion of carriers takes place due
to large concentration gradients at the junction. Holes diffuse from p-side to n-side and electrons
diffuse from n-side to p-side. Electrons diffusing from n-side to p-side leave behind donor ions
(Nd+) and holes diffusing from p-side to n-side leave behind acceptor ions (Na-).
W
- - + +
- - + + Space charge /
p - - + +
n Depletion region
- - + +

E
Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 8
https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/Z-mdnY2ObRg

Thus, positive space charge is developed on n-side near the junction and negative space charge is
developed on p-side near the junction. This results in internal electric field E which gives rise to a
drift current opposing the diffusion current. Thus at equilibrium,

Jp (drift) + Jp (diffusion) = 0
Jn (drift) + Jn (diffusion) = 0

The region near the junction, where positive donor ions are created on n-side and negative
acceptor ions are created on p-side is called as depletion region. Equilibrium potential difference
across this depletion region is called as contact potential (V0) or barrier potential . This contact
potential is the internal potential barrier that is necessary to maintain equilibrium at the junction.
The contact potential separates the energy bands as shown in fig (c). The valence band and
conduction band on p-side are higher than these bands on n-side by an amount eV0. This
separation of bands at equilibrium is required to make Fermi level constant throughout the device.

W
- - + +
- - + + (a) Space charge /
p - - + +
n Depletion region
- - + +

E
Vn
V0 (b) Contact potential
Vp

eV0
EC
(c) Energy Bands
EF for unbiased pn
EV
junction

p-n junction Depletion region and Energy Bands

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 8

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/Z-mdnY2ObRg

Contact potential is given by the relation -

kT N N
 V0  ln a 2 d
e ni

Where k = Boltzmann constant = 8.625 x 10-5 eV / 0K, T = Temperature in 0K,

e = charge of electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C, Na = acceptor concentration on p-side,
Nd = donor concentration on n-side

FORWARD AND REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE

(On the basis of Energy band diagram)
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater
ease than in the other. Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams as shown
below-

Forward Bias :

When an external voltage is applied to the p-n junction with the positive terminal connected to the
p-region and negative terminal connected to the n-region, the p-n junction is said to be forward
biased.
Reduced Depletion
layer

- +
- +
- +
- +
p side n side

Forward Bias

In forward bias condition, negative terminal of the battery repels the free electrons on the n-side
towards the junction. These free electrons recombine with the positive ions present in the
depletion layer. Similarly the positive terminal of the battery repels the holes on p-side towards the
junction. These holes recombine with the negative ions in the depletion layer. The overall effect of
this is reduction of depletion layer width. As the external voltage increases, the depletion layer
vanishes and the free electrons from n-side, are attracted towards the positive terminal of the

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 8

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/Z-mdnY2ObRg

battery and holes from p-side are attracted towards the n-side and the current starts flowing. Thus
in forward bias condition, the current flow is due to majority carriers

Reduced barrrier
height

Conduction band Energy

bands when
Forward Bias
voltage is
less than
Barrier
Valence band voltage

Energy
bands when
Forward Bias
voltage is
equal to
Barrier
voltage

On the basis of energy bands, forward biasing can be explained as follows –

The barrier potential gives slightly more energy to the p-bands than n-bands. Hence p-bands are
higher than the n-bands. Negative terminal of the battery pushes the conduction band electrons in
the n-region towards the junction. This repulsive force causes increase in velocity of electrons and
hence increases in energy of the electrons. Hence energy bands on n-side are raised resulting in
reduction in barrier height. This causes reduction in barrier height. When forward barrier voltage
is equal to barrier voltage, the barrier height vanishes and this allows the conduction band
electrons on n-side to easily cross the junction and enter the conduction band on p-side, where the
positive terminal of the battery immediately attracts them. The holes in the valence band on p-side
fall down the barrier height and are attracted towards the negative terminal of the battery.

Reverse bias :

If p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and n-type
semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of the battery, then the p-n junction is said to
be reverse biased. This results in increase in barrier potential and hence in barrier height.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 8

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/Z-mdnY2ObRg

Increased Depletion
layer width

- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
p side n side

Reverse Bias pn junction

The reverse bias pulls the free electrons in the n-region away from the junction towards the
positive terminal of the battery. Also, holes are pulled away from the junction towards the
negative terminal of the battery. The departing electrons leave more positive ions near the junction
and the departing holes leave more negative ions near the junctions. This results in increase in the
width of depletion layer. This wider depletion layer does not allow the majority carriers in both
regions to cross the junction. Hence, there is no current due to majority carriers.

Reverse biasing can be explained in the energy band view point as follows –

Increased barrrier
height
Energy
Conduction band bands when
Reverse Bias
voltage is
applied

Valence band

By applying the positive potential to the n-region, we are lowering the energies of the band. This
causes the barrier height to increase, which does not allow the conduction band electrons to cross
the junction easily as they now have to climb the higher energy hill.

However, the thermally excited conduction band electrons in p-region can get down this energy
hill easily and are attracted by the positive terminal of the battery connected to the n-region.
However, such thermally excited electrons in p-region are very less in number. Hence the current
due to such minority carriers is very small in magnitude. This current is called as saturation
current (IS). It does not depend on reverse voltage but it increases with increasing temperature.

The static voltage-current characteristics for a P-N Junction diode are shown in the following
figure -.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 8

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/Z-mdnY2ObRg

Forward Characteristics :

When the diode is in forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased from zero, hardly any
current flows through the device in the beginning. It is so because the external voltage is being
opposed by the internal barrier voltage Vb whose value is 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge. As soon as
Vb is neutralized, current through the diode increases rapidly with increasing applied supply
voltage. It is found that as a little voltage of 1.0V produces a forward current of about 50mA.

Reverse Characteristics :

When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carrier are blocked and only a small current (due to
minority carrier) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage is increased from zero, the
reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or saturation value Io which is also known as
leakage current. It is of the order of nano Amperes (nA) and micro Amperes (A) for Ge. As seen
from characteristics, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called breakdown voltage VBR,
the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases, the curve indicating zero resistance at this
point. This happens due to the avalanche effect. If the reverse bias voltage is very high, then the
depletion region widens, and the electric field is very strong. The minority charge carriers get
accelerated in this depletion region, and gain kinetic energy. Once the field is strong enough, they
can knock off, other electrons from the negative ions in the depletion layer. These new electrons
can knock off more electron from the negative ions in the depletion layer and the number of
electrons in the depletion layer suddenly gets multiplied. The increase in number of electrons is
exponential, just like an Avalanche. And current suddenly rises due to these electrons. The
problem is, due to this 'impact' (this process is called Impact Ionization), heat is generated, and this
heat could destroy the diode.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 8

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/85KspLpuoXU

CHAPTER – 3 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Session 6 : Light Emitting Diode, Zener diode, Solar cell

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):

LED is a diode that gives visible light when it is forward biased. The basic principle involved in
working of LED is recombination. Recombination is the phenomenon in which electrons from
conduction band recombine with holes in valence band releasing energy-

EC

c
h  h  E g  Ec  Ev

Ev

In silicon and Germanium Diodes, energy is given out in the form of heat as values of E g are
1.1eV and 0.7eV respectively and the corresponding wavelength does not lie in the visible region.
For LEDs, direct gap, compound semiconductors such as GaAs, GaP, GaAsP are used.

Sym bol for LED

EC
EC
EC
h  Ec  Ev
EF EC
EF
Ev
Ev Ev

p-side
Ev p-side n-side
n-side Energy Bands aligned when
Energy Bands of
unbiased LED
forward biased

As shown in the energy band diagram of unbiased LED, conduction band on n-side has many
electrons but there are not many holes in valence band. Also, valence band on p-side has many

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 5

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/85KspLpuoXU

holes in valence band but there are not many electrons in conduction band. So, recombination
occurs at very small scale due to minority carriers.
When LED is forward biased and forward bias voltage is greater than barrier voltage, energy
bands on n-side and p-side get aligned. Now, electrons transfer from n-side conduction band to p-
side conduction band and holes transfer from p-side valence band to n-side valence band. This
gives rise to large number of electrons in conduction band and large number of holes in valence
band in same region and recombination rate suddenly increases. Due to large recombination, we
get considerable radiation emitted which is seen in the form of light if wavelength corresponding
to energy gap falls in the visible region.

Applications of LED :

i) LEDs are widely used in digital displays.

ii) LEDs are used as optical source in fibre optic communication.
iii) Infrared LEDs are used in remote control devices.
iv) LEDs are widely used in automobile industry.

ZENER DIODE

Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode” as they are sometimes called, are basically the same as the
standard PN junction diode but are specially designed to have a low pre-determined Reverse
breakdown Voltage that takes advantage of this high reverse voltage. The zener diode is the
simplest types of voltage regulator and the point at which a zener diode breaks down or conducts
is called the “Zener Voltage” ( Vz ).

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When
biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current,
but as soon as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the
device, the diodes breakdown voltage is reached at which point a process called Avalanche
Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the
diode to limit this increase in voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit
value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved this reverse saturation
current remains fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. The voltage point at which
the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the “zener voltage” for zener diodes
this voltage can range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 5

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/85KspLpuoXU

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the
zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even
with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown
current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source
against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important application of the Zener diode as a voltage
regulator.

The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel
with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener
diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum IZ(min)
value in the reverse breakdown region.

AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN AND ZENER BREAKDOWN

Avalanche breakdown happens due to the avalanche effect. If the reverse bias voltage is very
high, then the depletion region widens, and the electric field is very strong. The minority charge
carriers get accelerated in this depletion region, and gain kinetic energy. Once the field is strong
enough, they can knock off, other electrons from the negative ions in the depletion layer. These
new electrons can knock off more electron from the negative ions in the depletion layer and the
number of electrons in the depletion layer suddenly gets multiplied. The increase in number of
electrons is exponential, just like an Avalanche. And current suddenly rises due to these electrons.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 5

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/85KspLpuoXU

The problem is, due to this 'impact' (this process is called Impact Ionization), heat is generated,
and this heat could destroy the diode.

Zener breakdown, only happens, when the doping concentration is extremely high. So high, that
the depletion region becomes few atoms wide. The electric field becomes extremely strong, but at
the same time, it is extremely narrow, hence many charge carriers can't get accelerated. Instead a
quantum mechanical effect takes place. This is called as quantum tunneling. So there is no
impact ionization, the electrons just tunnel through. (like digging a hole, instead of overcoming the
mountain). So most electrons tunnel through, and some of-course will give impact ionization.

Photovoltaic Solar Cell

Solar cell can be used as an alternative source of energy which converts solar rnergy into electrical
energy. It is a p-n junction with a large surface area as compared to normal p-n junction diodes
and very thin p-layer so that most of the light energy reaches the junction area.

EC

Light

EF EC
EF
Ev

Light
p-side
Ev

n-side
Electron hole pair
generation

When light falls on the p-n junction, electron-hole pairs are generated as many electrons transfer
from valence band to conduction band due to absorption of light energy. Due to this large number
of electrons in conduction band on p-side near the junction are available which can easily climb
down the energy hill and give rise to current. Also, large number of holes appear in valence band
on n-side which can easily climb up the energy hill and give rise to current.

Light
A
+
p-side RL V
n-side
-

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 5

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
https://youtu.be/85KspLpuoXU

If an external load is connected across the solar cell, current flows through it and power is
delivered.

Applications of Solar cell :

i) Used in satellites, space vehicles and in remote places as a source of energy.

ii) Used in battery charging system, outdoor lighting system.
iii) Solar cells are widely used in electronic equipment’s with low power consumption like
calculator.
iv) Solar cells are pollution free source of energy.
v) Solar cells are maintenance free and cost effective in long run.

However initial cost is high and their function is affected in rainy season when sufficient sunlight
is not available. It requires large space for high power operation.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 5

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/Vp6D1KW7jRM

Chapter 4 : INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

Session 1 : Huygen’s wave theory
Optical path difference
Interference by division of amplitude
PREREQUISITES

Optics is a study of visible light. James Clerk Maxwell showed that a beam of light is an
electromagnetic wave – a traveling wave of electric and magnetic fields.

The basic principles regarding the nature of light were presented by Newton in 1675 as a
corpuscular theory of light. The postulates of Newton’s theory are –

i) A source of light continuously emits tiny, light in weight and elastic particles called
corpuscles in all directions.
ii) These particles or corpuscles move with velocity of light.
iii) When the corpuscles fall on the retina of the eye, they produce the sensation of vision.
iv) Corpuscles of different colours have different sizes.

On the basis of corpuscular theory of light, the phenomena of reflection, refraction, dispersion
etc. were explained successfully. However, the theory fails to explain phenomena like
interference, diffraction, polarization, Photoelectric effect etc. Also, results from some
experiments do not support corpuscular theory of light.

i) When a source of light emits corpuscles, its mass should decrease, but no change in mass
is detected.
ii) According to this theory, greater the temperature of the source, greater is the agitation of
its molecules and hence higher should be velocities of corpuscles coming out of it.
However, experimental observations show that velocity of light is independent of
temperature.

In 1679, Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light which says light travels in the
form of wave front in the medium.

According to this principle, the light source emits

energy in the form of waves. At a given time, all the
points reaches are n the surface of the sphere. In the
plane of a paper, a sphere is shown as a circle. All
points on this surface receive the waves at the same
time vibrating in the same phase. This surface is
called as a wave front. A line drawn perpendicular to
the wave front is called as a ray of light. So, all radii of spherical wave front represent rays.

Postulates of Huygens Theory

 Each point on a wave front acts as a fresh source of disturbance called as secondary
wavelets. These wavelets spread out in the medium with velocity of light in that medium.

 The new wave front at any later time is obtained by taking the forward envelope of the
secondary wavelet at that time.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/Vp6D1KW7jRM

Young’s Double slit Experiment:

In Young’s double slit experiment, light sent through a pair of vertical slits is diffracted into a
pattern on the screen of numerous vertical lines spread out horizontally. Without diffraction and
interference, the light would simply make two lines on the screen.

Double slits produce two coherent sources of waves that interfere. Light spreads out (diffracts)
from each slit, because the slits are narrow. These waves overlap and interfere constructively
(bright lines) and destructively (dark regions).

The amplitudes of waves add. (a) constructive interference is obtained when identical waves are
in phase. (b) destructive interference occurs when identical waves are exactly out of phase, or
shifted by half a wavelength.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/Vp6D1KW7jRM

Interference :

We can see all colours of visible spectrum in a rainbow. These colours are seen because the
incident wavelengths are bent through raindrops. However, soap bubbles and oil films also show
striking colours, which are produced not by refraction but by constructive and destructive
interference of light. The interfering waves combine either to enhance or to suppress certain
colours in the spectrum of incident light. Interference of light is thus a superposition
phenomenon.

Light is a form of a wave motion. The waves are transverse in nature. A single source of light
gives out energy, which is distributed uniformly in the surrounding medium. If two independent
sources of light which are capable of giving out continuous waves of same amplitudes, same
wavelengths and same phase difference or constant phase difference are held close to each other,
the distribution of energy in the surrounding medium is not uniform, but, bright and dark regions
are observed. This non uniform distribution of light energy (and hence intensity) due to
superposition of two or more waves is called interference.

For the interference produced by two light waves to be observable, it is necessary the interfering
waves are monochromatic i.e. of same wavelength. At points in the path of wave motion, where
two waves meet exactly in phase (crest of one falls on crest of the other and trough of one falls
on trough of the other), there is reinforcement thereby producing more brightness than what
would be produced by one wave alone. At points in the path of wave, where two waves meet out
of phase (crest of one falls on trough of the other), destructive interference takes place thereby
producing a dark region. For the eye to follow the changes produced in the intensity of light, it is
necessary that, the two sources are coherent. Two sources of light are said to be coherent if they
have same phase relationship with each other, which does not change with time. Other conditions
require that the interfering waves must be propagated nearly in same direction and they must be
in same state of polarization.

Why Constant Phase Difference ?

Light is emitted by the source due to energy changes in electron of atom of the source. Light
emitted by smallest point source is due to such changes in millions of atoms. The phase changes
occurring in the light from a source are abrupt and random. Hence, whenever there is an
interference of two waves from two independent sources, there cannot be fixed phase
relationship between the waves. The resulting interference pattern therefore shifts so rapidly that
the eye cannot follow the changes in the intensity of light occurring at a point.

However, if the two waves are derived from a common source, there is a point-to-point
correspondence between the sources and hence for any abrupt change, in the phase of vibrations
of one source, there is corresponding and simultaneous change in the phase of vibration of the
other. Therefore, the two waves interfering at a point must maintain a fixed phase relationship,
which does not vary with time.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/Vp6D1KW7jRM

Reflection and Refraction

Incident Reflected
ray normal ray

Angle of Angle of
incidence reflection

air

glass Angle of
refraction

Refracted
ray

Reflection Refraction
Reflection is described as the reverting back Refraction means the shift in direction of the
of light wave in the same medium, when it light wave, when it enters medium with
falls on plane. different density.

Light wave returns to the same medium. Light wave travels from one medium to
another.
Light wave Bounce off the plane and changes Light wave pass through the surface, that
direction. changes their speed and direction.
Angle of incidence is qual to the angle of Angle of incidence is not equal to the angle of
reflection. refraction.

When reflection occurs at the surface of denser medium, a phase change of 1800 (i.e. path change
of /2) is introduced. No phase change occurs if the light wave is reflected from the surface of
rarer medium.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/Vp6D1KW7jRM

TYPES OF INTERFERENCE :

There are two methods of obtaining coherent sources to produce interference effect -
i) Division of wave-front ii) Division of amplitude

i) Division of wave-front

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

Consider a source of monochromatic light emitting light waves in all directions. Let S1 and S2 be
two slits illuminated by the parent source S. The two slits themselves become two coherent
sources from which the secondary wave fronts are emitted. Therefore a primary wave front from
a source S is divided into two sets of secondary wave fronts originating from S1 and S2. The
secondary wavefronts interfere with each other at various points giving rise to the phenomenon
of interference. This method of producing interference is called division of wave front. In
Fresnel Biprism, Lloyd’s mirror experiments, division of wave front method obtains coherent
sources.

ii) Division of amplitude :

When a ray of monochromatic light is incident on a thin plane transparent medium, it is partially
reflected and partially refracted. The partially refracted ray of light is further split up into a
number of reflected and refracted rays after successive reflections and refractions from the two

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/Vp6D1KW7jRM

surfaces of separation as shown in the figure. The partially reflected rays emerging out of surface
AB interfere with each other at various points and produce an interference effect. Similarly the
transmitted rays of light emerging from CD also produce interference effect. This method in
which, the interference effect is produced due to recombination of a number of beams of light
obtained due to partial reflections and refractions is known as division of amplitude. Intensity of
incident light is divided by partial reflection and refractions and is due to division of amplitude.

Optical Path Length :

If a beam of light travels a distance d in a medium of refractive index in a time T seconds, the
velocity of light in the medium is given by
d
v 
T
The distance traveled by light in free space in the same time is given by d’ = cT where c is
velocity of light in free space. We then have,
d'
c 
T
By definition, refractive index of the medium is given by –

d'
c T d'
μ   
v d d
T
 d'  d μ
Hence, a path d in the denser medium is equivalent to a path d Optical path) in the rarer
medium, where  is the refractive index of denser medium with respect to the rarer medium.

Condition for Maxima

When optical path difference is integral multiple of  (wavelength of light) bright region or
maximum is produced.

Optical Path Difference ( ) = n  where n = 0,1,2,3,…………

Condition for Minima

When optical path difference is odd-integral multiple of /2 dark region or minimum is
produced.

Optical Path Difference ( ) = (2n1) /2 where n = 0,1,2,3,…………

Note : When any reflection takes place at the surface of denser medium, additional path
difference of /2 is introduced.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/3t-bRc5jNrw

Chapter 4 : INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

Session 2 : Interference in thin film of uniform thickness
Colours on thin film
Non-reflecting films

INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS (REFLECTED SYSTEM) :

Let GH and G1H1 be the two surfaces of a transparent thin film of uniform thickness t (As shown
in fig.). Let  be the refractive index of thin film. Let a ray AB of monochromatic light be
incident on its upper surface. This ray is partly reflected along BR and refracted along BC. After
one internal reflection at C, partially reflected ray travels along CD. At D, it gets partially
refracted along DR1 in air. DR1 is parallel to BR. These rays originate from the same incident ray
AB and hence are coherent. These rays interfere constructively and destructively to produce dark
and bright regions.

Our aim is to find out effective path difference between rays BR and DR1.

A N R R1

E
i i
B i
G H
D
Q'
r rr
Intereference in thin film of
t uniform thickness

rr
F
G1 C H1
Q

T1
T

Let us draw a normal DE on BR.

In the figure,
 ABN  i is the angle of incidence and the  QBC  r is the angle of refraction.
 DBR  90 - i gives  BDE  i

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/3t-bRc5jNrw

The optical path difference between two reflected light rays BR and DR 1 is given by -
  Path ( BC  CD ) in film - Path BE in air
 μ ( BC  CD ) - BE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
From Figure, we have,
t
BC  CD  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
cos r
BE
and BE  BD sin i  sin i 
BD
 2 BQ' sin i
BQ' BQ'
 2 t tan r  sin i  tan r  
CQ t
sin r
 2 t  sin i
cos r
sin r sin i
 2 t   sin r
cos r sin r
2 μt sin i
 sin 2 r   μ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (3)
cos r sin r
Substituti ng (2) and (3) in (1) we get,
 t t  2 μt
  μ    - sin 2 r
 cos r cos r  cos r
2 μt 2 μt
 - sin 2 r
cos r cos r

2 μt
cos r

1 - sin 2 r 
2 μt
 cos 2 r
cos r
   2 μ t cos r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(4)

The film is denser than the surrounding medium (air). Hence, the ray BR originating by
reflection at the denser medium suffers phase change of 1800 (i.e. path change of /2) due to
reflection at B. Such phase change does not occur at C as the ray is reflected from the surface of
rarer medium. Hence, the effective path difference between BR and DR1 is –
λ
  2 μ t cos r 
2
Condition for Maxima :

Two rays interfere constructively if the path difference between them is integral multiple of  .
λ
i.e.   2 μ t cos r   n λ
2
λ
 2 μ t cos r  ( 2n  1 )
2

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/3t-bRc5jNrw

Condition for Minima :

Two rays interfere destructively if the path difference between them is odd integral multiple of
 .
λ λ
i.e.   2 μ t cos r   ( 2n  1 )
2 2
 2 μ t cos r  n λ

INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS (TRANSMITTED SYSTEM) :

If path difference between two transmitted rays CT and FT1 is –

Δ  μ (CD  DF) - CG
 2 μ t cos r (Calculated in the same way as in reflected system.)

However in this case, there is no phase change on reflection at C or D as it takes place at the
surface of rarer medium. Accordingly, we can obtain the conditions for maxima and minima as-

Condition for Maxima (Transmitted System):

Two rays interfere constructively if the path difference between them is integral multiple of  .

i.e.   2 μ t cos r  n λ
Condition for Minima (Transmitted System)::
Two rays interfere destructively if the path difference between them is odd integral multiple of
 .
λ
i.e.   2 μ t cos r  ( 2n  1 )
2
Why the visibility of fringes is much higher in the reflected system than it is in the
transmitted system?

The intensity of light ray decreases after each partial reflection. The number of reflections
involved in getting transmitted rays are more. Therefore intensity of transmitted rays is less than
that of reflected rays. So, visibility of fringes is much higher in the reflected system than it is in
the transmitted system.

PRODUCTION OF COLOURS IN THIN FILM :

If the thin film is exposed to a monochromatic light, due to interference the film appears either
bright or dark. With white light, the fringes obtained are coloured. It is because the path
difference 2 t cos r , depends on , t and r.

i) If t and r are constant, the path difference varies with  or the wavelength of light. White
light is composed of various wavelengths. The wavelengths for which condition for
maximum is satisfied, corresponding colours are seen. Therefore, these colours will
appear in the order – violet, blue, …. as wavelength  increases. The wavelengths for
which condition for minimum is satisfied, corresponding colours are not seen.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/3t-bRc5jNrw

ii) If angle of incidence changes, r also changes and hence, path difference also will change.
Therefore, if we view the thin film in various directions, different colours will be seen
with white light.
iii) When the thickness of the film varies, the film passes through various colours for same
angle of incidence.

EXCESSIVELY THIN FILM APPEARS BLACK. WHY?

 The effective path difference between interfering rays in reflected system is 2tcos r+
 When the film is excessively thin, 2 t cos r is neglected and effective path difference
becomes .
 “Path difference is odd integral multiple of ” is the condition for minimum intensity.
 Hence every wavelength will be absent and the film will appear dark.

NON-REFLECTING FILMS (Anti Reflecting Films):

 Non-reflecting glass surfaces can be prepared by depositing a thin layer of film of a

transparent material.
 The refractive index of the material is so chosen that it has intermediate value between
glass and air.
 The thickness of the film is also chosen so that it introduces a path difference of 
 For example, the refractive index of Magnesium Fluoride is 1.38. This value is greater
than the refractive index of air (1) and smaller than the refractive index of glass (1.5).

A R
R1

 = 1
B

D
 = 1.38

 = 1.5

Non Reflecting Film

The ray AB suffers reflection at point B on the surface of denser medium and proceeds along
BR1. A part of it moves along BC. And after suffering reflection again at the surface of the
denser medium (glass), it emerges out as DR1. Hence, same phase change occurs in both rays at
each reflection.

 The optical path difference will be 2t, where,  is the refractive index of the material
of film and t is its thickness. There will be destructive interference if –
λ
2 μ t  (2n  1) , where n  0, 1, 2, .....
2
λ
For n  0, 2 μ t 
2

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/3t-bRc5jNrw

 Hence the minimum thickness of the coating required for no reflection at the center of
visible spectrum is given by –
λ
t 
4μ
Some reflection does take place on both the longer and the shorter wavelengths and reflected
light has purple colour.

This method is highly useful in reducing loss of light by reflection in instruments like periscope,
which has a number of air-glass surfaces.

HIGHLY-REFLECTING FILMS :

 Highly-reflecting glass surfaces can be prepared by depositing a thin layer of film of a

transparent material.
 The refractive index of the material is so chosen that it has intermediate value between
glass and air.
 The thickness of the film is also chosen so that it introduces a path difference of 
 For example, the refractive index of Magnesium Fluoride is 1.38. This value is greater
than the refractive index of air (1) and smaller than the refractive index of glass (1.5).

A R
R1

 = 1
B

D
 = 1.38

 = 1.5

Highly Reflecting Film

The ray AB suffers reflection at point B on the surface of denser medium and proceeds along
BR1. A part of it moves along BC. And after suffering reflection again at the surface of the
denser medium (glass), it emerges out as DR1. Hence, same phase change occurs in both rays at
each reflection.

 The optical path difference will be 2t, where,  is the refractive index of the material
of film and t is its thickness. There will be constructive interference if –
2μ t  n λ , where n  0, 1, 2, .....
For n  1, 2 μ t  λ
 Hence the minimum thickness of the coating required for no reflection at the center of
visible spectrum is given by –
λ
t 
2μ

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/3t-bRc5jNrw

1. White light falls normally on a soap film of refractive index 1.33 and thickness 5000
A0. What wavelength within the visible spectrum ( = 4000 A0 to 7000 A0) will be
strongly reflected?

Given :  = 1.33, t = 5000 A0 = 5 x 10-5 cm


Condition for maximum is - 2  t cosr  (2n  1) ; n  1, 2, 3, ...........
2
2 x 2  t cosr
   ; n  1, 2, 3, ...........
(2n  1)
For normal incidence, r = 0, therefore, cosr = 1
2 x 2 x 1.33 x 5 x 10-5 26.6 x 10-5
   
(2n  1) (2n - 1)
26.6 x 10 -5
For, n  1,    26000 A 0
(2x1 - 1)
26.6 x 10 -5
For, n  2,    8666.67 A 0
(2x2 - 1)
26.6 x 10 -5
For, n  3,    5320 A 0
(2x3 - 1)
26.6 x 10 -5
For, n  4,    3800 A 0
(2x4 - 1)
Thus wavelength in the visible spectrum which will be strongly reflected is 5320 A0.

2. A glass plate having thickness of 0.4 x 10-4 cm is illuminated by a beam of white

light normal to the plate ( for glass = 1.5). Calculate the wavelength within the
limits of visible spectrum ( = 4000 A0 to 7000 A0) which will be intensified in the
reflected beam.

Given :  = 1.5, t = 0.4 x 10-4 cm = 4 x 10-5 cm


2  t cosr  (2n  1) ; n  1, 2, 3, ...........
Condition for maximum is - 2
2 x 2  t cosr
   ; n  1, 2, 3, ...........
(2n  1)

For normal incidence, r = 0, therefore, cosr = 1

2 x 2 x 1.5 x 4 x 10 -5 24 x 10 -5
   
(2n  1) (2n - 1)

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/3t-bRc5jNrw

24 x 10 -5
For, n  1,    24000 A 0
(2x1 - 1)
24 x 10 -5
For, n  2,    8000 A 0
(2x2 - 1)
24 x 10 -5
For, n  3,    4800 A 0
(2x3 - 1)
24 x 10 -5
For, n  4,    3425 A 0
(2x4 - 1)
Thus wavelength in the visible spectrum which will be strongly reflected is 4800A0.

3. A drop of oil of volume 0.2 cc is dropped on the surface of a tank water of area 1 sq.
m. The film spreads uniformly over the whole surface. White light which is incident
normally on the surface is observed through spectroscope. The spectrum is seen to
contain one dark band whose centre has wavelength 5500 A0 in air. Find the
refractive index of the given oil.

volume 0.2
Thickness of the film   2
 2 x 10 5 cm
area (100)
For dark band,
2  t cos r  n
For normal incidence, r  0 ;  cosr  1
Taking n  1 and   5500 A 0  5.5 x 10 -5 cm
n 1 x 5.5 x 10 -5
    1.375
2 t cos r 2 x 2 x 10 5 x1

4. White light is incident on a soap film ( = 1.33) at an angle sin-1(4/5) and the
reflected light on examination shows dark bands. Two consecutive dark bands
corresponds to wavelengths 6100 A0 and 6000 A0. Calculate the thickness of the
film.

Given :  = 1.33, i = sin-1(4/5) therefore, sini = 4/5

1 = 6100 A0 = 6.1 x 10-5 cm, 2 = 6000 A0 = 6.0 x 10-5 cm
2
 sin i 
2  4 
cos r  1 - sin 2 r  1 -    1 -  5   0.7988
    1.33 
 
For n th dark band, 2  t cosr  n1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
For (n  1) th
dark band, 2  t cosr  (n  1) 2 - - - - - - - (2)

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/3t-bRc5jNrw

From (1) and (2),

n1  (n  1)2
n1  n2  2
n (1  2 )  2
2 6.0 x 10 -5
n    60
1  2 6.1 x 10 -5 - 6.0 x 10 -5
Substituti ng in (1)
2 x 1.33 x t x 0.7988  60 x 6.1 x 10 -5
60 x 6.1 x 10 -5
 t   1.72 x 10 -3 cm
2 x 1.33 x 0.7988

5. A plane wave of monochromatic light falls normally on a uniformly thin film of

refractive index 1.3 which covers a glass plate of refractive index 1.5. The
wavelength of the source can be varied continuously. Complete destructive
interference is obtained for wavelength 5000 A0 and 7000 A0 and no other
wavelength in between. Find the thickness of the oil layer.

Given :  for oil = 1.3,  for glass plate = 1.5,

1 = 5000 A0 = 5 x 10-5 cm, 2 = 7000 A0 = 7 x 10-5 cm.
As both reflections at upper and lower surfaces of the oil film take place at the surface of
denser medium, no additional path change is introduced. Therefore condition for
minimum is –
λ
2  t cosr  (2n - 1) where n  1, 2, 3, ..........
2
For normal incidence, r  0 and cosr  1
The n th desctructive interferen ce occurs at 1
λ1
 2  t cosr  (2n - 1) - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
2
The (n - 1) th destructive interferen ce occurs at  2
λ2
 2  t cosr  (2(n - 1) - 1)
2
λ2
 2  t cosr  (2n - 3) - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
2
From (1) and (2),
λ λ
(2n - 1) 1  (2n - 3) 2
2 2

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/3t-bRc5jNrw

λ1 λ
(2n - 1) (2n - 3) 2
2 2
-5
5 x 10 7 x 10 -5
 (2n - 1)  (2n - 3)
2 2
 (2n - 1)  1.4 (2n - 3)
 0.8 n  3.2
 n  4
Substituti ng value of n in (1)
5 x 10 -5
2 x 1.3 x t  (2x4 - 1) x
2
-5
7 x 5 x 10
 t   6.73 x 10 5 cm  6730 A 0
2 x 1.3 x 2

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 9 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/DWUytq4Lkrs

Chapter 4 : INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

Session 3 : Interference in Thin film of Non-uniform thickness
(Wedge shaped film)

THIN FILM OF NON UNIFORM THICKNESS (WEDGE SHAPED FILM )

R1
F

D
H1
i

r
r+

A
N
i
i

B
r
r+ r+
E
 I
G
H
C


Intereference at
wedge shaped film r+

 Consider two plane surfaces, GH and G1H1 inclined at an angle  which enclose a wedge
shaped air film.
 The thickness of the air film increases from G to H as shown in the figure.
 Let  be the refractive index of the material of the film.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/DWUytq4Lkrs

 When this film is illuminated by the monochromatic light and the reflected light is
viewed from the upper surface, alternate dark and bright fringes are observed.
 This is due to the interference of the reflected rays.
 The interfering rays BR and DR1 are not parallel but appear to diverge from each other.
Let us calculate the path difference between these two rays.
Δ  μ ( BC  CD) - BF
Δ  μ ( BE  EC  CD) - BF - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
BE BF
In ΔBDE, sin r  and In ΔBFD, sin i 
BD BD
BF
sin i BD BF
 μ   
sin r BE BE
BD
 BF  μ BE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
Substituti ng (2) in (1), we get -
Δ  μ ( BE  EC  CD ) - μ BE
 μ ( EC  CD) (  Δ DIC  Δ PIC, CD  CP )
 μ ( EC  CP)   EP - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (3)
 BCN is exterior to Δ BCQ   BCN  ( r   )
  NCD  ( r   ) which gives  CDI  (r   ) ( Opposite to  NCD )
  IPC  ( r   )
EP EP
Now, from Δ DEP, we have cos ( r   )   , t is thickness of film at pt. I
DP 2t
 EP  2 t cos ( r   ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(4)
Substituti ng this in (3), we get -
Δ  2 μ t cos ( r   ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(5)

As the reflection at point B is at the surface of denser medium, additional path change of /2 is
introduced for ray BR1. Hence effective path difference becomes -
λ
Δ  2 μ t cos ( r   )  ----------------------------------------------(6)
2
Condition for Maxima :
Δ  nλ
λ
 2 μ t cos ( r   )   nλ
2
λ
 2 μ t cos ( r   )  ( 2n  1 ) where n  0, 1, 2, ......
2
Condition for Minima :
λ
Δ  ( 2n  1 )
2
λ λ
 2 μ t cos ( r   )   ( 2n  1 )
2 2
 2 μ t cos ( r   )  n λ where n  0, 1, 2, ........

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/DWUytq4Lkrs

Experimental Setup for Wedge shaped film experiment:

Microscope

Glass Plate

Source

Lens

Wedge shape
film

Experimental Set up of Wedge Shape film Experiment

Nature of Interference Pattern :

If the light illuminating the film is parallel, then i and r are constant everywhere. If the light used
is monochromatic, then the path change will occur only due to t. As the thickness of the film
created is constant along the line, the interference pattern will be linear and parallel to the thin
edge of the wedge. And as fringe width depends on wavelength, refractive index of the film and
angle of wedge which all are constant, the fringes will have equal thickness.

Interference fringes in
Wedge shaped film

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/DWUytq4Lkrs

Fringe width :

Fringe width is defined as distance between two consecutive bright bands.

For nth maxima, we have –

λ
2 μ t cos ( r   )  ( 2n  1 )
2
For normal incidence, r = 0
λ
 2  t cos   ( 2n  1 )
------------------------------(1)
2
Let this band be obtained at a distance xn from the thin edge as shown below


t
xn

xn+1
To determine fringe width
t
From figure, tan    t  xn tan  ----------------------------(2)
xn
From (1) and (2)
λ
2  x n tan  cos   ( 2n  1 )
2
λ
i.e. 2  x n sin   ( 2n  1 ) --------------------------------(3)
2
If (n+1)th maximum is obtained at a distance xn+1 from the thin edge, then
λ λ
2  x n 1 sin   [ 2(n  1)  1 ]  ( 2n  3)
2 2
λ
2  x n 1 sin   ( 2n  3) ------------------------------------(4)
2
Subtracting (3) from (4) we get –
λ
2  ( x n 1 - x n ) sin   (2n  3 - 2n - 1)
2
λ
x n 1  x n  whichis the spacing between the consecutive bright fringes.
2  sin 
If a is very small, and measured in radians, then this spacing is given by –

λ λ
β  xn 1  x n  (if  in degrees)  (if  in radians) ----(5)
2  sin  2

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/DWUytq4Lkrs

How to check optical flatness of the surface using wedge shape film?

 Interference pattern is obtained with the wedge shape film.

 If the interference pattern is perfectly linear as shown below, the two glass plates are
perfectly flat.
 If the interference pattern is not linear, the surfaces are not flat.

Interference fringes Interference fringes

in Wedge shaped film in Wedge shaped film
if both surfaces are if both surfaces are
perfectly flat perfectly flat

Determination of diameter of a thin wire using Wedge Shaped Film

A wedge shaped film can be obtained by keeping a thin wire or paper between two glass plates
on one side as shown below –

d


L
In wedge shaped film experiment, linear interference pattern is obtained.

Interference fringes in
Wedge shaped film

λ
Fringe width if the interference pattern is given by- β  . This fringe width can
2  sin 
be measured with the help of travelling microscope.

 λ 
The angle of wedge is given by -    sin -1  
2β
Now, the diameter of wire / thickness of paper can be calculated as - d  L tan 

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/DWUytq4Lkrs

1. A wedge shaped air film having angle of 40 seconds is illuminated by

monochromatic light. Fringes are observed vertically through a microscope. The
distance between ten consecutive dark fringes is 1.2 cm. Find the wavelength of
monochromatic light.
Given :  = 1 , for air film,
40
  40 sec  degrees,
3600
1.2
Fringe width    0.12 cm
10

We know,  
2  sin 
 40 
    x 2  sin   0.12 x 2 x 1 x sin    4654 x 10 cm
-5

 3600 
 4654 A 0

2. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a thin glass wedge of refractive index
1.52. The fringe spacing obtained with light of wavelength 5893A0 is 0.1 mm.
Calculate angle of wedge.
Given :  = 5893 A0 = 5893 x 10-8 cm, β = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm, µ = 1.52

 5893  10 -8
    0.001938 rad  0.110
2   2  1.52  0.01

8. When a wedge shaped air film is viewed by a monochromatic source of light

incident normally, the interference fringes 0.4 mm apart are observed. If the air
space is filled with water (µ = 1.33), how far apart will the fringes be observed?

Given : βair = 0.4 mm = 0.04 cm, µwater = 1.33


 air  - - - - - - - - - - - -(1) as  for air is 1.
2

 water  - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
2  water 
Divide (2) by (1)
 water 1

 air 
1 1
 water   air   0.04  0.03 cm
 1.33

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/DWUytq4Lkrs

4. An air wedge is formed by keeping a fine wire at one edge between two glass plates.
When the film is illuminated normally with light of wavelength 550 nm, fringe-
width of the fringes observed is 1 mm. Calculate the diameter of the wire if the
length of the plate is 5cm.
Given : λ  550nm  550  10 -9 m, μ  1, β  1 mm  10 -3 m

d


L
λ
β 
2  sin 
 λ   550  10 -9 
   sin -1    sin -1    0.0157 0
-3 
 2  β   2  1  10 
diameter, d  L tan   5  tan(0.0157)  1.37  10 -3 cm

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 7

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

Chapter 4 : INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

Session 4 : Newton’s rings
NEWTON’S RINGS
 When a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed on a plane glass plate, a
thin air film is formed between convex surface and plane surface of a glass plate.
 There is one point of contact and thickness of the film gradually increases in all
directions as we go away from that point.
 If monochromatic light is made to fall normally on this film, the reflected light rays from
upper and lower surface of the film interfere with each other to produce an interference
pattern consisting of dark and bright concentric circles with the point of contact at the
centre.
 This pattern is called as Newton’s rings.
A

AB is incident ray
1
Ray 1 is light ray reflected from
upper surface of the film 2
Ray 2 is light ray reflected from
lower surface of the film

Thin film in Newton's ring experiment

The experimental set up of Newton’s rings experiment is shown in fig. The source of light is
kept at focal point of a convex lens to get parallel rays o light. A glass plate inclined at 450 with
horizontal direction is used to make these rays incident normally on the thin film. The light rays
reflected from upper surface and lower surface produce interference pattern. This pattern can be
seen by using a microscope. Newton’s rings obtained in this experiment are shown in fig.

Microscope

Glass Plate

Source

Lens

Newton's Rings

Thin Film

Experimental Set up of Newton's Rings

Experiment

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

To get relation for the diameter of nth dark and nth bright ring :

R-t R

P Q
 D
t
A O B

To determine diameter of n th dark/bright ring

Let POQ be the convex surface of plano-convex lens kept on plane glass surface AB. Let R be
the radius of curvature of the lens surface. The optical path difference between two rays reflected
from upper and lower surface is given by –


  2  t cos(r   )  ------------------------------ (1)
2
where  is refractive index of the film,
t is thickness of the film,
r is angle of refraction = 0 for normal incidence,
 is angle of wedge is approximately 0 if R is large,
 is wavelength of light.

With r = 0 and  = 0, optical path difference becomes -


  2 t  -------------------------------------- (2)
2
Let n be the radius of nth dark/bright ring which is obtained at point D where the thickness of the
film is t.

From fig.,
R2 = (R – t)2 + 2
R2 = R2 – 2Rt + t2 + 2

2 = 2Rt – t2
For small t, t2 is very small and can be neglected.

2 = 2Rt
ρ2
 2t  ------------------------------------------- (3)
R

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

Substituting (3) in (2) we get,

ρ2 λ ρ2
Δ  μ as 2 t  -------------------------- (4)
R 2 R
λ
For dark rings, Δ  (2n  1)
2
ρ 2
λ λ
 μ   (2n  1)
R 2 2
ρ 2
 μ  nλ
R
nRλ
 ρ2 
μ
nRλ
Thus, radius of nth dark ring is - ρ  ------------------------------ (5)
μ
Diameter of nth dark ring is given by –
nRλ
Dn  2 ρn  2
μ
4nRλ
Dn  ---------------------------------- (6)
μ
If the gap between the convex surface and plane surface is filled by air,  = 1 and

Dn  4nRλ ---------------------------------- (7)

Thus, diameter of nth dark ring is directly proportional to square root of n.

For bright rings, Δ  nλ

ρ2 λ
 μ   nλ
R 2
ρ2 λ
 μ  (2n  1) n  1,2,3, ............
R 2
Rλ
 ρ2  (2n - 1)
2μ
Rλ
Thus, radius of nth bright ring is ρ n  (2n - 1) ------------------------------ (8)
2μ
Diameter of nth bright ring is given by –
Rλ
Dn  2 ρn  2 (2n - 1)
2μ

2 Rλ
 Dn  (2n - 1) ; n  1,2,3,.......... ---------------- (9)
μ
For air film,  = 1

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

 Dn  (2n - 1) 2 Rλ ; n  1,2,3,.......... ---------------- (9)

Thus, diameter of nth bright ring is directly proportional to (2n - 1) .

Why Newton’s rings are circular?

 The optical path difference between two rays reflected from upper and lower surface of

the film is   2  t cos(r   ) 
2
 In a given experimental setup, r,  and  are constant. If the light used is
monochromatic, then the path change will occur only due to t.
 As the thickness of the film created is constant along the circle, the interference pattern
will be circular.

Newton's Rings

What is the intensity of central spot in Newton’s ring experiment (Reflected System)?
Why?

1
Dark Spot
2

Newton's Rings in
B
reflected system

 In reflected system, the optical path difference between two rays reflected from upper and

lower surface of the film is   2  t cos(r   ) 
2

 At centre, t = 0 and therefore, optical path difference =  2 .
 This is condition for minimum. Therefore, in reflected system central spot will be dark.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

Newton’s rings in transmitted system

A

Bright
central spot

Transmitted
rays 2
1

Newton's Rings in transmitted system

 In transmitted system, the optical path difference between two rays reflected from upper
and lower surface of the film is Δ  2 μ t cos(r  θ)

 At centre, t = 0 and therefore, optical path difference is also zero. This is condition for
maximum. Therefore, in transmitted system central spot will be bright.

 In transmitted system, path difference between ray1 and ray2 is

Δ  2 μ t cos(r  θ)  2 μ t
4nRλ
and diameter of nth bright ring is D n 
μ
2 Rλ
diameter of nth dark ring is  D n  (2n - 1) ; n  1,2,3,..........
μ

How to determine wavelength of light or radius of curvature of convex surface using

Newton’s ring experiment?

If a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed with its surface on a glass plate, an
air film of varying thickness is formed between the convex surface of the lens and upper surface
of the plane glass plate. The thickness of the air film gradually increases from the point of
contact onwards. If the air film is illuminated by monochromatic light, dark and bright concentric
rings with a dark centre are seen.
These rings are formed due to interference of light reflected from upper and lower surfaces of the
air film. In this case, each ring is a locus of constant film thickness. They are known as fringes
of constant thickness.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

Microscope

Glass Plate

Source

Lens

Newton's Rings

Thin Film

Experimental Set up of Newton's Rings

Experiment

For nth dark ring, the diameter Dn is given by –

Dn2 = 4n  R
Where  is the wavelength of the source of light and R is the radius of the curvature of the lens
surface in contact with the glass plate.
D2m+n = 4n  R

If Dm+n and Dn are diameters of (m+n)th and nth dark or bright rings, then we get –
D2m+n - Dn2 = 4m  R
This relation is used to determine  or R when other quantities are known.

How to determine refractive index of liquid using Newton’s ring experiment?

If liquid is filled in the gap between the convex surface and the plane surface, diameter of n th

dark ring in Newton’s ring experiment is given by D n liquid 

4nRλ
-----(1)
μ
For air film (refractive index = 1), D n air  4nRλ ------ (2)

Dividing (2) by (1),

D n air  D n air
2

 μ μ   
D n liquid  D n 
 liquid



Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

Thus, by measuring diameter of nth dark ring with air in between the convex surface and plane
surface and then with liquid in between the convex surface and plane surface, the refractive
index of the liquid can be calculated.

Show that in Newton’s ring experiment, the fringe width is not constant?
th

√
th

√
fringe width

√ √ (√ √ )

Thus, the fringe width changes with the value of n and is not
constant.

Compare the interference fringes obtained in wedge shaped film experiment and Newton’s
ring experiment.

Interference fringes in wedge shaped Interference fringes in Newton’s rings

film
In wedge shaped film, thickness of film is In Newton’s rings, thickness of film is constant
constant along the line. So, the interference along the circle. So, the interference fringes are
fringes are linear. circular.

In wedge shaped film, the fringe width is given In Newton’s ring, fringe width is given by –
λ √ √
by – β  . As wavelength of
2  sin  (√ √ )
light, refractive index of the film and angle of This depends on the value of n. So fringe width
wedge are constants, fringe width is also in Newton’s ring experiment is not constant.
constant.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

1. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 10th dark ring changes from 1.4
cm to 1.27 cm when a liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate. Calculate
the refractive index of the liquid.
Given: D10 (for air) = 1.4 cm, D10 (for liquid) = 1.27 cm
4nR
We know, D n 
2


For air,   1  D 2n (air)  4 n R  - - - - - - - - - - (1)
4nR
For liquid,     D 2n (liquid)  - - - - - - - - - - (2)

D 2n (air) 4nR
Dividing (1) by (2), 
2
D n (liquid) 4nR

D 2n (air) (1.4) 2
     1.215
D 2n (liquid) (1.27) 2

2. Newton’s rings are observed in reflected light of wavelength 5900 A0. The diameter
of 10th dark ring is 0.50 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens.
Given:  = 5900 A0 = 5900 x 10-8 cm, n = 10, D10 = 0.5 cm
4nR
We know, D n 
2


For air,   1  D 2n (air)  4 n R 
D 2n (air) (0.5)2
R    105.93 cm
4n 4 x 10 x 5900 x 10 -8

3. In Newton’s ring experiment, diameter of 5th dark ring was 0.336 cm. Find the
radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens, if the wavelength of light used is 5880
A0. Also find out the radius of 15th dark ring. (Take  = 1).
Given:  = 5800 A0 = 5800 x 10-8 cm, D5 = 0.336 cm
4nR
For dark ring, We know, D n 
2


To calculate Radius of curvature:
For air,   1  D 2n (air)  4 n R 
D 2n (air) (0.336) 2
R    97.32 cm
4n 4 x 5 x 5800 x 10 -8
To Calculate radius of 15th dark ring:
Dn 4nR 4 x 15 x 97.32 x 5800 x 10 -8
rn     0.291 cm
2 2 2

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

4. In Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 4th and 12th dark rings are 0.4 cm
and 0.7 cm respectively. Find the diameter of the 20th dark ring.

Given : D4 = 0.4 cm, D12 = 0.7 cm

4nR
For dark ring, We know, D n 
2


For air,   1  D 2n (air)  4 n R 
 D 24  4 x 4 x R 
 (0.4) 2  16 R 
 0.16  16 R  - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
Also, 2
D12  4 x 12 x R 
 (0.7) 2  48 R 
 0.49  48 R  - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
Subtracting equation (1) from (2),
48 R  - 16 R   0.49 - 0.16
 32 R   0.33
0.33
 R 
32
0.33
Now, D 220  4 x 20 x R   80 x  0.825
32
 Diameter of 20 th dark ring  0.825  0.9 cm

5. The diameter of 10th dark ring is 5 mm, when light of wavelength 5500 A0 is used in
Newton’s rings experiment. If the space between lens and glass plate is filled with a
liquid of refractive index 1.25, what will be the diameter of 10th dark ring?

Given : D10 (air) = 5mm = 0.5 cm,

 = 5500 A0 = 5500 x 10-8 cm
 = 1.25
4nR
For dark ring, We know, D n 
2


For air,   1  D 2n (air)  4 n R 
 D10
2
 4 x 10 x R x 5500 x 10 -8
2
D10 (0.5) 2
 R    113.63 cm
4 x 10 x 5500 x 10 -8 4 x 10 x 5500 x 10 -8
. If the space between lens and glass plate is filled with a liquid ,

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 9 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

4nR
D 2n 

4 x 10 x 113.63 x 5500 x 10 -8
 D 
2
10  0.2
1.25
 Diameter of 10th dark ring will be 0.2  0.447 cm

6. Light containing two wavelengths 1 and 2 falls normally on a convex lens of radius
of curvature R, resting on a glass plate. Now, if nth dark ring due to 1 coincides
with (n+1)th dark ring due to 2, then prove that the radius of the nth dark ring due
12 R
to 1 is .
1  2
4nR
For dark ring, We know, D n 
2


4 n R 1
 for 1 , we have, D 2n  - - - - - - - - - - - (1)

4 (n  1) R 2
 for 2 , we have, D 2n 1  - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

As nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to 2,
D 2n  D 2n 1
4 n R 1 4 (n  1) R  2
 
 
 n 1  (n  1)  2
 n (1   2 )   2
2
 n 
1   2
Substituting in equation (1) and using  = 1,
2 4 1 2 R
D 2n  (2rn ) 2  4 ( ) R 1 
1  2 1  2
1 2 R
 rn 
1  2

7. A Newton’s ring setup is used with a source emitting two wavelengths 1 = 6000A0
and 2 = 4500 A0. , The nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due
to 2. If the radius of curvature of the lens is 90 cm, find the diameter of the n th
dark ring of 6000 A0.
Given : 1 = 6000 A0 = 6 x 10-5 cm, 2 = 4500 A0 = 4.5 x 10-5 cm,
R = 90 cm.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 10 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

4nR
For dark ring, We know, D n 
2


4 n R 1
 for 1 , we have, D 2n  - - - - - - - - - - - (1)

4 (n  1) R  2
 for  2 , we have, D 2n 1  - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

As nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to 2,
D 2n  D 2n 1
4 n R 1 4 (n  1) R  2
 
 
 n 1  (n  1)  2
 n (1   2 )   2
2 4.5 x 10 -5
 n    3
1  2 6 x 10 -5 - 4.5 x 10 -5
Now, diameter of n th (3rd ) dark ring for wavelength 6000 A 0 is
4 n R 1 4 x 3 x 90 x 6 x 10 -5
Dn    0.2545 cm
 1

8. Newton’s rings are formed with reflected light of wavelength 5900 A0. The diameter
of the third bright ring is 2 mm. If the space between the lens and the plate is filled
with a liquid of refractive index = 1.33, calculate the radius of curvature of the lens.

Given :  = 5900 A0 = 5.9 x 10-5 cm.

Diameter of 3rd bright ring = 2 mm = 0.2 cm.
 = 1.3, n=3
(2n - 1) 2 R 
For bright ring, We know, D n 
2


D x
2
(0.2) 2 x 1.33
 R  n
  90.17 cm
(2n - 1) 2  (2x3 - 1) x 2 x 5.9 x 10 -5

9. A Newton’s ring setup is used with a source emitting two wavelengths 1 = 7000 A0
and 2 = 6000 A0. , The nth dark ring due to 7000 A0 coincides with (n+1)th dark ring
due to 6000 A0. If the diameter of those overlapping rings is 0.5 cm, find the radius
of curvature of the lens.

Given : 1 = 7000 A0 = 7 x 10-5 cm, 2 = 6000 A0 = 6 x 10-5 cm,

R = 90 cm.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 11 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
https://youtu.be/iTScZsfNXbc

4nR
For dark ring, We know, Dn 
2


4 n R 1
 for 1 , we have, D 2n  - - - - - - - - - - - (1)

4 (n  1) R  2
 for  2 , we have, D 2n 1  - - - - - - - - - - - (2)

As nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to 2,
D 2n  D 2n 1
4 n R 1 4 (n  1) R  2
 
 
 n 1  (n  1)  2
 n (1   2 )   2
2 6 x 10 -5
 n    6
1   2 7 x 10 -5 - 6 x 10 -5
4 n R 1
Now, D 2n 

D 2n x  (0.5) 2 x 1
 R    148.81 cm
4 n 1 4 x 6 x 7 x 10 -5

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 12 of 12

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCONDUCTORS
https://youtu.be/5lNYGSWc-XM

Chapter – 5 SUPERCONDUCTORS
Session 1 : Superconductors,
Critical Temperature and Critical Field

Prerequisites:

The charge carriers in a solid are in constant random motion, even at thermal equilibrium. At room
temperature, the thermal motion of an individual electron may be visualized as random scattering
from lattice atoms, impurities and other electrons as shown in fig.

Thermal motion of
electron in a solid

As this is a random motion of electrons, net current due to such randomly moving electrons is
zero. However, under the influence of electric field (E), each electron experiences a force
F = – eE. This force is insufficient to change the random motion of electrons but, effect of this
force when averaged over all electrons, results in a net motion of group of electrons in the
direction opposite to the direction of electric field. The net motion of electrons in a particular
direction under the influence of electric field is called drift motion. The current resulting due to
this drift motion is called as drift current.

Drift current density, (J) is defined as the drift current per unit area of cross section of the
conductor.
I
J  -----------------(1)
A
Electric field (E) is the potential drop per unit length of the conductor.

dV V
E    -----------------(2)
dx L

Resistivity () of a conductor is defined as the resistance of the conductor having unit cross-
sectional area and unit length. Resistivity is given by
A
ρ  R -----------------(3)
L
Where, R is the resistance of the conductor,
A is area of cross-section and
l is the length of the conductor.

Conductivity () is the reciprocal of resistivity.

1 L
σ   -----------------(4)
ρ RA
From equation (4) and (2)

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

L V V I
σ E     J
RA L R A A

 J  σ E -----------------(5)
This is the relation between current density and conductivity.

Drift velocity (v) is defined as net displacement in electron position per unit time under the
influence of electric field.

Mobility () of electrons is defined as average drift velocity acquired by the electrons per unit
electric field.
v
μ  -----------------(6)
E
m2
Unit of mobility is .
V - sec

To get the relation between conductivity and mobility :

If v is drift velocity of electrons, length traversed by the electrons in unit time = v

Therefore, volume swept by electrons in unit time = v A

If ‘n’ is number of electrons per unit volume, electrons in volume vA = nvA

If e is charge on electron, charge flowing per unit time = current I = nevA

I
 Current density, J   nev -----------------(7)
A

From equation (5) and (6)

J nev
Therefore, conductivity, σ    n eμ -----------------(8)
E E

Ohm’s Law :

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional
to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, we
can write –
V
I 
R

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the voltage measured across
the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More
specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current. So,
if we plot I-V characteristics of a conductor, the characteristics are linear.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCONDUCTORS
https://youtu.be/5lNYGSWc-XM

However, some devices like semiconductor diode do not obey ohms law and the I-V
characteristics for such devices are non-linear.

Temperature Dependence of Resistance :

In conductors (Metals), the resistance increases with the increase in temperature. This happens
because when a metallic conductor is heated, the atoms in the metal vibrate with greater amplitude
and frequency. Due to increase in temperature, the thermal velocities of free electrons also
increase. Therefore, the number of collisions between free electrons and atoms increases. This
increases the opposition to the movement of electrons and hence the resistance of the conductor.
So, metals are said to have positive temperature coefficient.

In semiconductors, the resistance decreases with increase in temperature. This happens because
with increase in temperature, more electrons jump from valence band to conduction band. So,
more electrons and holes are available for conduction and resistance decreases. Therefore,
semiconductors are said to have negative temperature coefficient.

SUPERCONDUCTORS AND CRITICAL TEMPERATURE :

At room temperature, resistivity of good conductor is of the order of 10-8 ohm-m. Metals have a
positive temperature coefficient. i.e. their resistance decreases with decrease in temperature. In
normal conductors, the resistivity decreases with decrease in temperature but it never becomes
zero. However, Kamerlingth Onnes, in 1911, observed that resistivity of pure mercury suddenly
drops to zero at 40K. He concluded that mercury has passed into a new state which is called the
superconducting state.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

In some substances like mercury, it is observed that, resistivity suddenly drops to zero at a
particular temperature. Such substances are called as superconductors. The temperature at which,
resistivity of the material drops to zero, is called transition temperature or critical temperature.
Critical temperature is denoted by Tc.
The table below shows critical temperature for some elements and compounds –

Element Tc 0K Compound Tc 0K
Tungsten 0.01 Zr Al2 0.30
Cadmium 0.56 Au Be 2.64
Aluminium 1.19 Ni Bi 4.25
Mercury 4.15 Nb3 Al 17.5
Niobium 9.46 Nb3 18.05

Critical temperatures of superconductors

BCS THEORY :

After the discovery of superconductivity in 1911, theory explaining this phenomenon was given
by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and J. Robert Schrieffer in 1957. This long delay indicates how
difficult it was to formulate the theory. This theory is known as BCS theory.

According to BCS theory, the superconductivity arises from a subtle interaction between the
conduction electrons and the lattice vibrations (phonons). Following observations were considered
by these scientists to formulate their theory-

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCONDUCTORS
https://youtu.be/5lNYGSWc-XM

i) It was observed that very good conductors such as copper, silver and gold are not
superconductors. Some poor conductors like lead and niobium which have high resistivity
at room temperature due to strong electron-phonon scattering, exhibit superconductivity.
ii) It was also observed that varying the relative abundance of different isotopes (nuclides
having identical nuclear charge but different nuclear mass) of a superconductor has an
effect on the critical temperature. Samples with lighter nuclei (fewer neutrons) have a
higher Tc. A smaller nuclear mass means larger amplitude of lattice vibrations and hence
greater electron-phonon scattering. So, this isotope effect is evidence which indicates
relation of superconductivity with electron-phonon interaction.

BCS theory predicts that conduction electrons in a superconductor form bound pairs, called cooper
pairs. The mechanism of cooper pair formation is shown in following fig –

positive
ions
electron

Cooper pair formation

When a negatively charged conduction electron passes through the lattice of positively charged
ions cores, it pulls the ions towards it. This leaves a wake of net positive charge behind. Two
electrons travelling in opposite directions are attracted towards this positively charged wake of
each other. If the temperature is low enough so that the random thermal motion does not disrupt
the wake and the electron-phonon interaction is strong enough to produce a strong wake, then the
attraction to the wake becomes greater than the electron-electron coulomb repulsion and the two
electrons form a bound pair, which is called a Cooper pair.

Once the Cooper pairs are formed, lattice imperfections and vibrations can scatter them only by
dissociating them. This will require energy Eg = 3.5 kTc where Eg is the binding energy of the
Cooper pair. At temperatures lower than critical temperature, thermal energies are insufficient to
do this. Therefore Cooper pairs can not be scattered by the lattice and the resistivity becomes zero.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

Electrons in good conductors like gold, silver, move so freely in the lattice that little electron
lattice interaction takes place and there is no pairing of electrons. Hence such good conductors at
room temperature, do not show superconductivity.

EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON SUPERCONDUCTOR :

It is observed that superconductivity vanishes if a sufficiently strong magnetic field is applied. The
minimum magnetic field required to destroy the superconducting state of the specimen and restore
the normal conducting state is called as Critical Field. Critical field is denoted by Hc. This critical
field is a function of the temperature. The variation of critical field with temperature is shown in
following fig.

H0 is the critical field at 0 0K.

Variation of Critical field with temperature T is parabolic and is given by -
  T 2 
H c T   H 0 1    
  Tc  
 

1. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic field and
a critical field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
( )
 T 
2

H c T   H 0 1    
  Tc  
 
  2 2 
 H c T   0.0306  1     0.0216 T
  3.7  
 

2. The superconducting transition temperature of Lead is 7.26 K. The initial field at 0

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCONDUCTORS
https://youtu.be/5lNYGSWc-XM

K is 64 × 103 Amp/m. Calculate the critical field at 5 K.

( )
 T 
2

H c T   H 0 1    
  Tc  
 
  5 2 
 H c T   64 × 10 3  1     33.64  10 3 Amp/m
  7.26  
 

3. Critical field of Niobium is 105 A/m at 8 K ans 2 x 105 at 0 K. Calculate critical

temperature of Niobium.
( )

 T 
2

H c T   H 0 1    
  Tc  
 
H T 
2
T 
 1     c
 Tc  H0
H T 
2
T 
    1  c
 Tc  H0
 H T   2
 T 2  1  c  Tc
 H 0 
T
 Tc 
 H c T  
1  
 H 0 
8 8
 Tc    11.31 K
 10 
5 1  0.5
1  
5 
 2  10 

4. Critical temperature of a superconductor when no magnetic field is applied is

present is TC. Find the temperature at which the critical field becomes half of its
value at 0 K.
( )

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

 T 
2

H c T   H 0 1    
  Tc  
 
H T 
2
T 
 1     c
 Tc  H0

H T 
2
T 
    1  c
 Tc  H0
 H T   2
 T 2  1  c  Tc
 H 0 
H0
 H c T  
 T  1   TC  1  2 TC  0.5 TC  0.707 TC
 H0  H0
5. The transition temperature for Pb is7.2 K. However, at 5 K it loses the
superconducting property if subjected to a magnetic field of 3.3×104 A/m. Find the
maximum value of H which will allow the metal to retain its superconductivity at
0K.
( )
 T 
2

H c T   H 0 1    
  Tc  
 
H c T  3.3  10 4
H0    6.37  10 4 A/m
 T    5  

2 2
1   1  
  
   7.2  
  Tc 
 
6. Along thin superconducting wire of a metal produces a magnetic field 105×103 A/m
on its surface due to the current through it at a certain temperature T. The critical
field of the metal is 150×103 A/m at absolute zero. The critical temperature Tc of
the metal is 9.2 K. What is the value of T?
( )

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCONDUCTORS
https://youtu.be/5lNYGSWc-XM

 T 
2

H c T   H 0 1    
  Tc  
 
H T 
2
T 
 1     c
 Tc  H0
H T 
2
T 
    1  c
 Tc  H0
 H T   2
 T 2  1  c  Tc
 H 0 
 H T   105  10 3
 T  1  c  TC  1   9.2  5.06 K
 H 0  150  10 3

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 9 of 9

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCONDUCTORS
https://youtu.be/dXOgF5iW0lQ

Chapter – 5 SUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

Session 2 : Meissner Effect
Types of Superconductors

5.5 MEISSNER EFFECT (superconductors show perfect diamagnetism):

The phenomenon of Meissner effect states that when a superconductor is cooled below Tc and
placed in a magnetic field H, then it is observed that the magnetic flux is excluded or thrown out
of the bulk of the specimen. The reason behind the destruction of the magnetic field in the bulk of
the superconducting specimen is the existence of electric current flowing through the surface of
the sample. The magnetic field produced by this current cancels the external applied field. It
means that induction B  0 .
But B  μ (H
0
 M)0 Where, 0 is the absolute permeability,
M is magnetization due to induced current,
 M  -H
 is susceptibility
M
 Magnetic susceptibility, χ   -1
H

As magnetic susceptibility is negative, the superconductor is a perfect diamagnetic substance.

Super
Normal
conducting
state
state

(a) Normal conductor (b) Superconductor

Field penetrates Field is excluded
Meissner effect in simply connected specimen

If the sample is simply connected (i.e. continuous matter not having any hole in it), then the effect
of exclusion of field lines remains the same irrespective of the order of cooling the sample below
Tc and switching on of the magnetic field.

Persistent Current in Meissner’s Effect :

If the sample is not simply connected (i.e. having a hole in it e.g. a ring), then the Meissner effect
is observed differently. If a ring is cooled below Tc and then the field is switched on, the field lines
are completely excluded. But if the field is switched on and then the ring is cooled below Tc then it
is observed that the field lines through the holes are trapped by the superconducting ring. Now,
even if the external field is switched off, the field in the hole remains non-zero.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

(a) T > Tc (b) T < Tc (c) T < Tc

normal state Superconducting state Field is removed
field penetrates field is excluded but trapped inside

Meissner effect shown by a superconducting ring

Field is applied before cooling
In the above fig. the Meissner effect is studied in ring when the magnetic field is applied before
cooling the specimen. When the sample is cooled below Tc, the flux is excluded as shown in
fig.(b). Now, if the field is switched off, the field inside the ring is trapped as shown in fig. (c).
A large current is induced by the collapsing field that maintains the trapped flux. This current is
called as persistent current because it exists even after switching off the field.
If the sample is cooled below Tc before applying the magnetic field, then the Meissner effect is
observed as shown below –

(a) T<Tc (b) T<Tc

Field absent Field is applied
Meissner effect in superconducting ring
Field is applied after cooling

In this case, the field is not trapped inside the ring.

TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTOR

Generally, superconductors are classified into two categories depending on their behaviour under
the influence of external field when transition is made from superconducting state to normal state.

Type - I superconductors or Soft superconductors

Type - II superconductors or Hard superconductors

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCONDUCTORS
https://youtu.be/dXOgF5iW0lQ

Type - I superconductors or Soft Type - II superconductors or Hard

superconductors superconductors
1. Type – I superconductors have only one 1. For Type II superconductors, two critical
critical field (Hc) magnetic fields – lower critical field (Hc1)
and upper critical field (Hc2) exist.
2. The magnetization curve is as shown 2. The magnetization curve is as shown
below - below -

Superconducting Superconducting Mixed state/

Normal state Normal state
state state Vortex State
Magnetisation

Magnetisation
-M -M

Hc Hc1 Hc2
Applied magnetic field (H) Applied magnetic field (H)

Type - I superconductor Type - II superconductor

3. In Type I superconductors, the transition 3. In the Type – II superconductor, the

from superconducting state to normal transition from superconducting state to
state is abrupt. As the critical field is normal state is gradual. For these
reached, the entire specimen enters the superconductors, below Hc1, the specimen
normal state, the resistivity returns, is in superconducting state. i.e. magnetic
magnetization vanishes and the field flux is completely excluded. Between Hc1
penetrates into the specimen. and Hc2, the magnetic flux penetrates
partially in the body of the specimen and
the specimen is in the mixed state
(vortex state). In this state the substance
exhibits some superconducting properties
like zero resistance and some normal
properties like partially penetrating flux.
4. Type I superconductors exhibit the 4. Type II superconductors do not exhibit
Meissner effect in full. The exhibit complete Meissner effect. i.e. The do not
perfect diamagnetism. show perfect diamagnetism.
5. They are called as soft superconductors 5. At Hc2 the magnetization vanishes and the
as the superconductivity is destroyed specimen turns into normal state. Thus,
very easily at low Hc values. superconductivity is retained till large
magnetic field is reached. Hence they are
called Hard superconductors.

6. Type I superconductors have very low 6. For type II superconductors, values of Hc2
Hc values (0.1 Wb/m2) may be 100 times more than Hc values
for Type –I.
7. Pure specimens of most superconducting 7. Generally, alloys and transition metals
materials like lead, tin, mercury etc. are with high electrical resistivity are of
of Type – I. Type-II. E.g. Nb3Sn, Nb3Ge

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

Transition at critical field is reversible. i.e. if the magnetic field is reduced below the critical value
the material again acquires the superconducting property.

Following table shows critical fields for various materials –

Type – I Superconductors Type – II Superconductors

Material Hc In wb / m2 Material Hc2 In wb / m2

W 0.00011 PbMos 6.0
Zn 0.0053 NbN 15.3
Al 0.0105 Nb3Sn 24.5
In 0.0293 Nb3Ge 34.0
Hg 0.0411
Pb 0.0803

HIGH TC SUPERCONDUCTORS

Superconducting materials find number of applications due to zero resistance. In early days, the
critical temperature of superconductors was very low. And for maintaining very low temperature,
liquid helium was used which was very costly. Hence superconductors with high critical
temperatures are required. These high Tc superconductors were first discovered by J. George
Bednorz and K. Alex Muller in 1986. Critical temperatures of these new superconductors exceed
77 0K, that is the boiling point of liquid nitrogen. So it was possible to maintain superconducting
state with liquid nitrogen which is relatively cheaper and easier to handle than liquid helium. In
addition to high critical temperature, these High TC superconductors exhibit extreme type II
behavior. i.e. the critical field is also very high.

High TC superconductors are divided into 3 groups as shown below-

Copper Based Compounds Iron Based Compounds Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

(Cuprates) (Prictides)
These high Tc materials are Iron based compounds contain In a recent study, physicists in
layered ceramic materials with layers of iron and a pnictogen Germany have shown that
planes of copper oxide. such as arsenic, phosphorous Hydrogen sulfide - the stuff
or calcogens aush as oxygen, that makes rotten eggs stink-
sulpher becomes a superconductor at a
Bismuth Strontium Calcium LnFeAs, LiFeAs record high temperature. When
Copper Oxide (BSCCO), solidified, the compound
Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide conducts electricity without
(YBCO) etc. resistance at 203.5 K. That's
still cold - about 70°C below
the freezing point of water. But
it’s far higher than anything
ever achieved before and a big
step closer to the lofty goal of
achieving superconductivity at
room temperature.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCONDUCTORS
https://youtu.be/dXOgF5iW0lQ

Material Tc in 0K
LiFeAs 20
LnFeAs 56
La1.85Ba0.15CuO4 30
La2CuO4 40
YBa2Cu3O7 92
Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O7 125
Hg0.2Tl0.8Ca2Ba2Cu3O 139
Critical Temperatures of High Tc materials

These new materials can be maintained in their superconducting state relatively easily and
cheaply. These high Tc superconductors are all Type – II superconductors and have very high
critical field.

Advantages of High TC Superconductors (HTS):

1. As critical temperature of HTS is more than 77 0K, it can be easily maintained using liquid
nitrogen.
2. High TC superconductors exhibit extreme type II behavior. i.e. the critical field is also very
high. So, HTS can carry very large currents even in very strong magnetic fields.
3. If HTS are used in electrical power distribution network, the network will be compact due
to high current carrying capacity.
4. Because of reduced size and weight, can be used effectively in magnetic levitation
application like MAGLEV.
5. HTS has application in scientific and industrial magnets, including use in NMR (Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance) and MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) systems. Commercial
systems are now available in each category.
6. The efficiency of the system using HTS will be more.

Disadvantages of High TC Superconductors (HTS):

1. The commercial applications so far for high temperature superconductors (HTS) have been
limited as the currently known high temperature superconductors are brittle ceramics
which are expensive to manufacture and not easily formed into wires or other useful
shapes.
2. They can not be used in electrical apparatus like transformers, generators and motors very
easily.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

MAGLEV (question may not be asked- for information)

Maglev stands for Magnetic levitation. Maglev trains can float on a cushion of air eliminating
friction. Elimination of friction allows the train to reach speeds exceeding 500 km/hr.

Superconducting coils and transformers can generate much stronger magnetic fields as compared
to the conventional electromagnets. The size and weight of such superconducting machines is also
small and they are more efficient.

The maglev train uses superconducting guidance magnet attached below the train carriage. The
train moves over the track which has wheel supporting bars running along with the track as shown
in fig. These tracks have series of vertical coils mounted inside. These coils are of ordinary metals.

As the train passes each coil, the motion of superconducting magnet on the train induces a current
in these coils making them electromagnets. The magnetic field of these electromagnets can not
penetrate the superconducting magnet and the force between these electromagnets and the
superconducting magnet below the train carriage levitate the train up to 1 cm to 10 cm in the air
and pushes the train in forward direction.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCAPACITORS
https://youtu.be/jj5z_h3PqR0

Chapter – 6 SUPERCAPACITORS
Session 1 : Supercapacitors

Prerequisites:
Unlike the resistor, which dissipates energy in the form of heat, the ideal capacitor does not loose
its energy. The simplest form of a capacitor is two parallel conducting metal plates which are
separated by an insulating material, such as air, mica, paper, ceramic, etc, and called the dielectric
through a distance, “d”.
Capacitors store energy as a result of their ability to store charge with the amount of charge stored
on a capacitor depending on the voltage, V applied across its plates, and the greater the voltage,
the more charge will be stored by the capacitor as: Q  V .
The constant of proportion ality is known as capacitance (C) and is given by -
Q
C
V
where C is capacitance in farad (F),
Q is electric charge stored on capacitor in coulombs (C),
V is voltage between capacitor plates in volts (V)
The capacitance is the amount of electric charge that is stored in the capacitor at voltage of 1 Volt.
The capacitance is measured in units of Farad (F).

The capacitor disconnects current in direct current (DC) circuits and short circuit in alternating
current (AC) circuits.
A
Capacitanc e of a capacitor is also given by - C  ε
d
where C is the capacitance of the capacitor, in farad (F)
ε is the permittivi ty of the capacitor' s dialectic material, in farad per meter (F/m)
A is the area of the capacitor' s plate in square meters (m 2 )
d is the distance between the capacitor' s plates, in meters (m)
VC2
The capacitor's stored energy EC in joules (J) is given by – E C  C 
2
1
In AC circuit, capacitor reactance is given by - X C  wheref is frequency in Hz.
2πf C

Supercapacitors
Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 6
https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

Supercapacitors also known as Ultracapacitors are capacitors which can have capacitance values
from a few milli-farads (mF) to ten’s of farads in a very small size. Using supercapacitors, much
more electrical energy can be stored between their plates. It is constructed to have a large
conductive plate, called an electrode, surface area (A) as well as a very small distance (d) between
them.
Unlike conventional capacitors that use a solid and dry dielectric material such as Teflon,
Polyethylene, Paper, etc, the ultracapacitor uses a liquid or wet electrolyte between its electrodes.
Thus it is more of an electrochemical device similar to an electrolytic capacitor.
Although an ultracapacitor is a type of electrochemical device, no chemical reactions are involved
for storing electrical energy. i.e., the ultra-capacitor remains effectively an electrostatic device
storing its electrical energy in the form of an electric field between its two conducting electrodes.

Basic Construction :

The capacitance of a capacitor increases with the increase in the area of the conducting plates. The
capacitance also increases as the distance between the plates decreases.

In a supercapacitor, the conducting plates are made up of metal coated with a porous substance
such as powdery, activated charcoal. Due to this porous nature of the surface, the surface increases
and more area is available for storing more charge.

In a Supercapacitor, both plates are soaked in an electrolyte and separated by a very thin insulator
(which might be made of carbon, paper, or plastic). The separator is used to provide insulation and
separate the electrodes to prevent the short circuit.

+
C1
Plates coated with
Electrolyte
Separator porous s ubstance

C2

-
Basic Construction of Supercapacitor

Electrolyte contains positively charged ions and negatively charged ions. When we apply voltage
across the plates, one of the electrodes gets positively charged and the other gets negatively
charged. Due to electrostatic attraction, negative ions in the electrolyte get attracted to the positive
electrode and positive ions get attracted to negatively charged electrode. These ions form very thin
layers (having thickness of one ion), around the plates.

This creates an electric double-layer, with a series circuit of two capacitors C1 and C2. Thus, the
two electrodes form a series circuit of two individual capacitors C1 and C2. In both capacitors, d is
A
very small and therefore, capacitance, C  ε  is very large. The total capacitance Ctotal is given
d
C  C2
by the formula – C T o t a l 1 . Such Supercapacitors are called as Electrostatic Double
C1  C 2
Layer Capacitors (EDLC).

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCAPACITORS
https://youtu.be/jj5z_h3PqR0
Types of Supercapacitors:

Supercapacitors make use of two basic principles for energy storage –

1. Static double layered capacitance
2. Electrochemical pseudocapacitance
3.
Based on this, supercapacitors are categorized into three different types. They are:
1. Double Layered Capacitors
2. Pseudocapacitors
3. Hybrid Capacitors

1. Electrostatic Double Layered Capacitors (EDLC)

In Double Layered Capacitors, Storage of electrical energy is achieved by charge separation in

double layer called Helmholtz double layer. This acts as a boundary between the conductor
electrode and electrolyte. The electrodes are carbon electrodes or derivatives like charcoal powder
rods. Charge is stored electrostatically.

2. Pseudo capacitors

They have polymer conducting electrodes or transition metal oxides that possess large
electrochemical pseudocapacitance. In pseudo capacitors, energy is stored electrochemically due
to charge transfer between electrode and electrolyte. So, storage of charge is an electrochemical
process and is achieved through redox reaction.

In pseudo capacitor, porous carbon material is replaced by pseudo capacitive material that can
undergo electrochemical process..

3. Hybrid Capacitors

Hybrid supercapacitors are combinations of both double layered and pseudo capacitors. The
electrodes are asymmetric where one of the electrodes exhibit electrostatic property while the
other exhibits electrochemical capacitance. Because both Pseudocapacitance and Double-Layered
capacitance make inseparable contributions to the full capacitance of an electrochemical capacitor.

Advantages of Supercapacitors

The supercapacitor has many advantages like,

1. Very High efficiency.

2. Supercapacitors offer high energy density and high power density.
3. Charging rate is high and they offer higher performance reliability
4. Supercapacitor has a long life than a battery 10 to 15 years.
5. The supercapacitor can withstand any temperature between -30 to 650C whereas a
battery can withstand -10 to 400C
6. The supercapacitor is very light in weight.
7. Supercapacitors can be installed in a short area as it has very smaller in size.
8. The supercapacitor has a very fast transient response.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

Disadvantages of supercapacitors :

1. Supercapacitors can not be used in AC applications.

2. The supercapacitor has very low specific energy.
3. It is very difficult to make high voltage capacity supercapacitor at the present time that
is why mostly 2.7V supercapacitors are available in the market.
4. The linear discharge voltage property of the supercapacitor is a disadvantage for us.
Linear discharge voltage property means that when the supercapacitor discharge 50%
of total stored energy, the voltage also reduce half of the full voltage that means if the
full voltage of the supercapacitor is 2.7V then the voltage will be reduced to 1.3V. But
in case of a battery, the voltage will be near to the full voltage even the battery
discharge 50% energy.
5. Price of supercapacitors is more than Li-ion batteries for the same capacity.
6. The supercapacitor quickly discharges than a battery when it is not connected with the
load or in other words the self-discharging property of supercapacitor is a disadvantage
for us.

Applications of Supercapacitors

Since supercapacitors are bridging the gap between capacitors and batteries, they are being used in
large number of applications. Supercapacitors have advantages in applications where a large
amount of power is needed for a relatively short time.

1. Low powered applications where quick recharge or high life cycle is important, make use
of the supercapacitor technology. MP3 players, photographic flash, static memories are a
few such applications.
2. In applications with fluctuating loads, such as laptop computers, PDA's, GPS, portable
media players and photovoltaic systems, supercapacitors can stabilize the power supply.
3. Supercapacitors can be used to deliver power for photographic flashes in digital cameras
and for LED flashlights that can be charged in much shorter periods of time,
4. Supercapacitor can be used a s energy storage for a cordless electric tools.
5. Supercapacitors can provide backup or emergency shutdown power to low-power
equipment such as RAM, SRAM, micro-controllers and PC Cards.
6. Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) may be powered by supercapacitors, which can
replace much larger banks of electrolytic capacitors.
7. Supercapacitors provide backup power for actuators in wind turbine pitch systems, so that
blade pitch can be adjusted even if the main supply fails.
8. Supercapacitors can stabilize voltage fluctuations for power lines by acting as dampeners.
9. Supercapacitors are suitable temporary energy storage devices for energy harvesting
systems. In energy harvesting systems, the energy is collected from the ambient or
renewable sources, e.g., mechanical movement or light.
10. supercapacitors can be used to provide bursts of power in startup mechanism in
automobiles. Supercapacitors are used in electric vehicles and the regenerative braking
mechanism is used for charging the supercapacitor. The regenerative braking helps to
charge in a very short time.

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv SUPERCAPACITORS
https://youtu.be/jj5z_h3PqR0
Energy Density and Power Density

The energy density of a capacitor is defined as the amount of energy that can be stored in a
capacitor per mass or Volume. It can be measured either gravimetrically (per unit of mass)
in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg) or volumetrically (per unit of volume) in watt-hours
per litre (Wh/litre).

Power density of a system defined as its capacity to do work per unit of its mass. It is measured
either gravimetrically in kilowatts per kilogram (kW/kg, specific power) or volumetrically in
kilowatts per litre (kW/litre).

Comparison between Capacitor and Supercapacitor

Comparison
Capacitor Supercapacitor
based on

In supercapacitors, energy is stored

In capacitors, energy is stored electrostatically, electrochemically or
Definition
electrostatically only. by both depending on the
construction.

Activated carbon is used as a

physical barrier between two
ceramic, polymer films or electrodes so that when an electrical
Dielectric materials
aluminum oxide are used to charge is applied to the material a
used
separate the two electrodes. double electric field is generated.
This electric field generated, acts like
a dielectric.

Energy Density Comparatively low Comparatively very high

Cost Comparatively cheap Comparatively expensive

Charging
High Very low compared to capacitors
discharging time

Capacitance Limited High Capacitance values possible

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 6

https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjivSUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERCAPACITORS

Comparison between Batteries and Supercapacitor

Battery is more widely used due to its ability to store more energy for a given weight and volume:
it has a better energy density. Supercapacitor on the other hand can be charged and discharged
very quickly (or slowly if you do not need power): it has a very high power density.

There are batteries of different types like lead-acid batteries, Ni-MH, LMP, Li-Po, Li-ion, etc.
There are supercapacitors with organic electrolyte, with aqueous electrolyte, with ionic liquid,
hybrid supercapacitors, pseudo-supercapacitors...

The comparison between the widely used Lithium-ion battery (that offers a very good energy
density) and supercapacitors commonly used today is given below-

Feature Li-ion Battery Supercapacitor

Energy density Gravimetric in (Wh/kg) 100 - 265 4 - 10
Energy Density Volumetric in (Wh/L) 220 - 400 4 - 14
Power density (W/kg) 1,500 3,000 - 40,000
Voltage of a cell (V) 3.6 2.7 - 3
Equivalent Series Resistance (mΩ) 500 40 - 300
Efficiency (%) 75 - 90 98
500,000 -
Cyclability (nb recharges) 500 - 1,000
20,000,000
Life 5 - 10 years 10 - 15 years
Self-discharge (% per month) 2 40 - 50 (descending)
Charge temperature 0 to 45°C -40 to 65°C
Discharge temperature -20 to 60°C -40 to 65°C
Risk of explosion Yes No
Cost per kWh Low High

***********

Prepared by – Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 6

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LIST OF MODULE WISE FORMULAE FOR QUICK REFERENCE

Module 1 : Quantum Physics

1. Wavelength of the wave h is Planck’s constant =

associated with particle is p is momentum of the particle
given by – m is mass of the particle
v is velocity of the particle

2. Wavelength of the wave q is charge on the particle

associated with charged V is potential used to accelerate the particle
particle is given by – m is mass of the particle
E is energy of the particle
√ √
3. Wavelength of the wave If an electron is accelerated by potential difference of V volts
associated with an electron m is mass of the electron
is given by – p is momentum of the electron
e is charge on the electron
√ √
4. Wavelength of the wave If the particle is accelerated by thermal energy
associated with particle is k = Boltzmann constant =
given by –

√ √
5. Energy of the particle is Planck’s relation
given by –

6. Phase velocity is given by – c is velocity of light

v is particle velocity

7. Group velocity is equal to the particle velocity (

8. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle is given by -

9. Uncertainty in momentum
of the particle is given by -

Prepared by Prof. Sanjiv Badhe Page 1

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LIST OF MODULE WISE FORMULAE FOR QUICK REFERENCE
10. Time Energy Uncertainty
principle is given by -

11. Percentage uncertainty in

momentum is given by - p is momentum of the particle

12. Normalization Condition for wave function is written as –

13. Schrodinger’s Time Independent Equation is given by -

14. Schrodinger’s Time Dependent Equation is given by –

15. Momentum of the particle is - k = propagation constant

16. Energy of the particle is -

17. Energy of a particle trapped in an h = Planck’s constant =

infinite potential well is given by : m = mass of the particle
a = width of an infinite potential well

n = 1,2,3,4,….

Prepared by Prof. Sanjiv Badhe Page 2

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LIST OF MODULE WISE FORMULAE FOR QUICK REFERENCE

Module 2 : Crystallography

1.

2. Relation between density, atomic is density of crystal

weight and Volume of unit cell n is number of atoms / Molecules per unit cell
M is Atomic / Molecular weight
V is volume of unit cell
is Avogadro number = /gm-mol
3. Interplanar spacing in cubic crystal a is lattice constant
is given by – (h k l) are Miller indices of a plane

√
4. Intercepts of the plane (h k l) on X, OA, OB, OC are X, Y, Z – intercepts of the plane resp.
Y and Z axes are given by – a, b, c are lattice constants in X, Y and Z direction resp.
a b c (h k l) are Miller indices of a plane
OA  ; OB  ; OC 
h k l
5. Bragg’s Law of X-ray diffraction : d is interplanar spacing
is glancing angle
n is order of maximum in diffraction pattern
is wavelength of X-ray
6. The d100:d110:d111 for Simple Cubic, Body Centered Cubic and Face Centered Cubic System
is given by –

Prepared by Prof. Sanjiv Badhe Page 3

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LIST OF MODULE WISE FORMULAE FOR QUICK REFERENCE

Module 3 : Semiconductor Physics:

1. probability of occupancy for energy level f(E) is the probability of occupancy for energy
E is given by - level E
is Fermi energy
(
( ) T is temperature in 0K and

( )
(

2. Electron concentration in conduction is Bottom of conduction band energy

band is given by – is Fermi energy
( T is temperature in 0K and
3
 2 π m *n k T  2
N C  2   ;
 h2 
*
m n is the effective mass of the electron

3. Hole concentration in valence band is is Top of valence band energy

given by - is Fermi energy
( T is temperature in 0K and
3
 2 π m *p k T  2
NV  2   ;
 h 2 
 
*
m p is the effective mass of the hole

4. For any semiconductor, n is electron concentration

( p is hole concentration
is intrinsic concentration

5. For an intrinsic semiconductor, is Bottom of conduction band energy

is Top of valence band energy

6. Relation between current density, J is drift current density

conductivity and electric field - is the conductivity
E is the electric field

Prepared by Prof. Sanjiv Badhe Page 4

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LIST OF MODULE WISE FORMULAE FOR QUICK REFERENCE
7. Mobility of a carrier is given by – is the mobility of the carrier
v is the average drift velocity
E is the electric field
SI unit of mobility is

8. I is current through the conductor

n is the electron concentration
e is charge on electron =
v is average drift velocity
A is the area of cross section of the conductor

9. Relation between conductivity and is the conductivity

mobility : J is drift current density
E is the electric field
n is the electron concentration
e is charge on electron =
v is average drift velocity
is the mobility of the carrier (electron or
hole)

10. Conductivity of semiconductor is given n is electron concentration in conduction band

by - p is hole concentration in valence band
e is charge on electron
is mobility of electrons
is mobility of holes

11. Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is intrinsic concentration

is given by – e is charge on electron
( is mobility of electrons
is mobility of holes

12. Conductivity of n-type semiconductors is n is electron concentration

given by – e is charge on electron
is mobility of electrons
is donor concentration

Prepared by Prof. Sanjiv Badhe Page 5

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LIST OF MODULE WISE FORMULAE FOR QUICK REFERENCE
13. Conductivity of p-type semiconductors is p is hole concentration
given by – e is charge on electron
is mobility of holes
is acceptor concentration

14. Hall voltage is given by – is Hall voltage

B is magnetic induction
I is current through the conductor
n is carrier concentration
e is charge on electron
w is thickness of the conductor in the direction
of magnetic field
J is drift current density
d is thickness of the conductor in the direction
of electric field

15. Carrier concentration is given by - n is carrier concentration

is Hall voltage
B is magnetic induction
I is current through the conductor
e is charge on electron
w is thickness of the conductor in the direction
of magnetic field

16. Hall Coefficient is given by - n is carrier concentration

e is charge on electron

17. Contact potential (Barrier potential at T is temperature in 0K and

the p-n junction is given by –
e is charge on electron
( ) is acceptor concentration on p-side
( is donor concentration on n-side
is intrinsic concentration

Prepared by Prof. Sanjiv Badhe Page 6

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LIST OF MODULE WISE FORMULAE FOR QUICK REFERENCE

Module 4 : Interference in Thin films

1. Optical path length (Equivalent path d is the path travelled in denser medium
travelled in air) is given by - is the refractive index of the denser medium

2. Thin film of uniform thickness (Reflected is refractive index of the film

System) - t is the thickness of the film
Effective optical path difference in reflected r is angle of refraction
system is given by – is wavelength of light

Condition for Maximum:

(
Condition for Minimum:

3. Thin film of uniform thickness is refractive index of the film

(Transmitted System) - t is the thickness of the film
Effective optical path difference in r is angle of refraction
transmitted system is given by – is wavelength of light

Condition for Maximum:

Condition for Minimum:

(

4. Thickness of non-reflecting film on a glass is wavelength of light

plate is given by – is refractive index of the film

5. Thickness of fully-reflecting film on a glass is wavelength of light

plate is given by – is refractive index of the film

Prepared by Prof. Sanjiv Badhe Page 7

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LIST OF MODULE WISE FORMULAE FOR QUICK REFERENCE
6. Wedge Shaped Film : is refractive index of the film
Effective optical path difference in reflected t is the thickness of the film
system is given by – r is angle of refraction
is angle of wedge
(
is wavelength of light
Condition for Maximum:
( (
Condition for Minimum:
(

7. Fringe width of the interference pattern is refractive index of the film

in wedge shaped film experiment - is angle of wedge
is wavelength of light
(

8. Determination of diameter of a thin wire

using Wedge shaped Film
(

( )
is refractive index of the film
( is angle of wedge
is wavelength of light
9. Determination of refractive index of is the fringe width obtained with air film
liquid using Wedge shaped Film is the fringe width obtained with liquid
film

10 Diameter of nth dark ring in Newton’s R is radius of curvature of convex lens

ring experiment is wavelength of light
√ n = 1,2,3,…

11. Diameter of nth bright ring in Newton’s R is radius of curvature of convex lens
ring experiment is wavelength of light
√ ( n = 1,2,3,…

Prepared by Prof. Sanjiv Badhe Page 8

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LIST OF MODULE WISE FORMULAE FOR QUICK REFERENCE
12. wavelength of light using Newton’s ring is diameter of nth dark ring
experiment is diameter of (m+n)th dark ring
( ( R is radius of curvature of convex surface of
the lens
is wavelength of light

13. Radius of curvature of convex surface is diameter of nth dark ring

using Newton’s ring experiment is diameter of (m+n)th dark ring
( ( R is radius of curvature of convex surface of
the lens
is wavelength of light

14 Determination of refractive index of ( is diameter of nth dark ring obtained

liquid using Newton’s rings with air film
( ( is diameter of nth dark ring obtained
( )
( with liquid film

Module 5 : Superconductors

1. Critical field at temperature T is given by is the critical field at 0 0K.

is the critical temperature
( ( ( ) )

2. Superconductors are perfect diamagnets B is magnetic induction

⃗ (⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ) 0 is the absolute permeability,
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ M is magnetization due to induced
⃗⃗⃗ current,
is susceptibility
⃗⃗

Prepared by Prof. Sanjiv Badhe Page 9

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

Module wise Questionnaire on Engineering Physics (2023-24)

Module 1 : QUANTUM PHYSICS

1. Explain the de Broglie concept of matter waves. (3)
2. Explain de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves and deduce the expression for . (3)
3. What are properties of matter waves? (3)
4. Explain De Broglie hypothesis on the basis of Bohr's postulate. (3)
5. Describe Davission -Germer experiment to verify De Broglie hypothesis. (5)
6. Why single monochromatic wave can not be associated with the particle? (3)
7. Show that de Broglie group velocity associated with the wave packet is equal to the
particle velocity. (5)
8. State and explain Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle. (3)
9. Using Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle, show that electron cannot exist within the (5)
nucleus.
10. With a single slit electron diffraction experiment, prove Heisenberg's Uncertainty (5)
Principle.
11. With Heisenberg's Gamma ray microscope experiment, prove Heisenberg's (5)
Uncertainty Principle.
12. What is significance of wave function? (3)
13. Derive one dimensional Time Dependent Schrodinger equation for matter waves. (5)
14. Derive Schrodinger's Time Independent wave equation. (5)
15. Show that the energy of an electron in the box varies as the square of natural number. (5)
16. Derive the expression for energy Eigen values for a free particle in one dimensional
potential well. (5)
17. Show that energy levels of a particle in one dimensional infinite potential well are
quantized. (5)
18. What is quantum computing. Mention its advantages and disadvantages. (5)
19. Compare classical computing and quantum computing. (5)

NUMERICALS ON QUANTUM PHYSICS

1. An electron beam is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 200 V.
i) Calculate the associated wavelength.
ii) This beam is passed through a diffraction grating of spacing 3 A0. At what angle of
deviating from the incident direction will be the first maximum observed?
2. Calculate the wavelength of the wave associated with a neutron moving with energy
0.025eV. Mass of neutron is 1.676 x 10-27 kg.
3. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the proton moving with a velocity equal to th of
velocity of light. Mass of proton is 1.6 x 10-27 kg.
4. Calculate velocity and de Broglie wavelength of an 𝑝 of energy 1 keV. Mass of
𝑝 is 6.68 x 10-27 kg.
Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 1 of 11
 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

5. An enclosure filled with helium is heated to 400K. A beam of He-atoms emerges out of the
enclosure. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength corresponding to He-atoms. Mass of He-
atoms = 6.7 x 10-27 kg.
6. Calculate de Broglie wavelength associated with an 𝑝 accelerated by a potential
difference of 100 kV. Mass of 𝑝 is 6.68 × 10 𝑘𝑔.
7. Find the energy of neutron in units of electron volt whose de Broglie wavelength is 1A0.
Given – mass of neutron = 1. 674 × 10 𝑘𝑔
8. A bullet of mass 40 gm and an electron both travel with the velocity of 1100 m/s. What
wavelengths can be associated with them? Why the wave nature of bullet can not be revealed
using diffraction effect?
9. Find the energy of neutron in units of electron volt whose de Broglie wavelength is 1A0.
Given – mass of neutron = 1. 674 × 10 𝑘𝑔
10. An electron accelerated through 1000 volts and is reflected from a crystal. The first order
reflection occurs when glancing angle is 700. Calculate the interplanar spacing of the crystal.
11. An electrons accelerated through 100 volts are reflected from a crystal. Calculate the
glancing angle at which the first order reflection occurs. Given lattice spacing = 2.15 A0.
12. An electron and photon each have a wavelength of 2 A0. What are their momentum and
energy?
𝑀 𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 𝑢 𝑜𝑛 = 1.676 × 10 𝑘𝑔, 𝑀 𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛 = 9.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔,
𝑃 𝑛 𝑘 𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑛 = 6.63 × 10 𝐽. 𝑠
13. A position and momentum of 1 keV electron are simultaneously measured. If position is
located within 10 nm then what is the percentage uncertainty in its momentum?
14. An electron has a speed of 400 m/s with uncertainty of 0.01%. Find the accuracy in its
position.
15. An electron has a speed of 900 m/s with an accuracy of 0.001%. Calculate the uncertainty in
the position of the electron.
16. The speed of an electron is measured to within an uncertainty of 2 x 104 m/s. What is the
minimum space required by the electron to be confined to an atom?
17. An electron confined in a box of length 10-8 m. Calculate minimum uncertainty in its
velocity.
18. Why electron can not exist in nucleus?
19. An electron is bound in a one dimensional potential well of width 2 A0 and of infinite height.
Find its energy values in ground state and first two excited states.
20. An electron is trapped in a one dimensional box of length 0.1 nm. Calculate the energy
required to excite the electron from its ground state to the 4th excited state.
21. An electron is bound by a potential which closely approaches an infinite square well of width
2.5 x 10-10 m. Calculate the first lowest permissible energy for the electron.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 2 of 11

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

Module 2 : CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
1. Write a short note on - Definition of Miller indices and steps to find out Miller
indices of a particular lattice plane. (5)
2. “Miller indices, in practice, do not define a particular plane, but a set of parallel
planes.” Explain this statement with the help of examples. (5)
3. How planes having different intercepts can have similar Miller indices? Explain with
suitable example. (5)
4. Draw the following planes 1 2 3 , 110 , 23̅1 (3)
5. Draw the following directions 1 1 2̅ , 2 0 0 , 201 (3)
6. Draw the following in the cubic unit cell :- (4)
Planes (121), (110)
Directions [120], [111]
7. Write a short note on - Miller Indices and crystal lattice planes. (5)
8. Mention features of Miller indices. (3)
9. Explain procedure to determine Miller Indices of crystal plane which intercepts all the
three axes. (5)
10. What are the miller indices? Derive an expression for inter-planar spacing for the
planes having (h k l) as the miller indices. (5)
11. Derive the expression for interplanar distance in terms of lattice parameter. (5)
12. Obtain Bragg's law of X-ray diffraction. (3)
13. What are X-rays? Why X-rays are preferred to study crystalline solids? (3)
14. Explain construction and working of Bragg's X-ray spectrometer. (5)
15. How can we determine crystal structure with observations obtained using Bragg’s X-
ray spectrometer? (5)

NUMERICALS ON CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
1. Molybdenum has BCC structure. Calculate atomic radius and mass density.
Given that lattice constant a = 3.15 A0, atomic weight of Mo = 95.94 and
Avogadro’s Number = 6.023 x 1026 / kg-mole.
2. Aluminium has density 2.7 gm/cm3. Its atomic weight is 27 and lattice parameter is 4.05 A0.
Determine the type of crystal structure followed by Aluminium.
3. Calculate density of GaAs using following data :
Atomic weight of Ga = 69
Atomic weight of As = 74
Lattice constant for GaAs = 5.6 x 10-8 cm
Number of molecules per unit cell = 4
4. Draw the following [ 0 11 ] , [ 1 2 1 ]
5. Draw the following [ 1 2 3 ] , ( 0 1 1 )
6. Draw the following ( 1 2 1 ) , ( 1 2 3)
7. Silver has FCC structure and its atomic radius is 1.44 A0. Find the spacing of the (220),

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 3 of 11

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

(200) and (111) planes.

8. A crystal lattice plane (326) makes an intercept of 1.5 A0 on X-axis in a crystal having
lattice constant 1.5 A0, 2 A0 and 2 A0 respectively on X, Y and Z axis. Find Y and Z
intercept.
9. Calculate the velocity and Kinetic energy of electrons striking the target in an X-ray tube
operating at 3500 volts.
10. Bragg’s reflection of the first order was observed at 21.70 for parallel planes of a crystal
under test. If the wavelength of X-rays used is 1.54 A0, find the interplanar spacing for the
planes in the crystal.
11. The spacing between the principle planes in a crystal of NaCl is 2.82 A0. It is found that the
first order Bragg’s reflection occurs at 100.
a) What is the wavelength of X-rays?
b) At what angle, the second order reflection occurs?
What is the highest order of reflection seen?
12. Calculate the smallest glancing angle at which k-copper line of 1.549 A0 will be reflected
from crystal having atomic spacing 4.255 A0.
13. Calculate the glancing angle on the cube (100) of a rock salt (a = 2.814 A0) corresponding to
2nd order diffraction maximum for X-rays of wavelength 0.714 A0.
14. In comparing the wavelengths of two monochromatic X-ray lines, it is found that line A
gives a 1st order Bragg reflection maximum at a glancing angle of 300 to the smooth face of
a crystal. Line B of known wavelength of 0.97 A0 gives 3rd order reflection maximum at a
glancing angle of 600 with the same face of the same crystal. Find wavelength of line A.
15. Calculate the maximum order of diffraction if X-rays of wavelength 0.819 A0 is incident on
a crystal of lattice spacing 0.282 nm
16. For NaCl, first order maxima for (100), (110) and (111) planes are obtained as 5.90, 8.40 and
5.20 respectively. Which crystal structure is followed by NaCl?
17. X-rays of wavelength 1.5418 A0 are diffracted by (111) planes in a crystal at an angle of 300
in the first order. Calculate the lattice constant of the cubic unit cell.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 4 of 11

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

Module 3 : SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

1. Define Fermi energy in metals and semiconductor. Write Fermi-Dirac distribution
function. (3)
2. Write Fermi-Dirac distribution function and explain terms used in it. (3)
3. Show the position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor, n-type semiconductor
and p-type semiconductor energy band diagram. (3)
4. With neat energy band diagram, explain extrinsic semiconductors. (4)
5. Show that for an intrinsic semiconductor, = where symbols have their usual
(5)
meaning.
6. Show that in intrinsic semiconductor, the fermi level lies at the middle of the
forbidden gap. (5)
7. What is the effect of increasing temperature on Fermi level in intrinsic
semiconductor, n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor? (3)
8. What is the effect of increasing doping level on Fermi level in n-type semiconductor
and p-type semiconductor? (3)
9. How does Fermi level change with increasing temperature in extrinsic
semiconductor? (3)
10. How does Fermi level change with increasing doping concentration in extrinsic
semiconductor? (3)
11. Draw the energy band diagram of an unbiased p-n junction and mark the barrier
potential and depletion region. (5)

12. With the energy band diagram of an unbiased p-n junction, explain the terms –
barrier potential and depletion region. (5)
13. Explain the formation depletion region and barrier potential in p-n junction with a (5)
neat energy band diagram
14. What is potential barrier? How is it formed in a p-n junction? Explain with the help (5)
of energy band diagram.
15. Explain forward and reverse bias characteristics of semiconductor diode on the basis
of energy band diagram. (5)
16. Define mobility of charge carrier and state its SI unit. (3)

17. Define drift current, diffusion current and mobility of charge carriers. (5)
18. Derive the relation between current density and conductivity. (3)
19. Derive the relation between conductivity and mobility. (3)

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 5 of 11

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

20. What is mobility of charge carriers? Which has greater mobility, electrons or hole (5)
and why?
21. State Hall effect. Give any two applications of Hall effect. (3)
22. Derive the expression for Hall coefficient and Hall voltage with a proper diagram. (5)
23. Explain Hall effect and its significance. With a neat diagram, derive the expression
for Hall coefficient. (5)
24. How to determine the type of semiconductor using Hall effect? (3)
25. Distinguish between direct gap and indirect gap semiconductors. (3)
26. Explain principle, construction and working of a Light Emitting Diode. (5)
27. Distinguish between avalanche break down and Zener breakdown. (3)
28. Describe I-V characteristics of Zener diode. (5)
29. How a p-n junction diode can be used to generate potential difference in a
photovoltaic solar cell? (5)
30. Explain use of p-n junction as a solar cell. (5)
31. What is principle of working of solar cell? Write its advantages and disadvantages. (5)

NUMERICALS ON SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

1. What is the probability of an electron being thermally excited to conduction band in
intrinsic Si at 27 0C. The band gap energy of Si is 1.12 eV.
2. Calculate probability of non-occupancy for the energy level which lies 0.01 eV above the
Fermi energy level at 27 0C.
3. Fermi level for silver is 5.5 eV. Find out the energy for which the probability of
occupancy at 300 K is 0.9.
4. Fermi level in potassium is 2.1 eV. What are the energies for which the probability of
occupancy at 300 K are 0.99 and 0.01.
5. In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi level lies 0.4 eV below the conduction band. If the
concentration of donor atoms is doubled, find the new position of the Fermi level w.r.t.
conduction band.
6. What is the probability of an electron being thermally promoted to conduction band in
diamond at 270C if bandgap is 5.6 eV wide.
7. Find resistivity of Ge at 300 0K. Given density of carriers is 2.5 x 1019 / m3. Mobility of
electrons is 0.39 m2/V-sec, mobility of holes = 0.19 m2/V-sec.
8. Find resistivity of Copper assuming that each atom contributes one free electron for
conduction. Given density of Cu = 8.96 gm / cm3, atomic weight = 63.5,
Avogadro’s Number = 6.023 x 1023 / gm-mole, Mobility of electron = 43.3 cm2/V-sec.
9. Silicon sample is doped with 1017 As atoms/cm3. Intrinsic concentration for Silicon at
room temperature is 1.5 x 1010 /cm3. What is the equilibrium hole concentration at room

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 6 of 11

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

temperature? Show the position of Fermi level.

10. The resistivity of intrinsic InSb at room temperature is 2 x 10-4 ohm-cm. If the mobility
of electron is 6 m2/V-sec and mobility of hole is 0.2 m2/V-sec, calculate its intrinsic
carrier density.
11. A Copper strip 2 cm wide and 1 mm thick is placed in a magnetic field B = 1.5 Wb/m2. If
current of 200 A is set up in the strip, calculate Hall voltage that appears across the strip.
(Given RH = 6 x 10-7 m3/C)
12. Calculate conductivity of a germanium sample if donor impurity atoms are added to the
extent of one part in 106 germanium atoms at room temperature. Assume that only one
electron of each atom takes part in conduction process.
Given : Avogadro’s number = 6.023 x 1023 atoms / gm-mole
Atomic weight of Ge =72.6, mobility of electrons = 3800 cm2/volt-sec
Density of Ge = 5.32 gm / cm3
13. n-type Ge sample has donor concentration 1021/m3 and thickness = 3 mm is used in a
Hall effect experiment set up. If B = 0.5 T, J = 500 A/m3, Find Hall voltage.
14. In a Hall effect experiment, a potential difference of 4.5 μ V is developed across a foil of
zinc of thickness 0.02 mm, when a current of 1.5 A is carrying in a direction
perpendicular to applied magnetic field of 2 tesla. Calculate a) Hall coefficient for zinc
b) concentration of electrons.
15. Calculate the current produced in a germanium sample of cross-section 1 cm2 and
thickness of 0.01 m when a potential difference of 2V is applied across it. Given- The
concentration of free electrons in germanium is 2 x 1019 /m3 and mobility of electrons
and holes are 0.36 m2/volt sec and 0.17 m2/volt sec respectively.
16. Calculate the number of donor atoms which must be added to an intrinsic semiconductor
to obtain the resistivity as 10-6 ohm-cm. Use mobility of electron = 1000 cm2/V-sec.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 7 of 11

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

Module 4 : INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

1. Obtain condition for maxima and minima for interference in thin film of uniform
thickness. (7)
2. Obtain the expression for path difference between two reflected rays in thin
transparent film. (5)
3. Write a short note on nonreflecting films. (5)
4. i) Why do we see different colours from a thin oil film spread on the water
surface? (5)
ii) Why excessively thin films appear black?
5. Why the visibility of fringes is much higher in reflected system than transmitted
system? (3)
6. What is anti-reflecting coating? What should be refractive index and minimum
thickness of the coating? (5)
7. Obtain optical path difference between rays reflected from upper surface and lower
surface of a wedge shaped film. (5)
8. Write the conditions for bright and dark fringes obtained due to interference in
wedge shaped film in reflected light. (3)
9. What is the nature of interference pattern in case of wedge shaped film experiment?
Obtain the relation for fringe-width. (3)
10. Obtain the relation between angle of wedge and fringe-width in wedge shaped film
experiment. (5)
11. How can we use wedge shaped film to check flatness of optical surface? (3)
12. How can we use wedge shaped film to determine diameter of a thin wire? (3)
13. Show that in Newton’s ring experiment, diameter of nth dark ring is directly
proportional to square root of n. (5)
14. Obtain relation for diameter of nth bright ring in Newton’s ring experiment. (5)
15. State and explain characteristics of Newton’s rings. (3)
16. State similarities and differences between Newton’s rings and wedge shaped films. (3)
17. What are different applications of Newton’s ring Experiment? (3)
18. Why Newton’s rings are circular? (3)
19. Why fringe width decreases as order increases in Newton’s rings experiment and
why is it constant in wedge shaped film experiment? (3)
20. How is Newton’s ring experiment used to determine refractive index of liquid? (3)
21. With a neat diagram, explain how Newton’s ring experiment can be used to
determine the radius of curvature of a plano convex lens? (5)
22. With a neat diagram, explain how Newton’s ring experiment can be used to
determine the wavelength of light? (5)

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 8 of 11

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

NUMERICALS ON INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS

1. A plane wave of monochromatic light falls normally on a uniformly thin film of
refractive index 1.3 which covers a glass plate of refractive index 1.5. The wavelength of
the source can be varied continuously. Complete destructive interference is obtained for
wavelength 5000 A0 and 7000 A0 and no other wavelength in between. Find the thickness
of the oil layer.
2. A drop of oil of volume 0.2 cc is dropped on the surface of a tank water of area 1 sq. m.
The film spreads uniformly over the whole surface. White light which is incident
normally on the surface is observed through spectroscope. The spectrum is seen to
contain one dark band whose centre has wavelength 5500 A0 in air. Find the refractive
index of the given oil.
3. White light is incident on a soap film ( = 1.33) at an angle sin-1(4/5) and the reflected
light on examination shows dark bands. Two consecutive dark bands corresponds to
wavelengths 6100 A0 and 6000 A0. Calculate the thickness of the film.
4. White light falls normally on a soap film of refractive index 1.33 and thickness 5000 A0.
What wavelength within the visible spectrum ( = 4000 A0 to 7000 A0) will be strongly
reflected?
5. A glass plate having thickness of 0.4 x 10-4 cm is illuminated by a beam of white light
normal to the plate ( for glass = 1.5). Calculate the wavelength within the limits of
visible spectrum ( = 4000 A0 to 7000 A0) which will be intensified in the reflected
beam.
6. A wedge shaped air film having angle of 40 seconds is illuminated by monochromatic
light. Fringes are observed vertically through a microscope. The distance between ten
consecutive dark fringes is 1.2 cm. Find the wavelength of monochromatic light.
7. Fringes of equal thickness are observed in a thin glass wedge of refractive index 1.52.
The fringe spacing obtained with light of wavelength 5893A0 is 0.1 mm. Calculate angle
of wedge.
8. When a wedge shaped air film is viewed by a monochromatic source of light incident
normally, the interference fringes 0.4 mm apart are observed. If the air space is filled
with water (µ = 1.33), how far apart will the fringes be observed?
9. An air wedge is formed by keeping a fine wire at one edge between two glass plates.
When the film is illuminated normally with light of wavelength 550 nm, fringe-width of
the fringes observed is 1 mm. Calculate the diameter of the wire if the length of the plate
is 5cm.
Given : λ  550nm  550  10 m, μ  1, β  1 mm  10 -3 m
-9

10. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 10th dark ring changes from 1.4 cm to
1.27 cm when a liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate. Calculate the
refractive index of the liquid.
11. Newton’s rings are observed in reflected light of wavelength 5900 A0. The diameter of
10th dark ring is 0.50 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens.
12. In Newton’s ring experiment, diameter of 5th dark ring was 0.336 cm. Find the radius of
Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 9 of 11
 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

curvature of the plano-convex lens, if the wavelength of light used is 5880 A0. Also find
out the radius of 15th dark ring. (Take  = 1).
13. In Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 4th and 12th dark rings are 0.4 cm and
0.7 cm respectively. Find the diameter of the 20th dark ring.
14. The diameter of 10th dark ring is 5 mm, when light of wavelength 5500 A0 is used in
Newton’s rings experiment. If the space between lens and glass plate is filled with a
liquid of refractive index 1.25, what will be the diameter of 10th dark ring?
15. Light containing two wavelengths 1 and 2 falls normally on a convex lens of radius of
curvature R, resting on a glass plate. Now, if nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with (n+1)th
12 R
1  2
dark ring due to 2, then prove that the radius of the nth dark ring due to 1 is .

16. A Newton’s ring setup is used with a source emitting two wavelengths 1 = 6000A0 and
2 = 4500 A0. , The nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to 2. If
the radius of curvature of the lens is 90 cm, find the diameter of the nth dark ring of
6000A0.
17. Newton’s rings are formed with reflected light of wavelength 5900 A0. The diameter of
the third bright ring is 2 mm. IF the space between the lens and the plate is filled with a
liquid of refractive index = 1.33, calculate the radius of curvature of the lens.
18. A Newton’s ring setup is used with a source emitting two wavelengths 1 = 7000 A0 and
2 = 6000 A0. , The nth dark ring due to 7000 A0 coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to
6000 A0. If the diameter of those overlapping rings is 0.5 cm, find the radius of curvature
of the lens.

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 10 of 11

 https://www.youtube.com/c/EngineeringPhysicsbySanjiv

Module 5 : SUPERCONDUCTORS
1. Define superconductivity. Define critical temperature. (2)
2. Plot the variation of resistance vs temperature in case of superconducting state of (2)
the material.
3. Define critical magnetic field. (1)
4. State and explain Meissner’s effect with the help of a diagram. (5)
5. Why superconductor is termed as a perfect diamagnet? (5)
6. What are Type I and Type II superconductors. Differentiate between them. (5)
7. Explain High TC superconductors along with their principle characteristics, (5)
advantages and disadvantages.
8. What is vortex state of a superconductor? (3)
9. Explain the term persistent current. (3)
10. Why MAGLEV trains have very high speed. (3)

NUMERICALS ON SUPERCONDUCTORS
1. Critical field of Niobium is 105 A/m at 8 K ans 2 x 105 at 0 K. Calculate critical
temperature of Niobium.
2. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic field and a
critical field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
3. The superconducting transition temperature of Lead is 7.26 K. The initial field at 0 K is
64 × 103 Amp/m. Calculate the critical field at 5 K.
4. Critical temperature of a superconductor when no magnetic field is applied is present is
TC. Find the temperature at which the critical field becomes half of its value at 0 K.
5. The transition temperature for Pb is7.2 K. However, at 5 K it loses the superconducting
property if subjected to a magnetic field of 3.3×104 A/m. Find the maximum value of H
which will allow the metal to retain its superconductivity at 0K.
6. Along thin superconducting wire of a metal produces a magnetic field 105×103 A/m on
its surface due to the current through it at a certain temperature T. The critical field of the
metal is 150×103 A/m at absolute zero. The critical temperature Tc of the metal is 9.2 K.
What is the value of T?

Module 6 : SUPERCAPACITORS
1. Explain the principle, construction and advantages of supercapacitors (5)
2. What are different applications of supercapacitors? (3)
3. Compare the capacitor and supercapacitor. (3)
4. Define energy density and power density. (2)
5. Compare supercapacitors with batteries. (3)

Prepared by : Mr. Sanjiv Badhe Page 11 of 11