Module-2

Behavior of Structures during Earthquake and Earthquake Resistant

Features of Structure

1. Introduction
The behavior of structures during earthquakes is influenced by various factors, including their
design, material properties, and construction methods. Understanding these behaviors is essential
for developing effective earthquake-resistant designs. These are

 Dynamic Response of Structures

 Structural Damage Mechanisms
 Effects of Soil-Structure Interaction

To enhance the ability of structures to withstand seismic forces, several earthquake-resistant

features can be incorporated into design and construction.

2. Inertia Forces in Structures

Inertia forces are internal forces that develop within a structure as a response to external
accelerations, such as those produced by seismic activity, wind, or other dynamic loads.

Earthquake causes shaking of the ground. So a building resting on it will experience motion at its
base. From Newton’s First Law of Motion, even though the base of the building moves with the
ground, the roof has a tendency to stay in its original position. But since the walls and columns
are connected to it, they drag the roof along with them. This is much like the situation that you
are faced with when the bus you are standing in suddenly starts; your feet move with the bus, but
your upper body tends to stay back making you fall backwards!! This tendency to continue to
remain in the previous position is known as inertia. In the building, since the walls or columns
are flexible, the motion of the roof is different from that of the ground (Figure 2.1).
 Figure 2.1: Effect of Inertia in a building when shaken at its base

Consider a building whose roof is supported on columns (Figure 2.2). Coming back to the
analogy of yourself on the bus: when the bus suddenly starts, you are thrown backwards as if
someone has applied a force on the upper body. Similarly, when the ground moves, even the
building is thrown backwards, and the roof experiences a force, called inertia force. If the roof
has a mass m and experiences an acceleration a, then from Newton’s Second Law of Motion, the
inertia force FI is mass m times acceleration a, and its direction is opposite to that of the
acceleration. Clearly, more mass means higher inertia force. Therefore, lighter buildings sustain
the earthquake shaking better.

Figure 2.2: Inertia force and relative motion within a building

Impact on Earthquake-Resistant Design or Earthquake-Resistant Design
Philosophies Affect Building Behavior

Modern earthquake-resistant design philosophies aim to reduce the effects of inertia forces by:

 Reducing building mass: Lighter buildings generate smaller inertia forces.

 Flexible structures: Allowing controlled movement to dissipate seismic energy.
 Base isolators: These devices absorb and deflect seismic energy, reducing inertia forces
transmitted to the structure.
 Ductile materials: Use of materials that can deform without breaking, allowing
structures to absorb more energy.

3. Behavior of Brick Masonry Walls

Masonry buildings are brittle structures and one of the most vulnerable of the entire building
stock under strong earthquake shaking. The large number of human fatalities in such
constructions during the past earthquakes in India corroborates this. Thus, it is very important to
improve the seismic behaviour of masonry buildings. A number of earthquake-resistant features
can be introduced to achieve this objective. Ground vibrations during earthquakes cause inertia
forces at locations of mass in the building. These forces travel through the roof and walls to the
foundation.

The main emphasis is on ensuring that these forces reach the ground without causing major
damage or collapse. Of the three components of a masonry building (roof, wall and foundation)
(Figure 2.3a), the walls are most vulnerable to damage caused by horizontal forces due to
earthquake. A wall topples down easily if pushed horizontally at the top in a direction
perpendicular to its plane (termed weak direction), but offers much greater resistance if pushed
along its length (termed strong direction) (Figure 2.3b).

The ground shakes simultaneously in the vertical and two horizontal directions during
earthquakes. However, the horizontal vibrations are the most damaging to normal masonry
buildings. Horizontal inertia force developed at the roof transfers to the walls acting either in the
weak or in the strong direction. If all the walls are not tied together like a box, the walls loaded in
their weak direction tend to topple (Figure 2.4a).

To ensure good seismic performance, all walls must be joined properly to the adjacent walls. In
this way, walls loaded in their weak direction can take advantage of the good lateral resistance
offered by walls loaded in their strong direction (Figure 2.4b). Further, walls also need to be tied
to the roof and foundation to preserve their overall integrity.

Figure 2.3: Basic components of a masonry building – walls are sensitive to direction of
earthquake forces.
 Figure 2.4: Advantage sharing between walls – only possible if walls are well connected.

Common Failure Modes

1. Diagonal Cracks: Caused by shear forces acting in-plane, particularly during lateral
loading from earthquakes or wind.
2. Out-of-Plane Failure: Occurs when the wall is pushed or pulled perpendicular to its
plane, leading to bending and cracking.
 3. Crushing of Masonry: When compression loads exceed the wall’s strength, especially
around openings or concentrated load areas.
4. Separation from Frame: In infill walls, separation can occur at the interface between the
masonry wall and the surrounding reinforced concrete (RC) frame during seismic
shaking.

Strategies to Improve Performance

 Reinforcement: Adding horizontal and vertical steel reinforcement bars within the wall
or using mesh can significantly increase the wall’s strength and ductility.
 Confined Masonry: This approach involves surrounding brick masonry with reinforced
concrete (RC) tie-columns and tie-beams, which enhance the wall’s lateral load capacity
and improve seismic performance.
 Retrofitting: Existing masonry walls can be retrofitted with external steel braces, FRP
wraps, or shotcrete to improve their resistance to seismic forces.

4. Behavior of Stone Masonry Walls

Stone masonry walls exhibit different behavior compared to brick masonry walls due to the
inherent properties of stone and the construction methods used. Stone masonry is commonly
used in older buildings, historical structures, and some modern constructions in rural areas. Like
brick masonry, stone masonry is primarily strong in compression but has limitations when
subjected to lateral loads, especially under seismic forces.

Key Factors Influencing the Behavior of Stone Masonry Walls

1. Material Properties:
 Strength: Stone has high compressive strength, often higher than brick, but its
tensile strength is very low, making it vulnerable to cracking under tension or
bending forces.
 Brittleness: Stone is a brittle material, meaning it is more likely to crack rather
than deform when subjected to excessive loads.
  Mortar: The behavior of stone masonry is significantly influenced by the quality
of mortar. Weaker or degraded mortar can reduce the overall strength of the wall.
 Irregularity: Stone blocks can vary in size, shape, and arrangement (random
rubble, ashlar, etc.), leading to irregular stress distribution within the wall.
2. Wall Configuration:
 Thickness and Height: Stone masonry walls are generally thick, which helps
them carry large compressive loads. However, increased height without proper
lateral support can make them prone to instability, such as buckling.
 Joints: The mortar joints between stones can act as weak points, especially under
lateral or seismic forces. Poor bonding at these joints can cause the wall to crack
or collapse.
3. Under Gravity Loads (Vertical Loads):
 Compression: Stone masonry performs well under vertical compressive loads.
The thick, heavy stones can bear large weights, which is why stone masonry is
commonly used for load-bearing walls.
 Cracking: If the wall is overloaded, particularly around concentrated load areas
(e.g., near window or door openings), vertical cracks may form, especially if the
mortar is weak or there are voids in the construction.
 Uneven Settlement: Stone masonry walls can be affected by differential
settlement of the foundation, which may cause diagonal cracking or separation of
stones, especially in rubble masonry where the stones are irregular.
4. Under Lateral Loads:

 Shear Forces: Under lateral loads, stone masonry walls need to resist in-plane
shear forces. Since stone is strong in compression but weak in shear, cracking
along the mortar joints or at weak points in the stone may occur.
 Cracking: Diagonal shear cracks are common under lateral loads. These cracks
can propagate through the mortar joints or even through the stones, particularly if
the mortar is not strong enough to hold the stones together.
Common Failure Modes

1. Diagonal Cracks: Occur due to in-plane shear forces. These cracks typically propagate
through mortar joints or weak sections of stone.
2. Out-of-Plane Collapse: Stone masonry walls often collapse when subjected to
significant out-of-plane forces, particularly during earthquakes or strong winds. The
thickness and weight of the wall contribute to its instability.
3. Mortar Deterioration: Over time, especially in older structures, the mortar can degrade,
reducing the bond between the stones and making the wall more vulnerable to cracking
and collapse.
4. Separation at Joints: Poorly bonded stones can separate from the wall under stress,
leading to localized failure or partial collapse.
5. Buckling: Tall, slender stone masonry walls are prone to buckling, especially if they lack
lateral bracing or reinforcement.

Strategies to Improve the Performance of Stone Masonry Walls

1. Reinforcement:
 Installing vertical and horizontal steel reinforcement bars within the wall can help
prevent cracks and improve the wall's resistance to seismic forces.
 Adding concrete tie beams or buttresses can enhance the wall’s ability to resist
lateral forces and prevent out-of-plane failures.
2. Grouting:
 For older stone masonry structures, grouting the joints can improve the bonding
between stones and increase the wall’s overall strength and stiffness.
3. Retrofitting:
 Shotcrete (a layer of concrete sprayed over the surface) can provide additional
strength to stone walls and prevent them from cracking under seismic or lateral
loads.
 External reinforcement with materials like fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
wraps can increase the wall’s capacity to resist lateral loads and prevent sudden
failure.
 4. Confined Masonry:
 Surrounding stone masonry with reinforced concrete (RC) frames or tie columns
at regular intervals can help stabilize the wall, improve load distribution, and
enhance its earthquake resistance.
5. Proper Mortar Selection:
 Using stronger and more flexible mortar, such as lime-cement blends, can
improve the overall behavior of the wall by enhancing bonding between stones
and accommodating small movements without cracking.

5. Box Action

Box Action in masonry structures refers to a structural behavior where all elements of the
building—walls, floors, and roof—are connected and work together as a single unit to resist
lateral forces, such as those generated during an earthquake. This collective response helps the
building act more like a rigid box rather than a set of individual, disconnected components. The
concept is especially important in improving the earthquake resistance of masonry buildings,
which are generally brittle and vulnerable to seismic forces.

Figure 2.5: Essential requirements to ensure box action in a masonry building.

Key Elements of Box Action

1. Monolithic Construction:
For effective box action, the walls, floors, and roof must be well-connected to one
another. This monolithic behavior ensures that when one part of the structure is
subjected to lateral forces, the entire structure works together to resist the force.
2. Diaphragms:
Horizontal elements like floors and roofs act as diaphragms. These diaphragms
transfer lateral forces to the walls, allowing the building to distribute seismic
loads across multiple elements rather than concentrating them in any one area.
Floors and roofs should be rigid and well-connected to the walls to facilitate this
force transfer.
3. Tie Beams and Bands:
Horizontal tie beams or bands (also called seismic bands) are often introduced
at various levels, such as the plinth, lintel, and roof levels. These bands tie the
walls together, preventing them from moving independently and reducing the risk
of collapse.
In masonry structures, these seismic bands significantly enhance box action by
reinforcing the wall connections and preventing cracks from propagating during
an earthquake.
4. Wall-to-Wall and Wall-to-Roof Connections:
Strong connections between perpendicular walls, as well as between walls and the
roof, are critical. If these connections are weak or absent, the walls may separate,
leading to collapse during lateral shaking.
In box action, proper anchoring and bonding between these elements prevent such
separation.
5. Corner Strengthening:
Corners of buildings are particularly vulnerable to earthquake forces.
Strengthening these corners with reinforced masonry, concrete tie columns, or
buttresses helps maintain the box action, ensuring the corners remain intact and
the building behaves as a single unit.
How Box Action Improves Earthquake Resistance

1. Even Distribution of Seismic Loads:

 In a building with effective box action, the lateral seismic forces are evenly
distributed across the entire structure, rather than being concentrated in specific
weak points. This prevents localized failures and reduces the likelihood of
collapse.
2. Prevents Wall Separation:
 One of the biggest risks in masonry structures during an earthquake is the
separation of walls from each other or from the roof. Box action ensures that the
walls remain connected and behave as a single entity, which is essential in
preventing partial or total wall collapse.
3. Increased Lateral Load Resistance:
 With the structure behaving as a box, the combined strength of all walls and
diaphragms increases the overall lateral load resistance. This means the building
can better withstand the shaking forces of an earthquake without excessive
cracking or failure.
4. Minimizes Out-of-Plane Failures:
 In traditional unreinforced masonry structures, out-of-plane failures—where the
wall bends or collapses outward under seismic forces—are common. Box action
minimizes this risk by holding the walls together, allowing them to act as a unit
against forces perpendicular to the wall plane.
5. Energy Dissipation:
 By distributing seismic forces across the entire structure, box action also helps in
dissipating seismic energy more effectively. This reduces the stress on individual
elements and allows the building to absorb and release energy without suffering
major damage.
6. Ductility Improvement:
 Although masonry is a brittle material, proper box action can provide some
ductility to the system by allowing limited deformation across the entire structure.
 This means the building can sway or flex slightly during an earthquake, reducing
the chance of catastrophic failure.

6. Different types of Bands

In earthquake-resistant masonry structures, seismic bands play a critical role in improving the
overall performance of the building during seismic events. These bands are horizontal elements
that reinforce the masonry walls, tying them together and preventing separation or collapse when
subjected to lateral forces. Different types of bands are used at various levels of the structure,
each with a specific purpose and function.

Types of Bands Used in Masonry Structures

1. Plinth Band:
 Location: The plinth band is placed at the level of the plinth, just above the
foundation. It encircles the entire building, reinforcing the base of the masonry
walls.
 Significance:
 This band prevents the foundation and the walls from separating or
moving independently during an earthquake.
2. Lintel Band:
 Location: The lintel band is placed at the level of the top of doors, windows, and
other openings, spanning the entire perimeter of the structure.
 Significance:
 The lintel band helps tie the walls together at the level of the openings,
which are often weak points in masonry structures.
3. Roof Band:
 Location: The roof band is placed at the top of the walls, just below the roof. It
encircles the building and ties the walls together at the roof level.
 Significance:
  The roof band ensures that the walls remain connected to the roof during
an earthquake, preventing them from moving independently or falling
outward (out-of-plane failure).
4. Gable Band:
 Location: The gable band is placed along the gable end of the walls, which are
triangular sections of wall at the ends of sloping roofs.
 Significance:
 Gable walls are particularly vulnerable during earthquakes because they
are often tall and unsupported. The gable band helps prevent these walls
from collapsing outward.
5. Sill Band:
 Location: The sill band is placed just below the level of the windows or other
openings, at the sill height of the windows.
 Significance:
 Like the lintel band, the sill band reinforces the walls at the level of the
window openings, which are weak points in the structure.

7. Earthquake Resistant Features of Stone Masonry Structures

Stone masonry structures can be made more earthquake resistant by:

(a) Ensure proper wall construction: The wall thickness should not exceed 450mm. Round
stone boulders should not be used in the construction! Instead, the stones should be shaped using
chisels and hammers. Use of mud mortar should be avoided in higher seismic zones. Instead,
cement-sand mortar should be 1:6 (or richer) and lime-sand mortar 1:3 (or richer) should be
used.

(b) Ensure proper bond in masonry courses: The masonry walls should be built in
construction lifts not exceeding 600mm. Through-stones (each extending over full thickness of
wall) or a pair of overlapping bond-stones (each extending over at least ¾ths thickness of wall)
must be used at every 600mm along the height and at a maximum spacing of 1.2m along the
length (Figure 2.6).
 Figure 2.6: Use of “through stones” or “bond stones” in stone masonry walls

(c) Provide horizontal reinforcing elements: The stone masonry dwellings must have horizontal
band. These bands can be constructed out of wood or reinforced concrete, and chosen based on
economy. It is important to provide at least one band (either lintel band or roof band) in stone
masonry construction (Figure 2.7).
 Figure 2.7: Horizontal lintel band is essential in random rubble stone masonry walls

(d) Control on overall dimensions and heights: The unsupported length of walls between cross-
walls should be limited to 5m; for longer walls, cross supports raised from the ground level
called buttresses should be provided at spacing not more than 4m. The height of each storey
should not exceed 3 m. In general, stone masonry buildings should not be taller than 2 storeys
when built in cement mortar, and 1 storey when built in lime or mud mortar. The wall should
have a thickness of at least one-sixth its height.
8. Behavior of RC Structures

The behavior of reinforced concrete (RC) structures under various load conditions is crucial for
structural integrity and safety. These are

 Load Transfer Path

 Strength Hierarchy
 Reversal of Stresses
 Importance of Beam Column Joints
 Importance of Stiffness and Ductility (Capacity Design Concept) in Structures
 Effect of Short Column
 Effect of Soft Storey
 Improper Detailing
 Effect of Masonry Infill Walls
 Effect of Eccentricity

 Load Transfer Path

A load path is the route that a structure's weight takes from the roof to the foundation and then to
the ground. It's made up of a series of structural elements, such as beams, columns, walls, and
foundations. Load paths are important for distributing loads throughout a structure so that no
one component is overloaded. They're also important for transmitting both vertical loads, like
self-weight, occupancy load, and snow, and horizontal loads, like earthquake and wind.
Here are some structural elements that make up load paths:

 Horizontal diaphragm elements: Roof slabs, floor slabs, trussed roofs, and bracings.

 Vertical elements: Planar frames, walls, and planar trusses.

 Foundations and soils: Isolated and combined footings, mats, piles, wells, soil layers, and
rock.

 Strength Hierarchy

Strength hierarchy assessment is a method used to identify the weakest structural element in a
reinforced concrete (RC) structure. RC is a material made of concrete and steel reinforcement
bars, which increases the strength of the structure. Here are some ways that RC structures
behave:

 Compressive strength: RC has a high compressive strength compared to other materials.

 Tensile strength: RC can withstand a lot of tensile stresses due to the reinforcing.

 Fire and weather resistance: RC is resistant to fire and weather.

 Durability: RC buildings last longer than other types of construction.

 Beam behavior: RC beams undergo flexural deformation. The damage mode changes from
surface cracks to spallation on the back surface as the scaled distance decreases.

 Shear wall behavior: The yield strength, ultimate strength, and ductility of shear wall
specimens peak as the axial compression ratio increases. However, the ductility decreases as the
axial compression ratio increases.

 Steel strength: Steel strength increases with temperature up to 400 °C, but decreases at
higher temperatures. At 700 °C, steel only retains 20% of its initial strength.

 Reversal of Stresses

When reinforced concrete (RC) structures are subjected to seismic loading, the steel in the
structure is repeatedly stressed and released, which causes the bond between the steel and
concrete to experience a cyclic reversed load. This can lead to a significant degradation in the
bond capacity between the concrete and steel bar.

Here are some things to consider about the behavior of RC structures under reversed stresses:
 Cyclic loading

The bond behavior between the steel and concrete is critical to simulating the hysteretic response
of RC structures under seismic loading. Cyclic loading can lead to a substantial degradation in
the bond capacity of the concrete and steel bar.

 Shear stress reverse phenomenon

This phenomenon is caused by special displacement boundary conditions, rather than the
material properties.

 Pinching effect

The presence of high shear forces can cause a severe pinching effect and strength
deterioration. However, this effect can be eliminated by properly orienting the steel grid in RC
elements.

 Safety factors

The usual calculation rules for stress reversal may not always ensure sufficient safety.

 Importance of Beam Column Joints

Beam-column joints are a critical part of reinforced concrete (RC) structures because they
connect horizontal and vertical elements, and transfer seismic forces. Their
behavior significantly affects the structure's response, and they can be severely damaged or
destroyed during earthquakes.
Here are some important things to know about beam-column joints:
 Failure

The primary cause of joint failure is insufficient shear strength, which can be due to inadequate
reinforcing details. Joint failures can lead to partial or complete structural collapse.
 Seismic design

Beam-column joints are a critical element in the seismic design of RC frames. During
earthquakes, the joint region experiences high horizontal and vertical forces that are much
greater than those in the adjacent beams and columns.

 Damage

Damage to beam-column joints can be difficult to fix, so it's important to minimize damage
during construction.

 Factors affecting joint behavior

The behavior of joints depends on several factors, including the geometry of the joint, the
amount and detailing of reinforcement, the concrete strength, and the loading pattern.

 High performance fiber reinforced concrete (HPFRC)

HPFRC can help sustain more cycles of load.

 Importance of Stiffness and Ductility (Capacity Design Concept) in Structures

Stiffness, strength, and ductility are all important concepts in structural engineering, especially
for seismic design. They help determine how a structure will behave under different conditions,
such as during earthquakes or other disasters:

 Stiffness
A structure's ability to limit deformation when acted upon. On a stress-strain diagram, stiffness is
represented by the slope.
 Strength

The amount of force a structure can withstand without permanently deforming.

 Ductility

A material's ability to deform without failing. In earthquake engineering, ductility describes how
well a building can withstand the lateral displacements caused by ground shaking.

The ideal structure has high levels of all three, but this can be expensive. Design codes provide
guidelines to ensure adequate stiffness, strength, and ductility, but they don't always optimize
these properties. Performance-based seismic design (PBSD) is a more tailored approach that
allows structural engineers to optimize these properties for a specific project.
The importance of stiffness and ductility is illustrated by the following examples:

o Low stiffness and high ductility: A structure with these properties may be safe but
uncomfortable to use.
o High stiffness and low ductility: A structure with these properties can be dangerous
because it may not show signs of distress before collapsing.
o Capacity design: A part of seismic checks that ensures a building's joints have enough
deformation capacity to undergo controlled ductile behavior during an earthquake.

 Effect of Short Column

Many situations with short column effect arise in buildings. When a building is rested on sloped
ground (Figure 2.8a), during earthquake shaking all columns move horizontally by the same
amount along with the floor slab at a particular level If short and tall columns exist within the
same storey level, then the short columns attract several times larger earthquake force and suffer
more damage as compared to taller ones.
 Figure 2.8: Buildings with short columns – two explicit examples of common occurrences.

The short column effect also occurs in columns that support mezzanine floors or loft slabs that
are added in between two regular floors (Figures 2.8b).

Solution to Mitigate Short Column Effect:

1. Architectural Design Stage:

o Avoid the creation of short columns wherever possible during the architectural
design phase of new buildings.
2. Structural Design Measures:
o If short columns cannot be avoided, address the effect in the structural design.
o Follow Indian Standard IS: 13920 guidelines, which require special confining
reinforcement for columns affected by the short column effect.
o Use special confining reinforcement (closely spaced closed ties) along the full
height of such columns.
3. Extend Confinement Reinforcement:
o Extend the special confining reinforcement beyond the short column into the
columns directly above and below by a specified distance.
 4. Reference for Reinforcement Details:
o Refer Indian Standard IS: 13920 for specific details on special confinement
reinforcement requirements.
5. Retrofit Solutions for Existing Buildings:
o Apply retrofit techniques to short columns in existing buildings to minimize
potential damage during future earthquakes.
6. Full-Height Walls as Simple Solution:
o Where possible, close partial-height wall openings by constructing full-height
walls to eliminate the short column effect.
7. Strengthening Short Columns:
o If full-height walls are not feasible, strengthen the short columns using established
retrofit techniques.
8. Qualified Structural Engineer:
o Ensure that any retrofit solution is designed and implemented by a structural
engineer with the necessary expertise in seismic retrofitting.

 Effect of Soft Storey

Soft stories can cause RC structures to behave in ways that lead to significant damage or collapse
during earthquakes:

 Stiffness irregularity

A soft story is a level in a building that's less stiff than the stories above or below it. This
stiffness irregularity can cause the building to collapse.

 Dynamic ductility demand

During an earthquake, the dynamic ductility demand concentrates in the soft story, while the
upper stories remain elastic. This can cause the building to collapse.

 Non-structural component failure

In addition to structural collapse, non-structural components (NSCs) can also fail during
earthquakes.
To prevent this type of damage, you can:

 Use seismic isolation systems in new structures

 Improve the capacities of the columns in the soft story
 Add walls in upper stories to increase the building's stiffness
 Place the soft story higher in the structure

 Improper Detailing
Improper detailing of reinforced concrete (RC) structures can lead to a number of issues,
including:
 Bends in RC stair slabs

Improper detailing of tensile reinforcement can damage the bends in RC stair slabs.

 Seismic behavior

Poor reinforcement detailing can lead to slippage between the reinforcing bars and the concrete,
which can cause collapse.

 Non-structural walls

In earthquakes, non-structural walls can separate from the reinforced concrete frame, causing
damage and collapse.
 Beam-column joints

Reinforcement detailing can impact the behavior of RC beam-column joints under seismic
loads. For example, increasing the longitudinal reinforcement of the beam or decreasing the size
of the beam stirrup can decrease displacement and curvature ductility.

Figure 2.9: Improper Detailing

 Effect of Masonry Infill Walls
Masonry infill walls in reinforced concrete (RC) structures have a significant effect on the
behavior of the building, including:

 Strength and stiffness: Infill walls increase the strength and stiffness of the RC frame.

 Lateral loading: Infill walls change the lateral loading behavior of the RC frame. The frame
experiences biaxial stresses, with compression on the diagonal and tension perpendicular to it.

 Structural load transfer: Infill walls change the structural load transfer mechanism from
frame action to truss action. This means that the frame columns experience increased axial
forces, but reduced bending moments and shear forces.
 Seismic performance: Infill walls can contribute to the seismic performance of the
structure. They can reduce ductility, lesser the number of plastic hinges at collapse, and increase
stiffness.

 Deformation pattern: Infill walls alter the deformation pattern of the RC frame by
constraining the end portions of the columns from moving laterally. This results in flexure cracks
throughout the column's height.

 Energy dissipation: Infill walls can increase the energy dissipation capacity of the RC
frame.

The effect of infill walls can be modeled using different approaches, such as the equivalent
diagonal strut model. The diagonal strut model can take on different forms, including a single,
double, or three diagonal struts.

 Effect of Eccentricity
Eccentricity is the distance from the joint to the end of a member. The behavior of reinforced
concrete (RC) structures is affected by eccentricity in a number of ways, including:
 Failure modes: The failure mode of an eccentric column depends on the eccentricity and the
amount of tensile steel reinforcement. Small eccentricities result in few transverse cracks, while
large eccentricities result in plastic fracture with concrete crushing and tensile reinforcement
yielding.

 Strength degradation: Eccentricity increases overall strength degradation.

 Elastic stiffness: Eccentricity decreases elastic stiffness.

 Displacement ductility: Eccentricity decreases displacement ductility.

 Energy dissipation capacity: Eccentricity decreases energy dissipation capacity.

 Load-carrying capacity: Eccentricity decreases the load-carrying capacity of a column.

 Stability: Eccentricity decreases the rigidity of a column, causing the structure to lose
stability faster.

 Lateral deflection: Eccentricity increases lateral deflection.

 Nonlinearity: Eccentricity increases the nonlinearity of axial load-bending curves.