Applied Geophysics

MRT 351-3

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Introduction
SCIENCE OF GEOPHYSICS
❑Application of principles of Physics to the study of
the Earth
❑Earth’s internal distribution of physical properties
influence the measurements made at or near the
surface

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Course Outline
• Please refer “MRT 351-2 Course Plan” in the MRT curriculum

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Recommended Text Books
•Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P. and Sheriff, R.E. (1990). Applied Geophysics,
2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press.
•Reynolds, J.M. (1997). An Introduction to Applied and Environmental
Geophysics, John Wiley & Sons.
•Kearey, P., Brooks, M. and Hill, I. (2002). An Introduction to Geophysical
Exploration, 3rd Edition, Blackwell Science.

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Introduction
SCIENCE OF GEOPHYSICS

❑(In general) Deals with the physics of the earth and

its surrounding atmosphere
❑(In the broader sense) Application of physics to
investigate the earth and planets
❑(In restricted usage) Physics of the solid earth
❑Meteorology, atmospheric sciences, astronomy are
related

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Introduction
SCIENCE OF GEOPHYSICS
❑ Knowledge of the earth has been developed by
combining information from
▪ Seismology
▪ Thermal properties of the earth
▪ Terrestrial magnetism
▪ Telluric currents
▪ Geodesy and gravitation
▪ Radioactivity of the earth

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Introduction
SCIENCE OF GEOPHYSICS

❑Physical properties of the Earth’s interior vary

laterally and verticaly
❑Analysis of the measurements provide information
on these variations

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Introduction
SCIENCE OF GEOPHYSICS
❑Solid Earth Geophysics
has two subdivisions
▪ Global Geophysics
[study of the whole or
a substantial part of
the planet earth]
▪ Applied Geophysics
[investigating the
earth's crust and near-
surface for a practical,
economic purpose]
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Introduction
HISTORY OF GEOPHYSICS
❑Beginings may be
related to
▪ William Gilbert's (1544-
1603 A.D.) discovery of
earth's magnetic
behaviour
▪ Isaac Newton's (1642-
1727 A.D.) theory of
gravitation

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Introduction
HISTORY OF GEOPHYSICS
❑Initial applications
▪ Von Wrede in 1843
pointed out that John
Lamont's (1805-1879
A.D.) magnetic
theodelite used to
measure earth's
magnetic field could be
employed to discover
magnetite ores

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Introduction
HISTORY OF GEOPHYSICS
❑Initial applications
▪ Von Wrede's idea was
acted upon only after
publication of the book
“On the examination of
iron ore deposits by
magnetic methods” by
Robert Thalén (1827-
1905 A.D.) in 1879
▪ Able to locate magnetic
dikes with strike, dip
and depth
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Introduction

HISTORY OF GEOPHYSICS
❑Developments
▪ Demand for all kinds of metals and petroleum
products since early 20th century led to rapid
development of geophysics
▪ Major improvements of instrumentation due to WW-
I and WW-II

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Introduction
HISTORY OF GEOPHYSICS
❑ Developments
▪ Intensive phase of
development in
methods and
instruments during
WW
▪ RADAR, Sonar, Seismic

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Introduction
PRINCIPLES OF GEOPHYSICS
❑Geophysical techniques can detect only a
discontinuity of a property (e.g. density, elastic
properties, magnetism, radioactivity,
electrical/thermal conductivity etc.)
❑ Variations in time and space
❑One region differs sufficiently from another in some
property
❑Often measurements are recorded as numeric values

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Introduction
PRINCIPLES OF GEOPHYSICS
❑Recorded numeric values are
converted to graphical
representation for better
understanding

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Introduction
SUBDIVISIONS OF APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
❑ Exploration geophysics
❑ Engineering geophysics
❑ Environmental geophysics
❑ Hydro-geophysics
❑ Archaeo-geophysics

Methods used in these subdisciplines are not mutually

exclusive

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Introduction
TYPES OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

❑ Passive
▪ Detect variations within the natural fields associated
with the earth (e.g. gravitational and magnetic fields)
❑ Active
▪ Artificially generated signals are modified by the
characteristic properties of earth materials (e.g. seismic,
electric)

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Introduction
METHODS IN APPLIED GEOPHYSICS
❑ Gravitational
❑ Magnetic
❑ Seismic
❑ Electrical
❑ Electromagnetic
❑ Radioactivity
❑ Well logging
❑ Miscellaneous other methods

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Introduction
METHODS IN APPLIED GEOPHYSICS

❑It is of paramount importance that geophysical

data are interpreted within a physically
constrained or a geological framework
- J.M. Reynolds

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Introduction - Methods contd.
Method Property Principal Applications
Hydrocarbon exploration,
Gravity Density
regional geological studies
Hydrocarbon exploration,
regional geological studies,
Magnetic Susceptibility mineral exploration, serach for
buried metallic objects, archaeo
geophysics
Hydrocarbon exploration,
Elastic modulii,
seismic regional geological studies,
density
engineering geology
Mineral exploration, engineering
geology, hydrogeology,
Resistivity Resistivity subsurface cavity detection,
mapping contaminant plumes,
archaeo geophysics 23
Introduction - Methods contd.
Method Property Principal Applications
Spontaneous Mineral exploration,
Potential difference
potential hydrogeology
Induced Resistivity,
Mineral exploration
polarization capacitance
Regional geological studies,
mineral exploration, engineering
geology, hydrogeology, serach
Conductance, for buried metallic objects,
Electromagnetic subsurface cavity detection,
inductance
mapping contaminant plumes,
archaeo geophysics

Regional geological studies,

Magneto-telluric Resistivity
mineral exploration
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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY

❑ Any geophysical survey tries to determine the

nature of the subsurface
❑ Knowledge alone (volume of data) does not increase
understanding of a site
❑ Every survey must be planned according to a
strategy
❑ Success of geophysical methods is often site-specific

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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY

❑ Target identification
▪ Geophysical methods locate boundaries between
contrasting physical properties (of earth)
▪ Such contrasts give rise to geophysical anomalies
▪ Targets usually include oil/gas traps, buried
structures/objects, groundwater, ore lodes
▪ Selected geophysical method must be the one most
sensitive to the investigated property

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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL
SURVEY
❑ Target identification
▪ Anomalies correspond to
size, shape and
orientation of the
feature/object

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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
❑ Line configuration
▪ The way data are collected depends on the
target
▪ Two methods; (a) Profiling (b) Mapping
▪ Profiling generates the variation of a measured
parameter along a 2D cross section
▪ Measurements along a series of parallel lines or
a grid generates a contoured map (isolines)

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
❑ Line configuration
▪ The best orientation of a profile is
perpendicular to the strike of the target
▪ Length of the profile should exceed the
expected width of anomaly
▪ Cross-cutting profiles (tie lines) generate maps
and provide control nodes

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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
❑ Station Intervals
▪ The point at which a discrete measurement is
made is called “station”
▪ Distance between successive measurements is
“station interval”
▪ Optimum station interval should be decided
considering the expected size of the target (fine
enough to resolve the anomaly, large enough to
save costs)

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Introduction

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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
❑ Station Intervals
▪ Reconnaissance surveys may have “coarser”
station intervals
▪ Line spacing in an aerial survey determines the
data resolution
▪ Larger line spacing can “smear out” higher
frequencies of anomalies

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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
❑ Positioning
▪ Position of any data point accurately within a
survey and relative to prominent ground
features is essential (especially for the accuracy
of later intrusive tests)
▪ Positioning can be done with a tape (the
simplest method) or using differential Global
Positioning Systems (more advanced)
• Knowledge in GIS will be very useful!

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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
❑ Noise
▪ Extraneous data (noise) may be recorded in a
field survey
▪ Man-made (cultural) noise: electric cables,
pipes, vehicles, drains
▪ Natural noise: waves, electric/magnetic storms,
wind, rain
▪ Prior knowledge on expected noise is required
in a survey

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Introduction
PLANNING A GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
❑ Data Processing and Analysis
▪ Automatic data-logging with simultaneous position
fixing with dGPS and computer analysis have
become the routine
▪ Standardizing the data format eases the portability
of information transfer between computer
systems, makes it easier to download the survey
results into data-processing software packages and
allows managing large volumes of data.
• Knowledge in GIS will be very useful!

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Introduction
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
❑ Potential field methods ❑Electromagnetic
▪ Gravity methods
▪ Geomagnetic ▪ Continuous wave
▪ Pulse transient or Time
❑ Seismological methods domain
▪ Seismic refraction ▪ Very-low frequency
▪ Seismic reflection ▪ Magneto-telluric
❑ Electrical methods
▪ Resistivity
▪ Self potential
▪ Induced polarization

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