UNIT 3

WORK SYSTEM DESIGN& ERGONOMICS

Need– Method Study procedure – Principles of Motion Economy – Work Measurement
procedures – Time Study –Work sampling- Ergonomics and its areas of application in the work
system - Physical work load and energy expenditure, Anthropometry – measures – design
procedure, Work postures-sitting, standing.

3.1 WORK STUDY

INTRODUCTION
Work study is an area of tremendous importance for productivity improvement on the shop-floor.
It Provides us with a scientific approach to investigate all forms of work (or work-elements).
Work-study provides us many tools and techniques to measure and improve the ways, which the
workers adopt for accomplishing a task.

Work study assumes that there is one best way to accomplish a task (or work). Scientific
methods(such as those used in work-study) may be used to identify the best way for doing this
task. Once the best way is identified, the time and methods in doing this task may be set as
standard. The standard,thus set, may be used to monitor the performance on the shop-floor.
We will define a few terms used in this area. The British Standard Glossary (BSG) defines
work-study, method-study and work-measurement as follows:
Work Study is a generic term for those techniques, particularly method study and work
measurement,which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts, and which
lead systematically to the investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy
of the situation being reviewed, in order to effect improvement.
Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed ways
of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and
reducing costs.
Work Measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified
worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance.

OBJECTIVES OF WORK STUDY

1. It helps in the optimum use of plant, equipment, manpower and material.
2. It helps in establishing the standard of performance.
3. It helps in developing efficient work methods.
4. It helps in establishing the most efficient and effective utilization of human effort.
5. It helps in synchronizing various resources like men and machines.
6. It helps in the evaluation of human work.
7. It helps in efforts towards productivity improvement.
8. It helps in the elimination of wasteful efforts, useless material handling, etc.
9. It helps in job-simplification and work standardization.
10. It is helpful in developing plant safety schemes, equipment utilization, plant layout, and
conductive work environment.

Work-study, as the name suggests, is the study of work. Study of work includes human work as
as well as the dignity of work. In general, it is not restricted to shop-floor; but it may be
applicable anywhere:for example, kitchen, writing desk, gardening, etc. Work-study is used to
associate two sets of techniques:(i) method study, and (ii) work measurement. These two are
distinct approaches, yet they are interdependent (Figure 25.1).
Method-study concerned with "the way in which work is done (i.e., method)". It is used to
simplify the way to accomplish a work and to improve the method of production. Method-study
results in a more effective use of material, plant, equipment and manpower. It employs a
systematic approach involving: Select-Record-Examine-Develop-Define-Install-Maintain. We
will discuss this in more detail in a later section.
Work-measurement is concerned with the value or work-content of the task itself (i.e.,
measurement).It is used to determine how long it should take to carry out the job. It also provides
a yardstick for human effort. Work-measurement results in making possible an improved
planning and control (manning),and providing a basis for souncl incentive scheme. It employs a
systematic approach involving: Select- Define-Break jobs into elements-Measure-Establish work
unit value.

The outcome of both, method-study and work-measurement, thus results in higher productivity.

STEPS IN WORK-STUDY
Work-study consists of an eight-step process. These are:
Step 1: Identify and select the job or process to be studied.
Step 2: Use direct observation for recording everything that happens, using the most effective
recording techniques. Ensure that the data are in the most convenient form for further analysis.
Step 3: Data and facts obtained in the previous step are to be examined and analyzed. Critically
challenge everything that is done. Consider the purpose of the activity, place and sequence of the
job and persons and means to perform the job.
Step 4: Develop the most economical method under prevailing circumstances.
Step 5: Measure the quantity of work involved in the method defined by using appropriate
methods of measurement. Calculate standard time for doing it by adding rest allowance. Thus,
determine the work content.
Step 6: Define the best method and related time.
Step 7: Install the new method and train personnel so that it conforms to the agreed standard
practices.
Step 8: Maintain the standard practice by a proper control mechanism.
Out of the above eight steps, Steps 1, 2 and 3 are common in every study. However, Step 4 is a
part of method-study practice and Step 5 is a part of work-measurement technique.

PURPOSE OF METHOD STUDY

It may be noted that method-study covers three broad areas:
(i) It is a diagnostic tool (location of faults)
(ii) It is a remedial tool (improvement of situation)
(iii) It is a constructive tool (sets standard for control)
The main purpose (objective) of method-study are as follows:
(i) Better utilization of manpower and other tangible resources
(ii) Elimination of unnecessary work
(iii) Reduction in unnecessary fatigue
(iv) Identification of bottleneck activities and initiative steps to minimize them
(iv) Improvement of processes and procedures
(v) Improvement in layouts and methods of material handling
(vii) Improvement in working conditions
(viii) Improvement and simplification in design
(ix) Improvement and maintenance of quality
(x) Improvement in the flow of production and processes
(xi) Economy in human effort and reduction of fatigue in work
(xii) Establishing the standardization in methods
(xiii) Improvement in safety standards
(xiv) Establishing a better physical working environment.
The objectives of method-study are achieved through:
(a) Collection of facts related to work, method, machine, operators, and process
(b) Critical examination of facts
(c) Exploration and search for alternatives
(d) Re-evaluation of alternatives
(e) Development and installation of the best alternate
(f) Maintenance and control of new method
Therefore, method-study involves creativity and novelty in systematic thinking. The
method-study should at least aim for effective evaluation of ideas and creative thinking.

PROCEDURE OF METHOD STUDY

Method-study is a well established approach for systematic recording and critical examination of
existing and proposed ways of. doing work, as a means of developing.and applying easier and
more effective methods and reducing cost. Still, the greatest thing about this approach is its
flexibility with which it may be used in different situations. Following sequence of phases are
involved in it (Figure 25.2):
Phase 1: DEFINE (the problem)

Phase 2: RECORD (all facts relevant to the problem).

Phase 3: EXAMINE (the facts critically but impartially).
Phase 4: CONSIDER (the alternative course of actions, and solutions and deliberate on which
way to follow).
Phase 5: IMPLEMENT (the solution).
Phase 6: FOLLOW UP (the implementation).
These six phases are adopted sequentially. The procedure used in a typical method-study
involves an approach called SREDIM. The letters in SREDIM stand for a six verb (or, activities,
or steps) in method-study. These steps are:
1. Select
2. Record
3. Examine
4. Develop and Define
5. Install
6. Maintain
We will examine each step in SREDIM in greater detail.

Step 1: Select the work (process) to be studied: The selection step involves the process of
choosing by systematic means a specific problem to be solved, or an area of work to be studied.
Therefore, it is a step for deciding the potential area offering maximum reward offer for this
study. In this stage, We can also prioritize our scope of work.
Three important factors, which govern the selection process, are:
(i) Economic considerations
(ii) Technical, considerations
(iii) Human reactions.

Economic Considerations
Economic considerations in method-study includes:
• Cost of study
• Time loss due to investigation
• Costs associated with the implementation of changes in the present methods.
The considerations for above three costs are important, as the method-study is primarily' based
on the principle of economic use of resources (such as human effort, machine utilization,
material handling,efforts, etc.). Some processes, though poorly planned, may not fit into the
economic viability of motion-study. An example could be processes for a product, which is
unlikely to have repeat order. On the contrary, a process in an assembly line, which is likely to be
repeated for next few years, would score better on economic viability, despite offering marginal
improvements. Table 25.1 gives some potential features, warranting attention to undertake
method-study.
Technical Considerations
It is important to understand that requisite technical krow-how must be available to suggest
improvements.
In this, we must consider two areas as show>7 rin Table 25.2.
Human Reactions
A lot of emphasis is needed in the selection step on understanding the human reactions to the
task undertaken.Work-study can only be implemented with active cooperation with workers and
supervisors. For this,Some understanding of human reactions to work-study is needed. One need
is to handle mental and emotional blocks in the mind of the worker. Proper scheme to handle
resistance-to-change is needed. For this, we need to do the following:
(i) Consultation, meeting with workers and Union
(ii) Defining objectives, scope and needs
(iii) Proper written and oral communication with workers
(iv) Dispelling fears related to cut in- wages, firing of workers, more efforts in work, higher
target,
Etc.

STEP 2: RECORDING METHODS AND FACTS

Once the work is selected, it needs to be studied. For this, the most important thing is to
accurately record all relevant facts. Following types of records are commonly used:
I. Flow Type Diagram
(a) Flow diagram
(b) String diagram
(c) Travel chart.
.2. Multiple activity charts.
3. Process chart
(a) Outline process chart
(b) Flow process chart for worker
(c) Flow process chart for material
(d) Flow process chart for worker and material
(e) Flow process chart for equipment
( f) Two-handed (or operator) process chart.

4. SIMO (Simultaneous motion chart).

5. Memomotion.
6. Cycle Graphic
(a) Cyclegraph
(b) Chrono-cyclegraph.
Flow Type Diagrams
These diagrams are the pictorial representation of flow of material in the factory while different
sequence operation, transportation, inspection, delay and storage takes place. There are three
types of flow diagrams that are common in use:
(i) Flow diagram: It shows the location and sequence of all the activities, which are carried by
the workers. It also shows the route, followed by material, components or sub-assemblies (Figure
25.3).Definitions (as per BS 3138): It is a diagram of model substantially to scale which shows
the location of specific activities carried out and the routes followed by workers, materials or
equipment in their execution.

Amount of details: It shows location of each department and sequence of principal activities.
Applications: Mainly used in studying plant layout.

String Diagram
It is a scale diagram on which color threads are wrapped around pins or pegs, which are used to
indicate the paths taken by either worker or material or equipment when processing is done on
material from start to finish (Figure 25.4).
Definition (as per BS 3138): A scale plan or model on which a thread is used to trace and
measure the paths of workers, materials or equipment during a specified sequence of events.
Amount of Details: Only the nature of movement within the work area.

Application:
1. For studying the layout of the plant.
2. Indicates backtracking in material movement, congestion, bottleneck and over/Under
utilization of shop-floor.
3. The pattern of material movement, as indicated by the strings, is helpful in the modification in
plant and machinery.

Travel Chart (also Called as Cross Chart) (Figure 25.5)

It is a more detailed type of movement chart in which the recorded details are like:
(i) pattern of movement,
(ii) extent of movement or volume.
Definition (as per BS 3138): It is a tabular record for presenting quantitative data about the
movement of workers, materials or equipment between any number of places over any given
period of time.
Amount of Details: Volumetric data during travel between work-area.
Application: For studying layout problem in deciding how to minimize total flow (of material)
°in the plant or work-place.
Multiple Activity Chart (Figure 25.6)
Synonyms: activity analysis; worker and machine charts
Definition (as per BS 3138): It is a chart, on which the activities of more than one subject (like
• worker, machine or equipment) are each recorded on a common time-scale to show their
relationship.
Amount of Details: Limited to plot against a common scale.(of time) for few types of activities
like operation, idleness, delay, etc.

How to construct:
(i) Start with the preparation of flow process chart for elements like machine or operative
involved in the process.
(ii) Group activities to be recorded into convenient elements for time-study.
(iii) Take sufficient observations of time-study for determining accurate elemental time.
(iv) Draw in the form of a bar-chart for each activity of the leading operative or machine. Take a
common scale such as time for each activity. •
(v) Use different color codes for different sections within each 1:). r.
(vi) Calculate the amount of effective work per cycle in percentage of total time.
Application:
(i) For preliminary investiv 'on to study the extent of accuracy of particular activities.
(ii) Helps in balancing activities.
(iii) In a situation of one operative running one or several operatives.
(iv) In a situation of several operatives running one or several machines.
(v) A team of operatives or a bank of machines.
(vi) Helps in exploring the possibilities of elimination, change in work sequence, combination
and simplification of work elements.
Outline Process Chart (Figure 25.7)
In records principle operations and inspection of the processes.
Definition (as per BS 3138): A process chart giving an overall picture by recording, in sequence
only,the main operations and inspections.
Amount of Details: It shows only two principal elements: (i) Operation, and (ii) Inspection.
Application:
• Used in the preliminary investigation.
• When operation activities are subject to frequent changes or a more detailed analysis.
FLOW PROCESS CHART
It helps in setting out the sequence of the flow of a product or a procedure by recording all events
under review using appropriate process chart symbols. It covers symbols for operation,
inspection, storage,delay and transportation.
Types of Flow Process Charts
(i) Flow process chart for workers: Presents the process in terms of activities of the person.
Definition (as per BS 3138): A process chart is setting out the sequence of flow of a product
or a procedure by recording all events under review using appropriate process chart-symbols.
This chart gives a record of all events associated with the worker.
Amount of Details: Operation, inspection, movement and delay associated with the workers
Application:
• Generally used as a principal means of recording work methods.
• Helps to understand the overall nature of the system being studied.
• Helps to eliminate flow patterns that are not suitable.
• Helps to allow storage space adequate to support the production rate.
• Helps to eliminate costly errors by analyzing the material flow.
• Helps to allow adequate space to avoid safety problems.
• Helps to locate and size aisles appropriate for product handled.
• Helps to avoid backtracking of the material.
• Helps to identify the possibility of combining operations by grouping different machines or
operations to avoid handling, storage, and delays.
• Helps to decide whether product flow or process flow layout of a factory will be useful.

PROCESS CHART SYMBOL

Process charts use five common symbols for recording the nature of events. These were
developed by ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) in 1947.
1. Operation 0: This indicates steps in a process, methods or procedure. It represents the
modification or change during an operation. Through each operation, the material, component,
service or assembly move towards completion. Operation is thus a value added activity. Some
examples are shown in Figure 25.11.
2. Inspection 0 : This indicates inspection, quality audit check for quality or examining an event.
Inspection is a non-value added activity, as it is only a verification process.
3. Transportation c=>: This indicates movement of material, workers, equipment or place of
work. This is also a non-value added activity.
4. Delay D: This indicates delay or temporary storage in-between a sequence of operations. This
is a non-value added activity like waiting.
5. Storage v : This indicates planned and controlled storage of material. Storage is different from
temporary storage (in delay category) in the sense that here proper record of receipt and • sue
is maintained or at least some authorization is maintained for storage.
6. Combined Symbols 0 : This indicates that two operations (such as inspection and operation)
are performed simultaneously.

In different forms of process charts, the relevance and use of these symbols are given in-
Figure 25.12. No entry against any chart indicates that this symbol is not commonly used in that
chart.

STEP 3 OF METHOD STUDY: EXAMINE

In this stage, the focus is on the critical examination of all the recordings done in the previous
step.
Various probing questions are addressed to the existing method. These questions start with 5 Ws
and 1 H: Why?, What?, Where?, When?, Who?, and How (Table 25.3)?
STEP 4 OF METHOD STUDY: DEVELOP AND DEFINE
After critical examination of records is complete, it is necessary to transform the learnings into
the development of new methods. Some approaches are:
(a) Eliminate unnecessary activities.
(b) Combine two or more activities. For example, if one uses a combination tool for two
operations,
say, facing and drilling, the total set-3.1p time will reduce.
(c) Resequence activities so as to reduce time and effort.
(d) Simplify the process to reduce the number of operations or reduce effort or reduce
throughput, etc.
(e) Attack on constraints, which are preventing the method to Perform better.

STEPS 5 AND 6 METHOD STUDY: INSTALL AND MAINTAIN

Installation of a new process is a major step towards fulfilling the objective of the entire
approach. This
involves evolving a time-frame for installing the new (TO-BE) system. Training of the
personnel, rearrangement
of machines, arrangement of tools and reorientation of the workplace are some efforts to install
the new system.In general, four-phased strategy is needed:
(i) Selling the proposal: Communication, approval and confidence of those involved in,
installation and use.
(ii) Preparation for installation: Purchase of required machine and equipment, relay out of plant,
time-table for installation, planning, arranging and rehearsing.
(iii) Commencement of new method.
(iv) Initial monitoring of installation activities: After the installation of the new system, new
method is to be maintained. Periodic review is necessary for maintaining the new system.
3.2 MOTION ECONOMY
Motion economy provides a set of well-structured guidelines for analyzing and designing (or
improving) the jobs. It encompasses a wide set of guidelines for the scientific use of human
body, tools and work place arrangement to increase the efficiency of the man-machine system. It
also covers the aspects for reducing work-related fatigue. Table 25.4 presents the principle of
motion economy. It is segmented into three broad areas:
(i) Principles related to the use .of human body
(ii) Principles related to the arrangement of the work-place
(iii) Principles related to the design of tools and equipment.

Table 25.4 Principles of motion economy: Use of the worker's body and design of the workplace,
tools and equipment
Use of the worker's body
1. Ensure to work with two hands rather than one, as it is easier and natural.
2. Ensure that the two hands should begin and complete their movements at the same time.
3. Ensure that the motion of the arms should be in opposite directions and should be made
simultaneously and symmetrically.
4. Ensure that hands and arms naturally move smoothly in arcs, and this is preferable to a
straight-line movement.
5. Ensure that head, arm and body movements should be confined to the lowest classification
with which it is possible to perform the work satisfactorily, e.g., Gilbreth's classification of hand
movements:
(a) fingers
(b) fingers and wrists
(c) fingers, wrists and forearms
(d) fingers, wrists, forearms and upper arms
(e) fingers, wrists, forearms, upper arms and shoulders.
6. Ensure that work should be arranged to permit natural and habitual movements.
7. Ensure that movements should be continuous and smooth with no 'lharp changes in direction
or speed.
8. Ensure that the two hands should not, except, during rest periods, be idle at the same time.
9. Ensure that, whenever possible, momentum should be employed to assist the work and,
minimized if it must be overcome by the worker.
10. Ensure that ballistic movements are faster, easier and more accurate than controlled (fixation)
movements.
11. Ensure that the need to fix and focus the eyes on an object should be minimized and, when
this is necessary, the occasions should occur as close together as possible.
Arrangement of the workplace
1. Ensure that there should be a definite and fixed position for all tools, equipment and materials.
2. Ensure that all tools, equipment and materials should be located as near as possible to the
workplace.
3. Ensure that drop deliveries of materials (and even tools and equipment) should beused
whenever possible.
4. Ensure that tools, equipment and materials should be conveniently located in order to provide
the best sequence of operations.
5. Ensure that illumination levels and brightness ratios between objects and surroundings should
be arranged to avoid visual fatigue.
6. Ensure that the height of the workplace and the seating should enable comfortable sitting or
standing during work.
7. Ensure that seating should permit a good posture and adequate "coverage" of the work area.
8. Ensure that the workplace should be clean and adequately ventilated and heated.
9. Ensure that noise and vibration, both local and general, should be minimized.
Design of tools and equipment
I. The hands should be relieved of all work that can be done more advantageously by a jig, a
fixture, or a foot-operated device.
2. Two or more tools should be combined wherever possible.
3. Tools and materials should be pre-positioned wherever possible.
4. Where each finger performs some specific movement, such as computer keyboard, the load
should be distributed in accordance with the inherent capacities of the fingers.
5. Handles should be designed to permit the surface of the hand to come in contact with the
handle as possible.
This is particularly true when considerable force is exerted in using the handle, for light
assembly work (like, screwdriver handle) should be so-shaped that it is smaller at the bottom
than at the top.
6. Levers, crossbars, and hand wheels should be located in such positions that the operator can
manipulate them with the minimum change in body position.
WORKING AREA
Use of motion economy rules calls for use of lowest possible (i.e., class 1 is lowest and class 5 is
highest) classified movement of the human body (Refer rules 4 and 5 in Table 25.4). This
classification is as shown in Table 25.5.
Motion-study involves two kinds of analysis for the improvement in method. On the basis of data
recorded on motion picture film or video, the approaches are:
1. Micromotion study (or detailed breakdown of motion).
2. Memomotion analysis (or breakdown of motion at the level of family of micromotions).
The detailed analysis of the recorded motion is done through seventeen categories of activities
called as therbligs. Therblig is the name given to the basic motion activities. Therblig is the
reverse order spelling (except for the letter "th") of Gilbreth, who was a pioneering researcher in
the area of time and motion-study. Table 25.6 presents the definition of therbligs. Table 25.7
presents symbol, color and explanation of these therbligs. These are the most common basic
human activities at work-place.
For each therblig-specific color is also specified.

1. Grasp is taking hold of an object, closing the fingers around it preparatory to picking it up,
holding it, or manipulating it. Grasp begins when the hand or fingers first make contact with the
object and ends when the hand has obtained control of it.
2. Position is turning or locating an object in such a way that it will be properly oriented to fit
into the location for which it is intended. It is possible to position an object during the motion
transport loaded. Position begins when the hand begins to turn or locate the object and ends
when the object has been placed in the desired position or location.
3. Preposition is locating an object in a predetermined place or locating it in the correct position
for some subsequent motion. Preposition is the same as position except that the object is located
in the approximate position that will be needed later. Usually a holder, bucket, or special
container of some kind is used for holding the object in a way that permits it to be grasped easily
in the position in which it will be used. Preposition is the abbreviated term used for "preposition
for the next operation."
4. Use is manipulating a tool, device, or piece of apparatus for the purpose for which it was
intended. Use may refer to an almost infinite number of particular cases. It represents the. motion
for which the preceding motions have been more or less preparatory and for which the ones that
follow are supplementary. Use begins when the hand starts to manipulate the tool or device and
ends when the hand ceases the application.
5. Assemble is placing one object into or on another object with which it becomes an integral
part. Assemble begins • as the hand starts to move the part into its place in the assembly and ends
when the hand has completed the assembly.
6. Disassemble is separating one object from another object of which it is an integral part.
Disassemble begins when the hand starts to remove one part from the assembly and ends when
the hand has separated the part completely from the remainder of the assembly.
7. Release load is letting go 'of the object. Release load begins when the object starts to leave the
hand and ends when the object has been completely separated from the hand or fingers.
8. Transport empty is moving the empty hand in reaching for an object. It is assumed that the
hand moves without resistance toward or away from the object. Transport empty begins when the
hand begins to move without load or resistance and ends when the hand stops moving.
9. Transport loaded is moving an object from one place to another. The object may be carried in
the hands or fingers, or it may be moved from one place to another by sliding, dragging, or
pushing it along. Transport loaded also refers to moving the empty hand against resistance.
Transport loaded begins when the hand begins to move an object or encounter resistance and
ends when the hand stops moving.
10. Select is the choice of one object from among several. In many cases it is difficult, if not
impossible, to determine where the boundaries lie between search and select. For this reason, it is
often the practice to combine them, referring to both as the one therblig, select. Using this
broader definition select then refers to the hunting and locating one object from among several.
Select begins when the eyes or hands begin to hunt for the object and ends when the desired
object has been located.
11. Select is that part of the cycle during which the eyes or the hands are hunting or groping for
the object. Search begins when the eyes or hands begin to hunt for the object and ends when the
object has been found.
12. Hold is the retention of an object after it has been grasped, no movement of the object taking
place. Hold begins whefi the movement of the object stops and ends either the start of the next
therblig.
13. Unavoidable delay is a delay beyond the control•of the operator. Unavoidable delay may
result from either of the following causes: (1) a failure or interruption in the process; (2) a delay
caused by an arrangement bf the operation that prevents one part of the body from working while
other body members are busy. Unavoidable delay begins when the hand stops its activity and
ends when activity is resumed.
14. Avoidable delay is any delay of the operator for which he is responsible and over which he
has control. It refers to delays which the operator may avoid if he wishes. Avoidable delay begins
when the prescribed sequence of motion is interrupted and ends when the standard work method
is resumed.
15. Rest for overcoming fatigue is a fatigue or delay factor or allowance provided to permit the
worker to recover from the fatigue incurred by his work. Rest begins when the operator stops
working and ends when the work is resumed.
16. Plan is a metal reaction which precedes the physical movement, that is, deciding how to
proceed with the job.
Plan begins at the point where the operator begins to work out the next step of the operation and
ends when the procedure to be followed has been determined.
17. Inspect is examining an object to determine whether or not it complies with standard size,
shape, color, or other qualities previously determined. The inspection may employ sight, hearing,
touch, odor, or taste. Inspect is predominantly a mental reaction and may occur simultaneously
with other therbligs. Inspect begins when the eyes •or other parts of the body begin to examine
the object and end when the examination has been completed.
3.3 WORK MEASUREMENT
Work measurement is used to determine the length of time a job should take for completion. This
time is important for the following reasons:
(i) It helps in manpower planning
(ii) It helps in estimating labour cost
(iii) It helps in scheduling activities
(iv) It helps in budgeting
(v) It helps in designing incentive scheme.
PURPOSE OF WORK MEASUREMENT.
Work measurement is necessary for the following reasons:
1. To evaluate labour performance
2. For planning the need of workforce
3. For determining available capacity
4. For comparing work methods
5. For facilitating operation-scheduling
6. For determining price or cost of a product or output, involving human labour
7. For establishing wage incentive schemes
8. For determining standard time •for various operations.
Standard time is a useful information for determining machine capacity, production targets,
manpower planning, etc.
9. For determining idle or rest time of an operator. The idle time is a useful information for
planning "one operator-multiple machine" type of manufacturing system. In JIT (Just-In-Time)
and cellular manufacturing systems, the concept of "one-operatormultiple machine" is very
useful, as it reduces waste due to excess manpower. It helps in easy planning of machine cells.
10. For generating necessary input information for decisions related to estimating, tendering,
pricing, etc.
11. For generating information related to line-balancing in assembly-line.
ORGANISATIONAL SUITABILITY Work measurement procedure should be undertaken in
only those organisations, where there are some jobs, which are repetitive. ILO prescribes three
criteria for measurable jobs (Figure 26.1)

Techniques of Work Measurement (Figure 26.2) In work measurement, the main techniques are:
1. Work sampling. 2. Stop watch study. 3. Predetermined Time Standards (PTS).
3.4 STOP WATCH TIME STUDY
In this, the actual times required to perform different activities are recorded in their elemental
form is.
Time study is defined as a work measurement technique for recording the times and rate
of working for the elements of a specified job, carried out under specified condition, and
for analysing the data so as to obtain the time necessary for carrying out the job at a defined level
of performance
Steps in Time Study (Stop Watch Method)
The general step are:
• Select work for work measurement.
• Obtain and record all relevant information about job, operator and the surrounding conditions.
• Record complete work description.
• Breakdown operation into elements.
• Examine the detail breakdown.
• Ensure the most effective method and motions being used.
• Determine sample size.
• Use time measuring device like stop-watch to measure and record the time taken by the
operator in performing the elements of the job.
• Assess the effective speed of working of the operator as compared to standard rate in the
perception of observer.
• Compile the basic cycle-time for operation or work cycle.
• Determine the standard time by adding relaxation and personal allowances in base time.
• Define the total procedure of performing an activity along with time standards.
STANDARD TIME
Standard time is the total time in which a job should be completed at standard performance. It is
the sum of the standard times for all the elements of which it is made up, and contingency
allowance plus considerations for the frequencies with which the elements recur.
WORK SAMPLING
In this approach, a large number of instantaneous observations are made over a randomly
selected period of time for a group of workers, machines or process. Each observation records
what is happening at that instant. The percentage of observations recorded for a particular
activity or delay is a measure of the percentage of time during which that activity or delay
occurs. (BS 3138 definition).
Definition
Work sampling is a method of finding the percentage occurrence of a certain activity by
statistical sampling and random observations.
Procedure of Work Sampling
Stage 1: Preparing for work sampling
(i) Specify the main objective and make statement
(ii) Obtain approval. of the concerned department's supervisor
(iii) Identify quantitative measure of activity
(iv) Select and train personnel
(v) Plan for the procedure of observations.
Stage 2: Start work sampling
(i) Get all details of job(s) to be measured
(ii) Divide jobs into activity
(iii) Conduct pilot study to:
(a) determine number of observations
(b) check methods
(c) gain confidence
(iv) Describe and classify the elements to be studied
(v) Design observation sheets
(vi) Identify the number of days/shifts for the study
(vii) Identify scheme for properly randomized times of observations
(viii) Observe activity; record time and compile for each shift/day/week
(ix) Summarize data.
Stage 3: Evaluate and present results
(i) Evaluate and validate data
(ii) Analyze data
(iii) Calculate proportion of time for each activity
(iv) Planning for future studies.
Application of Work Sampling
Work sampling is useful for:
1. Intermittent work
2. Work with long cycle times
3. A starting point like preliminary investigation.