Applied chemistry For CSE Stream 1

Module- 1
SENSORS AND ENERGY SYSTEMS
SENSORS

The sensor is device that interacts with a specific chemical or biological species
(analyte),detects it and measure its physical/chemical information into measurable
electrical signal proportional to its quantity The output produced by a sensor is generally a
signal that is transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further processing.
 Physical/Chemical phenomena such as Temperature, pressure, motion, light, or
sound / composition, concentration, chemical activity, partial pressure can be
measured.
 The information may originate from a chemical reaction of the analyte or from a
physical property.
 Analyte is the target species which is being detected and measured using a sensor.
 The sensor subject is an emerging discipline formed by the multidisciplinary study of
chemistry, biology, electricity, optics, mechanics, acoustics, thermology,
semiconductor technology, microelectronics technology, and membrane technology.

Main components of Sensor

Receptor: The receptor is the chemical or biological recognition element of the sensor that
comes into physical contact with the analyte. It produces signal corresponding to interaction
of analyte in the form of change in potential, conductivity, current, heat, pH and colour etc.
If the receptor is of chemical origin, the device is known as a chemical sensor.
If the receptor is of biological origin (e.g. DNA, antibodies & enzymes) the device is referred
to as a bio- sensor.
Transducer: It is an energy conversion device, that converts a physical quantity or non-
electrical signal created by the receptor–analyte interaction into a readable or measurable
electrical signals like voltage, current or resistance.
In most chemical sensors the sensing element and transducer are packaged together, in direct
spatial contact, in the same unit.
Electrical signal and display: The electronic system analyses the signal given by the
transducer, helps in signal amplification and converts the signal from analog to digital form.

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These amplified signals are then displayed. Signal can be displayed in various forms such as
numeric value, graph, image etc.
Actuator: Actuator would receive inputs from any system in the form of electrical signals
and then generate an output for its environment. Here electrical signal is converted into
mechanical work. It converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Electrochemical sensors
 Electrochemical sensors convert the information associated with electrochemical
reactions (the reaction between an electrode and analyte) into an measurable signal.
 The three essential components: a receptor that binds the sample or analyte, and a
transducer to convert the chemical interactions into a measurable electrical signal.
 The transducer consists of working electrode or sensing electrode, electrolyte, counter
electrode and reference electrode.
 Its working is based on the monitoring and measuring of the reduction or oxidation of
the analyte which occurs on the surface of the electrode.
 Electrochemical transducers transform the chemical changes into electrical signals
 The electric signals are related to the concentration of analyte.

The following steps are involved in the working of an electrochemical sensor.

1) Diffusion of the analyte to the electrode /electrolyte interface.
2) Adsorption onto the electrode surface
3) Electrochemical reaction with electron transfer. Oxidation and reduction of the
analyte takes place.
4) Desorption of products.
5) Diffusion of the products away from the reaction zone to the bulk of electrolyte or gas
phase.

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Application of Electrochemical sensors

 The oxygen sensor is used in detecting dissolved oxygen in water boilers.
 Detection of Blood glucose.
 They ae used in detection of hydrocarbon pollutants.
 They are used in pH measurements.

Conductometric sensor
 Conductometric sensor is considered a type of electrochemical sensor.
 In conductometric sensor the determination of concentration of analyte is based on the
measurement of electrolytic conductance of aqueous electrolytic solution.
 The conductance is result of dissociation of an electrolyte into ions.
 The electrode used in conductometric sensors is called conductivity cell.
 It is made of 2 platinum foils with area of cross section 1cm 2 and distance between
two electrodes is 1 cm apart.
 Conductance of unit volume of the solution is specific conductance.
 There will be change in specific conductance of the analyte solution when there is
change in number of ions or type of ions.
 The conductivity cell is dipped in the electrolytic solution taken in a beaker and it is
connected to a conductance measuring device called conductivity meter.

Conductance of a solution is based on:

 The concentration(number) of ions in the solution.
 Mobility of each type of ion. Mobility of the ion depends on its size. Smaller the size,
higher is mobility and higher the electrolytic conductance.

Application of conductometric sensors

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 It is used to estimate acids, bases and their mixtures in a sample.

 Used to check the amount of ionic impurities in waste samples.
 Measure the acidity or alkalinity of sea water and fresh water.
 In environment monitoring, bio technology and agriculture related applications.

Optical Sensors
 The working of an optical sensor is based on the interaction of electromagnetic
radiation with analyte sample or chemical species.
 The electromagnetic radiation in UV, IR or Visible regions are used.
 In optical sensor, the optical signal arises when incident radiation interacts with
analyte.
 The interaction could result in absorption, scattering, reflection or emission of light.
 The amount of light absorbed or reflected depends upon structure of molecule in the
analyte and wavelength of the penetrating light.
 The intensity of the radiation produced from the carries information on the
concentration of the analyte.
 In simple optical sensor used to measure the absorbance or transmittance of light of
particular wavelength by coloured chemical species in the solution they are governed
by beer lambert's law.
 Optical sensors are made up of following components.
(i) Light source: To pass light on analyte sample
(ii) Filter or Monochromator: To select light of particular wavelength
(iii) Photocell: The light source emits light, which falls on the analyte. The photocell or
Photodetector detects the amount of light that is absorbed, reflected or transmitted. This
information is converted into electrical signal.
(iv) Recorder: Electrical signal is recorded. It is used to measure the concentration of the
analyte.

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Applications of Optical Sensors

 In Medical equipment’s - Optical sensors are used in medical equipment such as pulse
oximeters, which measure the amount of oxygen in a person's blood
 These are used in smartwatches to measure the heartbeat of the person.
 Water and Liquid levels in industries.
 Adjusting screen brightness in smart phones.

Sensors for Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

The oxygen present in water is called Dissolved Oxygen (DO). It is incredibly important
because oxygen sustains life in bodies of water and reduced dissolved oxygen levels can act
as a warning for events that destroy ecosystems. In industrial water treatment, dissolved
oxygen levels can be an indicator of water quality issues that lead to corrosion of equipment.
The concentration of dissolved oxygen can be measured using Polarographic sensors, Optical
sensors and Electrochemical sensors.

Electrochemical Sensor for measurement of Dissolved oxygen (DO)

In an electrochemical DO sensor, dissolved oxygen diffuses from the sample across an
oxygen permeable membrane into the sensor. Next the oxygen undergoes a chemical
reduction reaction inside the sensor which produces an electrical signal. This signal can be
read by recorder to give output.
1) In an electrochemical DO sensor, two electrodes used are of the dissimilar metals.

2) Zinc or lead is used as an anode and silver metal is used as an inert cathode.
3) The difference potential between the anode and the cathode should be more than 0.5
V to reduce dissolved oxygen without any external applied potential.
4) The electrolyte solution used is sodium chloride or KOH.
5) When the electrode assembly is dipped in water to measure its dissolved oxygen, at
anode undergoes oxidation liberating electrons

2Zn → 2Zn 2+
+ 4 e–

6) At cathode dissolved oxygen undergoes reduction. Ag Cathode is inert, it only passes

electrons to oxygen for reduction.

O2+2H2O+4 e- → 4OH-

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Overall reaction is , 2Zn +O2+2H2O → 2Zn (OH)2

The current produced by the reduction of oxygen at Cathode is proportional to the partial
pressure of oxygen in the water sample. The Zinc Hydroxide that is produced by this reaction
is precipitated out into the electrolyte solution. This will gradually affect the sensor
performance. These deposits have to be regularly removed so that there is a constant current
in the sensor. Zinc anodes must be replaced during the course of the reaction.

Working & Principle of Thermometric Sensors

 Thermometric sensor is based on the measurement of thermal changes during the
interaction between the analyte and receptor.
 The thermal changes are converted to measurable change in the temperature or
potential.
 Main components of thermometric sensor are a tubular catalytic reactor fitted with
transducer.
 Analyte (reactant) is fed in to the reactor and wall of the reactor is coated with
catalyst or enzymes capable of catalysing the reaction, liberating heat energy.
 The heat liberated is measured by transducer.
 The change in temperature is converted to the output voltage by transducer which is
amplified and fed to the data storage and processing unit.
 In order to covert change in temperature into an electrical signal, two main kinds of
transducers namely resistive transducer and thermocouple are used.

Applications of thermometric sensor sensors:

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1. Temperature control in chemical reactions: Thermometric sensors are widely used in

chemical reactions to control the temperature of the reaction mixture which is
essential for obtaining the desired product.
2. Used to monitor temperatures in industrial processes such as heating and cooling
systems, boilers, and furnaces.

3. Used to monitor the temperature of medical equipment such as incubators, blood

warmers, and dialysis machines.

4. Medical applications: Thermometric sensors are used in medical applications to

measure body temperature, surface temperature and core temperature.
Electrochemical Sensors for the Pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceuticals are basically organic compounds, which are used extensively by human
beings such as a solution for various health issues. After usage they are excreted from their
host and enter into the environment through water bodies. Majority of these are complex
organic molecules with lower biodegradability. Some of them may affect the ecosystem.
Electrochemical-ion-selective-sensors offer green, rapid, economic and simple analytical-tool
in pharmaceutical industry, control processes, physiological measurements and
environmental monitoring. It is necessary to use censor for the detection of pharmaceuticals
to monitor their concentration and know their toxic effect. Several electrochemical sensors
are available for the detection of pharmaceuticals in lower concentration. The sensors can be
used for the spot analysis. One example is the electrochemical sensor used for the detection
of diclofenac.

Electrochemical Sensor used for the Detection of Diclofenac

 Diclofenac is one of the most frequently prescribed non-steroidal, anti-inflammatory

drugs with antipyretic and analgesic effect.
 It has poor biodegradability, which can cause serious effects on the ecosystem.
 Electrochemical sensor can be used to detect diclofenac in lower concentration.
 The carbon-based sensing electrode is graphite-carbon coated with multiwalled
carbon nanotube (MWCNT) and gold nanoparticles.
 In the detection along with sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference
electrode are used.

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 When the sample containing diclofenac is put in sensor, the Oxidation reaction of
diclofenac occurs on the surface of sensing electrode.
 The current produced is directly proportional to the concentration of diclofenac.

Electrochemical Sensors for Hydrocarbons

 Hydrocarbon pollutant, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)are widely found

in the in the air, water, soil and food.
 PAHs are known to be carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds.
 It can enter the human body mainly through respiration and diet.
 Detection of PAHs is essential to monitor their toxicity and carcinogenic risk.
 After entering the body some PAHs are metabolised into hydroxyl PAHs which are
excreted with urine.
 1-hydroxypyrene is commonly found hydroxy PAHs in urine sample.
 Electrochemical sensors are being developed for detection of 1-hydroxypyrene in
urine sample.
 These sensors are fast, low cost and sensitive and use disposable strips.
 The sensor used to detect 1-hydroxypyrene consists of the sensing electrode
PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO nanocomposites (graphene oxide (GO) with chromium-
centred metal–organic framework (Cr-MOF) nanoparticles regulated by
polyamidoamine).
 In the detection along with sensing electrode, counter electrode and reference
electrode are used.
 The Oxidation reaction of 1-hydroxypyrene occurs on the surface of the sensing
electrode.

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 The current produced is directly proportional to the concentration of 1-

hydroxypyrene.

Electrochemical Gas Sensors for NOX and SOX

 Electrochemical sensors are used to measure the concentration of pollutant gases like
NO2 and NO and SO2.
 An electrochemical gas sensor generally consists of a sensing electrode, counter and
reference electrode and electrolyte along with a gas-permeable membrane.
 The gas-permeable membrane allows only the gas not liquid.
 An electrochemical reaction either oxidation or reduction, depending on the type of
gas occurs when the gas reaches the working electrode or sensing electrode.
 The electrical current generated is proportional to the concentration of the target gas.
 The current is then amplified and processed to give the user a reading in either parts
per million (PPM) or percentage volume.

Detection of NO2
In an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on following electrochemical
reduction reaction on the surface of the sensing electrode. Au, Pt /Nafion sensing electrode
with 10 M H2SO4 is used as an electrolyte.

NO2+2H++2e- → NO+H2O

Detection of NO
Detection of NO in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the
following electrochemical Oxidation reaction on the surface of the sensing electrode.
Au/NASICON -NaNO2 is used as sensing electrode and electrolyte.

NO+2H2O → NO32-+4H++3e-

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Detection of SO2
Detection of SO2 in an amperometric gas sensor in aqueous electrolyte is based on the
following electrochemical Oxidation reaction on the surface of sensing electrode. Au/nafion
sensing electrode with 0.5 M H2SO4 is used as an electrolyte.

SO2+2H2O → SO42-+4H++2e-

Biosensors
Biosensors are devices that are used to detect and measure bioanalyte. They are used in
qualitative and quantitative analysis of biomolecules, biological structures, microorganisms
etc. large number of biosensors is used in healthcare, food, industrial and environmental
fields to detect various bio-analytes like glucose, cholesterol, ethanol, creatinine etc. They
play an important role in the detection of diseases, monitoring of human health, quality of
water & air.
Main component of a biosensor is a receptor which can selectively interact with the
bioanalyte and produce a signal corresponding to the interaction. Receptor contains
immobilized biomaterials like enzymes or nucleic acids on its surface. Signal produced is
detected and converted to appropriate electrical signal by a transducer. Next detector which
amplifies and processes the signals before displaying it using an electronic display system.

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Disposable Sensor
Monitoring of levels of biomolecule like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acid,
enzyme, hormones etc. is very much essential to maintain a healthy body. The deficiency or
excess of these molecules result in biological disorder such as Alzheimer's disease,
Parkinson’s disease, diabetes etc resulting in decreased average life span of humans. Portable
sensor used for on-the –spot analysis of bioanalyte using disposable strip with receptor and
electrode printed on it, is called disposable sensor. These strips can be inserted into the
portable system and used for on-site sample analysis. These sensors are economical, easy to
use, with small quantity of sample.
Advantages of disposable sensors:
1. They transduce physical, chemical, or biological changes
in their environment to an analytical signal.
2. Disposable sensors are biodegradable and sustainable
3. They have a short duration of analysis and fast response times.
4. It provides digitized chemical and biological information.
5. Prevents the contamination of samples.
Detection of Biomolecule- Ascorbic acid
 Ascorbic acid commonly known as vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin.
 It is an antioxidant essential for life and helps in protecting the body against oxidative
stress.
 It is present in fruits, vegetables and other dietary supplements.
 Deficiency may lead to several diseases.
 Disposable, preactivated screen printing electrodes have been developed for on spot
analysis of Ascorbic acid.

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 Disposable strip of a biosensor is a special type of paper over which

bioreceptor(enzymes) and electrodes are coated.
 They are coated in the form of thin strip using screen printing technology.
 In such systems, all the electrodes namely reference, working and counter electrodes
and a bioreceptor are printed on a single platform.
 These strips can be inserted into the portable systems and used for on-site sample
analysis.
 The active material ascorbate oxidase enzyme was immobilized on a screen-printed
carbon electrode with poly (ethylene glycol) and diglycidyl ether as a crosslinking
agent.
 The enzyme ascorbate oxidase oxidises ascorbic acid into dehydroascorbic acid.
 Concentration of ascorbic acid is determined from the change in potential of the
oxidation process.

Disposable Sensors in the Detection of Pesticides

To improve the yield and protect the crops, farmers are using several pesticides. These
synthetic chemical pesticides are must be used in very low concentration of ppm/ppb level.
But due to lack of proper knowledge they are often used in large quantity without caution and
this has resulted in accumulation of pesticides in soil, water or air etc.
Pesticides can induce number of diseases such as asthma, diabetes, birth defects, reproductive
disfunction etc. therefore monitoring the level of pesticides in soil, water is one of the best
ways to detect the abuse of pesticides. Enzyme immobilized screen-printed disposable paper
strip electrode are used in the detection of pesticide. Pesticides interact with immobilized
enzyme and forms of electro active species. This results in decreased enzyme activity which
can be measured quantitatively.

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Detection of Glyphosate
 Glyphosate is a pesticide, used in agriculture.
 Its residues are present in large amount in agriculture products and enters the
ecosystem in large quantity through air, water or soil.
 It is potentially carcinogic to humans
 The electrodes namely reference (Ag-AgCl electrode), working and counter
electrodes (Gold electrodes) and a bioreceptor are printed on a single platform.
 These electrodes are called as screen-printed electrodes and are main components of a
disposable biosensor
 The active material is glycine oxidase enzyme immobilized on a screen-printed
carbon electrode which oxidizes glyphosate into amidomethyl phosphoric acid and
glyoxylate at the interface of working electrode.
 Concentration of glyphosate is determined from the change in potential of the
oxidation process.

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ENERGY SYSTEMS
Introduction
Battery is a device consisting of two or more galvanic cells connected in series or parallel or
both, that store chemical energy in the form of active materials and on demand convert it
into electrical energy through electrochemical redox reaction. Batteries generate power and
acts as portable sources of electrical energy. Batteries are used in calculators, digital watches,
pace makers for heart, hearing aids, portable computers, digital cameras, car engines,
emergency lighting, electroplating, industrial, military and space applications.
Basic concepts
The basic electrochemical unit in a battery is a galvanic cell. The components of such cell are
shown in the fig.

The principal components of a battery are

The anode or negative electrode – It gives electrons to the external circuit by undergoing
oxidation during electrochemical reaction.
The cathode or positive electrode – It accepts electrons from the external circuit and
reduction of the active species occurs.
The electrolyte – An ionic conductor. The electrolyte is commonly a solution of an acid,
alkali or salt having high ionic conductivity. Solid electrolytes having ionic conductivity at
the operating temperature of the cell are also used.

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The separator – the material that electronically separates the anode and cathode in a battery
to prevent internal short-circuit is referred to as a separator. It is permeable to the electrolyte
to maintain the desired ionic conductivity. Thus, the main function of the separator is to
transport ions from the anode compartment to the cathode compartment and vice versa. E.g.
Cellulose, Polypropylene.
Classification of batteries

i) Primary battery or primary cells: In primary the cell reaction is not reversible. These are
not rechargeable and once discharged have no further electrical use and battery becomes
dead. Eg. Dry Cell.

ii) Secondary batteries: Secondary batteries are rechargeable. The cell reactions are reversible
and these are also known as reversible batteries. After discharge secondary batteries can be
recharged electrically to their original condition by passing current through them in the
direction opposite to that discharge current. Eg: Lead acid battery, Ni-MH battery

iii) Reserve batteries: In these batteries, a key component is separated from the rest of the
battery prior to activation. Usually, the electrolyte is the component that is isolated. The
activation involves adding electrolyte and hence the battery has long term storage capacity. In
this condition, chemical deterioration or self- discharge is essentially eliminated. Eg: Li-
V2O5.

Li- ion Battery

Anode - Lithium intercalated in graphite as anode (Li/C)
Cathode – Lithium Cobalt Oxide or LiMnO2 or (LiMO2)
Electrolyte – Lithium salt such as LiPF6 in organic electrolyte mixture such as ethylene
carbonate – dimethyl carbonate.
The Separator –Polypropylene.

Electrode reactions
While discharging, lithium atoms present in the graphite layer are oxidized, liberating
electrons and lithium ions. Electrons flow through external circuit to the cathode and lithium
ion moves through the electrolyte towards cathode. At cathode lithium ions are reduced to
lithium atoms and are inserted into the layered structure of metal oxide. Here lithium ions
become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as intercalation.

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When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs. Lithium present in the layered metal oxide
oxidizes, liberating electrons and lithium ions. Electrons flow through external circuit and
lithium ion moves through the electrolyte towards anode.

Applications

 These are used in cell phones, laptops, electrical vehicles and aerospace applications.

Na- ion Battery

Anode – Hard carbon/ Na
Cathode –Sodium inserted layered metal oxide, (NaMO2)
Electrolyte – NaPF6 dissolved in binary organic solvent mixture such as ethylene carbonate-
dimethyl carbonate
The Separator –Polypropylene.

Aluminum is used as current collector.

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Electrode reactions
During discharging
At anode,
C-Na Na+ + C + e-
Electrons flow from anode to cathode through external circuit. Sodium ions move through the
electrolyte and separator to reach cathode.
At cathode,
Sodium ions are reduced to sodium atom and are inserted into the layered structure of metal
oxide.
Na+ + e- + MO2 Na-MO2
Reactions are reverse during charging of the battery.

Applications
 Mobile phones, camera and Laptops.
 Large scale grid storage application.

Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’)

A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell that uses quantum dots as the absorbing
photovoltaic material. The dimensions range of quantum dots lies between 1nm to 10 nm.
These are zero-dimensional nanostructure with discrete quantized energy levels. It is used to
replace bulky materials such as silicon or gallium selenide. The energy band gap increases
with a decrease in size of the quantum dot. The efficiency of conversion of solar energy into
electrical energy is very high compared to conventional solar cell.

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Construction
A QDSSCs consist of three components
a) Photo anode: It is the working electrode in the cell. It is a conducting glass FTO, over
which a large band gap semiconductor like TiO 2 is coated. This is further coated with
Quantum dots(QD’s) such as PbS, PbSe, CdSe or CdS which acts as photosensitizer.
b) Electrolyte: Polysulphide is the redox electrolyte which is placed between anode and
cathode which also acts as separator.
c) Cathode (CE): Cathode is inert metal which helps to complete the circuit and helps to
catalyses the reduction of oxidized electrolyte.

Working
1. QD’s present on photo anode is exposed to sunlight.
2. QD’s absorb solar energy and get excited, i.e electrons jump from valence band to
conduction band producing electron hole pairs.

QDs + hγ QDs*

QDs* e- + h+
3. The electrons from QDs are transferred to the conduction band of wide band gap TiO 2
semiconductor, leaving holes on the surface of QD’s.
4. Electrolyte takes up holes from the surface of QD’s and gets oxidised.
S2- + 2h+ S

5. Electrons flow from photo anode to cathode through external circuit generating an
electric current.
6. At, cathode electrolyte is regenerated taking up electrons from the cathode.

S + 2e- S2-
Applications

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 It is used as light-emitting Diodes

 It is used as Photoconductors and photodetectors
 It is used in Drug delivery.
 Biosensors
Properties
1. Quantum dots have narrow band gap.
2. It exhibits tuneable band gap.
3. Strong light absorption and capacity
4. High multiple electron generation.

Question Bank on Sensors & Energy systems

1. Explain the working principle of Conductometric sensors (conductometry) and write

any two applications.
2. Explain the working principle of Optical sensors (colorimetry) and write any two
applications.
3. Define the following sensor, transducer and actuators.
4. What are electrochemical sensors. Explain principle and working of electrochemical
sensors.
5. What are Electrochemical Sensors? Explain its application in the measurement of
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
6. Describe the application of Electrochemical gas sensors in sensing SOx and NOx
7. What is Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSC’s)? Explain the working
Principle and Applications.
8. Explain the properties and Applications of QDSSC’s.
9. Describe the construction, working and applications of Lithium-ion batteries and
mention any four applications
10. Explain electrochemical detection of diclofenac and hydrocarbons.
11. Explain detection of diclofenac and glyphosate
12. What are disposable sensors. Explain the detection of ascorbic acid. Write the
oxidation reactions.
13. Define a battery. Explain classification of batteries.

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14. Describe the construction, working and applications of Na-ion batteries and mention
any four applications
15. Explain the principle, working and applications of thermometric sensors.

Prashantha Somayaji
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemistry
CEC, Benjanapadavu

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