BRAINWARE UNIVERSITY

[ENV201] CLASS NOTES, Module-III [Environmental Studies]

Natural Resources: Renewable and Non-renewable Resources:

Land Resources: Land degradation, soil erosion.
Forest Resources: Uses, types and importance, deforestation and its effects on environment,
forests biodiversity and tribal populations.
Water Resources: Use and over-exploitation of surface and ground water, floods, droughts,
conflicts over water (international & inter-state).
Energy resources: Renewable and non-renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy
sources, growing energy needs, case studies.

LAND RESOURCES

Land as a resource:

The land is mostly defined as “the solid portion of the Earth’s surface”. The term “land
resources” encompasses the physical, biotic, environmental, infrastructural and socio-economic
components of a natural land unit, including surface and near-surface freshwater resources
important for management. It is a significant natural resource which play an important role in
development of human society.

Importance of land resource:

▪ It provides a habitat for a diverse range of flora and fauna.

▪ Humans use it for a variety of purposes, including agriculture, forestry, mining,

construction of houses and roads, and the establishment of industry.

▪ It is a productive economic factor in agriculture, forestry, grazing, fishing and mining.

▪ Land that is used for non-agricultural purposes such as communities, roads, trains, and
industries is referred to as wasteland.

▪ Land contains huge amounts of minerals.

▪ It also contains water in form of underground water.

Degradation of Land:
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[ENV201] CLASS NOTES, Module-III [Environmental Studies]

Land degradation is defined as the temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of
the land, and the diminution of the productive potential, including its major land uses, its
farming systems and its value as an economic resource.

Natural Causes:

1. Heavy rains leads to removal of top soil making soil infertile and unsuitable for agriculture.

2. Natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods can have considerable impacts on land
resources.

3. Winds with high intensity and storms are responsible for land degradation.

Anthropogenic Causes:

1. Mining generates a lot of wastes that destroys vegetation and disrupts water circulation over
large tracks causes land degradation.

2. Population explosion leads to the growth of urbanization of all over the world which is a
major concern.

3. Deforestation - The indiscriminate and uncontrolled removal of forest cover causes serious
land degradation.

4. Overgrazing lowers the soil quality and leads to land degradation.

5. Construction of dams and canals are also responsible for loss of vegetation leading to land
degradation.

6. Most of the chemical fertilizers used in modern agriculture affects the productivity of soil and
leads to land degradation.

7. Poor farming practice depletes the soil nutrients causing land degradation.

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[ENV201] CLASS NOTES, Module-III [Environmental Studies]

8. Dumping non-biodegradable trash such as plastics has also the contribution to land
degradation.

9. Climate change exacerbates land degradation by inducing seawater inundation, heavy rainfall.

Impacts of land degradation:

The far-reaching impacts of land degradation includes

1. Loss of arable lands.

2. Destruction of species habitat and biodiversity.

3. Excessive nutrient run-off into the rivers and lakes.

4. Increased flooding: The converted land is less able to soak up water, making flooding more
common.

5. Forced migration of human beings.

6. Contamination of ground water.

DESERTIFICATION:

Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region becomes
increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is a
significant global, ecological and environmental problem.

It is caused by a variety of factors, such as climate change and human activities. Causes of
desertification are given below-

1. Overgrazing

Animal grazing is a huge problem for many areas that are starting to become desert biomes. If
there are too many animals that are overgrazing in certain spots, it makes it difficult for the
plants to grow back, which hurts the biome and makes it lose its former green glory.

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[ENV201] CLASS NOTES, Module-III [Environmental Studies]

2. Deforestation

When people are looking to move into an area, or they need trees in order to make houses and do
other tasks, then they are contributing to the problems related to desertification. Without the
plants (especially the trees) around, the rest of the biome cannot thrive.

3. Farming Practices

Some farmers do not know how to use the land effectively. They may essentially strip the land
of everything that it has before moving on to another plot of land. By stripping the soil of its
nutrients, desertification becomes more of a reality for the area that is being used for farming.

4. Excessive Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides

The use of excessive amounts of fertilizers and pesticides to maximize their crop yields in the
short term often leads to significant damages for the soil.

In the long run, this may turn from arable into arid land over time, and it will no longer be
suitable for farming purposes after a few years of excessive farming since the soil has been
damaged too much over time.

5. Over drafting of groundwater

Groundwater is the freshwater found underground and also one of the largest water sources.
Over drafting is the process in which groundwater is extracted in excess of the equilibrium yield
of the aquifer that is pumping or the excessive pulling up of groundwater from underground
aquifers. Its depletion causes desertification.

6. Urbanization and Other Types of Land Development

As mentioned above, development can cause people to go through and kill plant life. It can also
cause issues with the soil due to chemicals and other things that may harm the ground. As areas
become more urbanized, there are fewer places for plants to grow, thus causing desertification.

7. Climate Change

Climate change plays a huge role in desertification. As the days get warmer and periods of
drought become more frequent, desertification becomes more and more eminent.

Unless climate change is slowed down, huge areas of land will become desert; some of those
areas may even become uninhabitable as time goes on.

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8. Stripping the Land of Resources

If an area of land has natural resources like natural gas, oil, or minerals, people will come and
mine it or take it out. This usually strips the soil of nutrients, which in turn kills the plant life,
and eventually leads to the process of becoming a desert biome as time goes on.

9. Natural Disasters

There are some cases where the land gets damaged because of natural disasters, including
drought. In those cases, there isn’t a lot that people can do except work to try and help
rehabilitate the land after it has already been damaged by nature.

10. Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is a significant cause of desertification. Most plants are quite sensitive to their
natural living conditions. When soil becomes polluted due to various human activities, the
respective area of land may suffer from desertification in the long run. Higher the level of
pollution more will be the degradation of soil over time.

11. Overpopulation and excessive consumption

Since our world population is continuously growing, the demand for food and material goods is
also increasing at an alarming rate. Our overall level of consumption is also increasing at a
steady rate.

Thus, to fulfill our demand, we have to optimize our farming processes to harvest even higher
crop yields. However, this excessive optimization of farming will hurt the soil and will
eventually turn into the desertification of land in the long run.

12. Mining

Mining is another big reason for desertification. Large amounts of resources have to be extracted
by industries to meet our demand for material goods. For mining, large areas of land have to be
used, which causes deforestation as well as pollution of the nearby areas.

By the time most of the natural resources have been extracted, and mining practices are no more
profitable, the soil gets damaged significantly, and the land becomes arid, which may not be
recoverable, and desertification occurs.

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Effects of Desertification

1. Farming becomes next to impossible

If an area becomes a desert, then it’s almost impossible to grow substantial crops there without
special technologies. This can cost a lot of money to try and do, so many farmers will have to
sell their land and leave the desert areas.

2. Decrease in Crop Yields

A major effect of desertification is the decrease in crop yields. Once land turns from arable to
arid, it is often on longer suitable for farming purposes anymore.

In turn, many farmers may lose their livelihood, since they often solely rely on farming as their
single source of income. If their land becomes arid, they may no longer be able to provide
sufficient crop yields to make a living out of it.

3. Hunger

Without farms in these areas, the food that those farms produce will become much scarcer, and
the people who live in those local areas will be a lot more likely to try and deal with hunger
problems. Animals will also go hungry, which will cause even more of a food shortage.

4. Flooding

Without plant life in an area, flooding is a lot more imminent. Not all deserts are dry; those that
are wet could experience a lot of flooding because there is nothing to stop the water from
gathering and going all over the place. Flooding can also negatively affect the water supply,
which we will discuss next.

5. Poor Water Quality

If an area becomes a desert, the water quality is going to become a lot worse than it would have
been otherwise. This is because plant life plays a significant role in keeping the water clean and
clear; without its presence, it becomes a lot more difficult for you to be able to do that.

6. Overpopulation

When areas start to become desert, animals and people will go to other areas where they can
actually thrive. This causes crowding and overpopulation, which will, in the long run, end up
continuing the cycle of desertification that started this whole thing anyway.

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7. Poverty

All of the issues that we’ve talked about above (related to the problem of desertification) can
lead to poverty if it is not kept in check. Without food and water, it becomes harder for people to
thrive, and they take a lot of time to try and get the things that they need.

8. Biodiversity Loss

In general, the destruction of habitats and desertification may also contribute to a loss of
biodiversity. While some species may be able to adjust to the altered environmental conditions
properly, many species will not be able to do so and may suffer from serious declines in
population.

9. Endangerment and Extinction of Species

The desertification results in a decline in population for which species may become endangered
or even extinct. This problem is especially severe for species that are already endangered as the
small number of animals or plants that remains may also die off over time, which may even lead
to the extinction of species.

10. Destruction of Habitats

Desertification often leads to a loss of habitats for many animals and plants. Desertification may
alter the living conditions of the local flora and fauna that makes it impossible for animals and
plants to sustain their populations.

After desertification, regions suffer from water shortages due to climate change and animals may
suffer and die since water is vital for all life on our planet.

11. Migration

The desertification implies the destruction of the livelihood of farmers. This problem becomes
even worse when large areas of land that are currently used for farming will then no longer be
suitable for farming due to a lack of water triggered by global warming. This results in serious
migration movements.

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[ENV201] CLASS NOTES, Module-III [Environmental Studies]

Solutions to Desertification

1. Policy Changes Related to How People can Farm

In countries where policy change will actually be enforced on those in the country, policy
change related to how often people can farm and how much they can farm on certain areas could
be put into place to help reduce the problems that are often associated with farming and
desertification.

2. Policy Changes to Other Types of Land Use

If people are using land to get natural resources or they are developing it for people to live on,
then the policies that govern them should be ones that will help the land to thrive instead of
allowing them to harm the land further. The policy changes could be sweeping or they could be
depending on the type of land use at hand.

3. Education

In developing countries, education is an incredibly important tool that needs to be utilized in

order to help people to understand the best way to use the land that they are farming on. By
educating them on sustainable practices, more land will be saved from becoming desert.

4. Technology Advances

Research is the key to overcome most of our environmental problems, and it applies to
desertification also. In some cases, it’s difficult to try and prevent desertification from
happening.

In those cases, there needs to be research and application of the latest technology that pushes the
limits of what we currently know about the drivers of desertification. Advancements could help
us find more ways to prevent the issue from becoming an epidemic.

5. Restricting Mining Practices

Mining often implies the destruction of large areas of land. Therefore it should be regulated by
governments to keep the nature reserves intact and protect the natural habitats of many animals
and plants. Thus, less land will be arid, and the desertification issue can be mitigated to a certain
extent.

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6. Putting Together Rehabilitation Efforts

There are some ways that we can go back and rehabilitate the land that we’ve already pushed
into desertification; it just takes some investment of time and money. By putting these together,
we can prevent the issue from becoming even more widespread in the areas that have already
been affected.

7. Reforestation

The areas that have been subject to deforestation in the past should be considered for
reforestation. Planting trees in those areas are quite important since they are natural carbon
dioxide storage spaces; they slow down global warming and contribute to maintaining a natural
balance.

Whereas using those areas for other purposes may turn them into arid land in the long run.
Therefore, planting trees in the affected areas not only prevents desertification but also fights
against additional environmental issues.

8. Sustainable Practices to Prevent Desertification from Happening

There are plenty of sustainable practices that can be applied to those acts that may be causing
desertification. By adding these to what we should be doing with land, we can ensure that we
don’t turn the entire world into a desert.

Desertification is a huge problem that needs to be addressed accordingly, and if we take the time
to do it now, we can prevent other problems from happening with it in the future. By taking that
critical look at desertification, we have the tools that we need in order to get through the
processes effectively.

SOIL EROSION

“Soil erosion is the natural process in which the topsoil of a field is carried away by physical
sources such as wind and water.”

What is Soil Erosion?

In this process, the soil particles are loosened or washed away in the valleys, oceans, rivers,
streams or faraway lands. This has been worsening due to human activities such as agriculture
and deforestation.

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[ENV201] CLASS NOTES, Module-III [Environmental Studies]

Soil erosion is a continuous process that occurs either slowly or at an alarming rate. It results in
a continuous loss of topsoil, ecological degradation, soil collapse, etc.

Causes of Soil Erosion

Following are the important causes of soil erosion:

1. Rainfall and Flooding

Higher intensity of rainstorm is the main cause of soil erosion. Four types of soil erosion are
caused by rainfall:

• Rill erosion

• Gully erosion

• Sheet erosion

• Splash erosion

The raindrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby streams and rivers.
Regions with very heavy and frequent rainfall face a large amount of soil loss. The flowing
water during floods also erodes a lot of soil by creating potholes, rock-cut basins, etc.

2. Agriculture

The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural activities disturb the
ground. The trees are cleared and the land is ploughed to sow new seeds. Since most of the crops
are grown during the spring season, the land lies fallow during winters. Most of the soil is
eroded during winters.

Also, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a natural pathway for water. Fine
soil particles are eroded by wind.

3. Grazing

The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the land. Their hooves
churn up the soil. They also pull-out plants by their roots. This loosens the soil and makes it
more prone to erosion.

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4. Logging and Mining

A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. Trees hold the soil firmly.
The canopy of the trees protects the soil from heavy rainfall. The leaf litter that protects the soil
from erosion, is also lost during logging.

Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to erosion.

5. Construction

The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The forests and grasslands
are cleared for construction purposes, which exposes the soil making it vulnerable to erosion.

6. Rivers and Streams

The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a V-shaped erosion
activity.

7. Heavy Winds

During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are carried away by the
wind to faraway lands. This degrades the soil and results in desertification.

Effects of Soil Erosion

The major effects of soil erosion include:

1. Loss of Arable Land

Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer is rich in the essential nutrients
required by the plants and the soil. The degraded soil does not support crop production and leads
to low crop productivity.

2. Clogging of Waterways

The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and several other chemicals.
This pollutes the water bodies where the soil flows.

The sediments accumulate in the water and raise the water levels resulting in flooding.

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3. Air Pollution

The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. Some of the toxic substances such
as pesticides and petroleum can be extremely hazardous when inhaled. The dust plumes from the
arid and semi-arid regions cause widespread pollution when the winds move.

4. Desertification

Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable regions into deserts.
Deforestation and destructive use of land worsens the situation. This also leads to loss of
biodiversity, degradation of the soil, and alteration in the ecosystem.

5. Destruction of Infrastructure

The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the banks can reduce their efficiency.
Thus, it affects infrastructural projects such as dams, embankments, and drainage.

Soil Erosion Prevention

1. Soil erosion is a serious environmental issue. Steps should be taken to curb this problem.
Following are some of the methods of soil erosion prevention:

2. Plant trees on barren lands to limit erosion of soil.

3. Add mulch and rocks to prevent the plants and grass underneath to prevent soil erosion.

4. Mulch matting can be used to reduce erosion on the slopes.

5. Put a series of fibre logs to prevent any water or soil from washing away.

6. A wall at the base of the slope can help in preventing the soil from eroding.

7. Every household should have a proper drainage system so that water flows down into proper
water collecting systems.

Key Points of Soil Erosion

It is the natural process of wearing away of the topsoil, but human activities have accelerated the
process.

It is usually caused due to the removal of vegetation, or any activity that renders the ground dry.

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Farming, grazing, mining, construction and recreational activities are some of the causes of soil
erosion.

The effects of soil erosion are not just land degradation. It has led to a drastic increase in
pollution and sedimentation in rivers that clogs the water bodies resulting in a decline in the
population of aquatic organisms.

Degraded lands lose the water holding capacity resulting in floods.

The health of the soil is of utmost importance to the farmers and the population that depends
upon agriculture for food and employment. There are several challenges to resist soil erosion,
but there are solutions to prevent it as well.

FOREST RESOURCES

Forest Resources
The word ‘forest’ originated from ‘fores’ meaning a vast stretch of land shielded by trees. Forest
is important renewable natural resources. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary
productivity of the Earth's biosphere, and contains 80% of the Earth's plant biomass. Forest
varies in composition and diversity and can contribute substantially to the economic
development of any country. Plants along with trees cover large areas, produce variety of
products and provide food for living organisms, and also important to save the environment.

Structural organization:
The species arrangement in a forest is often distinctive to a forest, with forests differing in
species richness and species diversity. Forest is also subjected to change due to succession;
during which species composition changes. There are some basic structural characteristics that
most of the forest share – features that enable one to understand both forests and the wildlife that
that dwell in them.

Mature forests comprise the following distinct vertical layers:

1. Forest floor is often carpeted with decaying leaves, twigs, fallen trees, moss, and other
detritus. Fungi, insects, bacteria, and earthworms are among the many decomposers.
2. Herb layer is controlled by grasses, ferns, wildflowers, and other ground cover. Vegetation
often gets little light due to thick canopies; shade tolerant species are leading ones.
3. Shrub layer is characterized by woody vegetation, comparatively near the ground surface.

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4. Undergrowth and brambles may develop where light can pass through.
5. Understory consists of immature and small trees that is shorter in height but supports a variety
of animals.

6. Canopy is the layer where the pinnacles of maximum of the forest's trees form a dense layer.

7. Emergent are trees whose crests emerge above the canopy.

8. These layers provide a montage of habitats and enable organisms to settle into various pockets
of habitat of a forest.

Significant of the forest:

It is already proven that forest and environment are both interrelated and interactive in such a
way that they are inseparable.

1. Forests are vital for the ecological balance and play an important role in temperature
regulation in the atmosphere.

2. Forests are natural and vast reservoir of food and shelter for animals. They provide natural
habitats for numerous species of plants, animals and micro-organisms.

3. Forests provide timber, bamboo, canes, leaves, grass, oil, resins, gums, shellac, tanning
materials, dyes, hides, fur, fruits, nuts, roots, tubers and other useful things for human beings.

4. Forests provide raw materials for forest-based industries such as wood, paper etc as well as
the employment to millions of people.

5. Forests are the natural home to medicinal herbs and plants.

6. Forest directly or indirectly affects the climate (temperature, precipitation, moisture,

underground water-table, bio-geochemical cycles).

7. Forests prevent floods and soil erosion, land degradation and improve the quality of air and
water.

8. Forests help in purifying air, water, and soil pollution.

9. Forests also have aesthetic and tourist values.

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Types of forest:

Forests cover 1/3 of the earth’s surface and contain an estimated 3 trillion trees. Forests exist in
dry, wet, bitterly cold, and swelteringly hot climates. These different forests all have
special characteristics that allow them to thrive in their particular climate.

Broadly speaking, there are three major forest zones that are separated according to their
distance from the equator. These are:

1. Tropical forest

2. Temperate forest

3. Boreal forests (taiga).

Boreal forest:

1. Boreal forests or taiga, are found between 50- and 60-degrees latitude in North America, Asia,
and Europe.

2. These are characterized by short summers and long winters with15 and 40 inches of
precipitation annually, most of which comes in the form of snow.

2. Bitter cold climate of the region leads to low species diversity compared to temperate and
tropical forests.

3. The plants and animals that do live in boreal forests are specially adapted to cope with short
growing seasons (about 130 days) and cold temperatures.

4. Due to their vastness and remoteness, boreal forests are important to store carbon.

5. Boreal forests tend to have shallow, acidic, nutrient-poor soils.

6. Conifers such as spruce, fir and pine are the most abundant type of tree, although there are
some well-adapted deciduous trees, such as willows, poplars, and alders, as well.

7. Animals that live in these forests normally have thick fur and are adapted to long, cold
winters. Prominent species include black and white fir, jack pine, balsam fir, and tamarack deer,
elk, snowshoe hare, caribou, moose, lynxes, wolves, and wolverines.

8. In the understory, blueberry and cranberry bushes provide high-energy food for wildlife.
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Types of Boreal Forest

• Open Canopy Boreal: Also known as lichen woodland, open canopy boreal forests occur
at higher latitudes and have lower species diversity.

• Closed Canopy Boreal: Found at lower latitudes, closed canopy boreal forests have
richer soil and denser tree stands that allow little light to reach the forest floor. Less
harsh conditions, however, lead to greater species diversity.

Temperate Forest:

1. Temperate forests are located at mid-latitudes, which gives them their characteristic four
seasons. The regions include New Zealand, Pacific Northwestern United States and Canada,
Southern Japan, Southwestern South America, Some parts of Northwestern Europe.

2. Annual temperatures range from -300C – 300C depending on location and season.

3. Annual average precipitation between 30 to 200 inches.

4. Soils are generally fertile, with a thick layer of organic matter from which plants can extract
nutrients to grow.

5. Temperate forests are inhabited by deciduous trees like maples, hickories, oaks, and many
others drop their leaves and become dormant in the fall and winter to save energy.

6. Animals that inhabit these forests include elk, deer, marmot, black bear, marbled murrelet,
and spotted owl.

Types of Temperate Forest

• Deciduous Forest: This forest type is dominated by deciduous trees, which lose their
leaves during colder months and enter a period of dormancy.

• Coniferous Forest: This biome has a higher proportion of evergreen, cone-producing

trees.

• Temperate Rainforest: With moderate temperatures, these forests report extremely high
amounts of precipitation — 140 to 167 inches per year.

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Tropical forest:

1. Located between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn at 23 degrees north and south, tropical
forests are some of the most bio diverse ecosystems on Earth.

2. These forests cover only a tenth of the surface of the planet, yet harbor half of all species.

They are also some of the most threatened by human activities.

3. Tropical forests have relatively stable conditions that have allowed life to thrive.

4. They are the warmest and rainiest forests on Earth, with temperatures ranging between 68 F
and 77 F, with 79 to 394 inches of rain annually.

5. The diversity of tropical forests makes them very efficient at processing nutrients. Dead and
decaying matter is quickly broken down by decomposers and almost instantly taken up by
another organism. This makes tropical forest soils nutrient-poor.

6. To cope with poor soils, many tropical trees have adapted shallow root systems that spread
across the forest floor and can more easily take in nutrients.

7. Tropical rainforests are dominated by broad-leafed trees, which grow between 82 and 115
feet tall. Other vegetation includes vines, ferns, mosses, orchids, and palms.

8. A wide variety of birds, snakes, bats, and monkeys are found in these forests.

Types of Tropical Forest

• Evergreen Rainforest: Often thought of as “real” rainforest, these are the wettest (~80
inches of rain per year) and most bio diverse tropical forests.

• Tropical Moist Forest: Further from the equator than evergreen rainforests, tropical moist
forests experience less rainfall overall and bigger differences between seasons.

• Tropical Dry Forest: Receive very little rain between four and six months out of the year.
Plants and animals have specific adaptations to deal with this period of water scarcity.

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• Mangrove: Coastal tropical forests with trees adapted to live in brackish water with
changing levels. Mangroves protect the coast from storms and act as nurseries for aquatic
species.

DEFORESTATION

Deforestation can be defined as the large-scale removal of trees from forests (or other lands) for
the facilitation of human activities. It negatively affects natural ecosystems, biodiversity, and the
climate. Estimate says 12-15 million hectares of forest are lost per year.

Causes of deforestation:

1. Increase in the population: Every human being requires facilities such as space, buildings and
houses to live. This leads to a large scale cutting of trees.
2. Fuels and other resources: Forest is a source of fuel and provides firewood. Wood and trees
can be used as a fuel mainly in the rural areas where other resources are unavailable.

3. Unsustainable agriculture: Agriculture practices like shifting agriculture, livestock rearing

grazing, crop-plantations, etc. Subsistence farming is accountable for 48 per cent of
deforestation whereas commercial agriculture is responsible for 32 per cent of deforestation.
(UNFCCC).
4. Commercial logging and timber harvesting contributes to 14 per cent of deforestation. Making
of furniture, boxes, plywood, matchboxes, packing material, chapter, railway sleepers etc.
5. Developmental activities like mining industries, human settlement, tourism, infrastructure
development (roads, railways dams), hydel power projects.
6. Hunting and collecting for food support, cultural uses medicinal plants.
7. Trade in food commodities, traditional medicines.
8. Accidental activities like trapping, hooking, netting, poisoning.
9. Natural hazards like volcanoes, drought, and floods and wildfires.
10. Pollution of land and water, global warming.
11. Use of forest areas for defense purpose.
12. Present-day deforestation may also occur due to corruption of government institutions, faulty
policies and implementation.

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Effects of deforestation on environment:

1. On removal of forest cover the wildlife is deprived of habitat and becomes defenseless to
hunting leading to Loss of biodiversity.

2. Deforestation results in 15 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions. Trees help in carbon
offsetting.
3. Erratic behavior of the climate. Local climate becomes much dry due to reduction in the loss
of water by evaporation, water cycle is disrupted.

4. Deforestation makes the oceans more acidic by increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.

5. Deforestation speed up rates of soil erosion, by increasing runoff; soil becomes infertile. In
places with slopes, it results in landslides.
6. Disturbance of livelihoods to millions like small-scale agriculture, hunting and gathering,
rubber cultivation ultimately leading to social problems.

7. Occurrence of floods.

Solutions:

1. The best solution to deforestation is to curb the felling of trees by enforcing a series of
rules and laws to govern it.

2. Banning Clear-Cutting of Forests will curb the total depletion of the forest cover. It is a
practical solution and is very feasible.

3. Reforestation and Afforestation - The cutting of trees must be replaced by planting young
trees.

4. Reduce Consumption of Paper – It is better to reduce consumption and waste of paper and
also opt for recycled paper products.

5. Giving education to people by sharing the deforestation facts, and its causes and effects may
create their awareness.

6. Purchase from Sustainable, Forest-Friendly Companies.

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7. Declaration of protected areas – To create a protected area is to develop of a global network

of eco-friendly representative, effectively managed and sustainably financed patch.

Forest biodiversity and tribal population:

Forest biodiversity: Forest biological diversity is a broad term that refers to all life forms found
within forested areas and the ecological roles they perform.

Tribal Population: Tribal were the original human settlers of forests.

Forest sector is the second largest land use after agriculture. In remote forest fringe villages
about 300 million tribal and other local people depend on forest for their subsistence and
livelihood and about 70% of India's rural population depends on fuelwood to meet its domestic
energy needs.

Forest benefits driven by tribes:

1. The forest offers varieties of berries, nuts, honey, fruits and roots, tribals know which are
edible.

2. Tribals living in interior forests use leaves, hides, skins, barks and fibers to cover their body.

3. The forest provides timber, wood, stones, reeds, slates, grass, poles, canes and related building
materials for shelter to tribes.

4. The ornaments, worn by the women and also by men are made from seeds, animal bones,
horns, shells and nails.

5. They collect nature produce such as dry and fallen wood for fuel, small timber, bamboos,
nuts, berries, bones, hide, skins and herbs etc., as a source of income.

6. Tribals also follow occupations in and around forest such as agriculture, cattle grazing,
poultry farming, transport of logs and timber, collection of grass, etc.

Role of tribal communities in forest conservation

1. Tribals never pollute the environment as they do not use modern polluting agents.

2. They protect certain animals and plants by worshipping them.

3. Because of their presence, external people do not enter into the dense forested areas. Thus, it
protects local flora and fauna from theft.

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4. Tribal gives critical information like endemic plants and their uses inside the forest.

5. Tribals play a major role in supply of labors in afforestation programmers.

6. Certain tribals cooperate with the forest department by giving proper and timely information
about the intrusion of external people in forest.

7. Tribals play a major role in fighting forest fire too.

WATER RESOURCES

Water Resources: Use and over-exploitation of surface and ground water, floods, droughts,
conflicts over water (inter-national and inter-state) etc.

Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful as a source of water
supply. On a global scale, total quantity of water available is about 1600 million cubic km. The
hydrological cycle moves enormous quantity of water around the globe. However, much of the
world’s water has little potential for human use because 97.5% of all water on earth is saline
water. Out of the remaining 2.5% freshwater, most of which lies deep and frozen in Antarctica
and Greenland, only about 0.26 % fish in rivers, lakes and in the soils and shallow aquifers
which are readily usable for mankind.

Natural sources of fresh water include surface water, under river flow, groundwater and frozen
water. Artificial sources of fresh water can include treated wastewater and desalinated seawater.

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Fig. Global distribution of water resources

USE OF WATER RESOURCES:

The U.S. Geological Survey categorizes water use for analyzing current patterns and predicting
future trends.

Commercial water use includes fresh water for motels, hotels, restaurants, office buildings, other
commercial facilities, and civilian and military institutions. Domestic water use is probably the
most important daily use of water for most people.

Domestic use includes water that is used in the home every day, including water for normal
household purposes, such as drinking, food preparation, bathing, washing clothes and dishes,
flushing toilets, and watering lawns and gardens.

Industrial water use is a valuable resource to the nation's industries for such purposes as
processing, cleaning, transportation, dilution, and cooling in manufacturing facilities. Major

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water-using industries include steel, chemical, paper, and petroleum refining. Industries often
reuse the same water over and over for more than one purpose.

Irrigation water use is water artificially applied to farm, orchard, pasture, and horticultural
crops, as well as water used to irrigate pastures, for frost and freeze protection, chemical
application, crop cooling, harvesting, and for the leaching of salts from the crop root zone. Non-
agricultural activities include self-supplied water to irrigate public and private golf courses,
parks, nurseries, turf farms, cemeteries, and other landscape irrigation uses.

Livestock water use includes water for stock animals, feed lots, dairies, fish farms, and other
nonfarm needs. Water is needed for the production of red meat, poultry, eggs, milk, and wool,
and for horses, rabbits, and pets. Livestock water use only includes fresh water.

Mining water use includes water for the extraction of naturally occurring minerals; solids, such
as coal and ores; liquids, such as crude petroleum; and gases, such as natural gas. The category
includes quarrying, milling (such as crushing, screening, washing, and flotation), and other
operations as part of mining activity. A significant portion of the water used for mining, about
32 percent, is saline.

Public Supply water use refers to water withdrawn by public and private water suppliers, such as
county and municipal water works, and delivered to users for domestic, commercial, and
industrial purposes. In 1995, the majority of the nation's population, about 225 million, or 84
percent, used water delivered from public water suppliers. About 42 million people supplied
their own water, with about 99 percent of that water being groundwater, usually from a local
well.

Thermoelectric Power water use is the amount of water used in the production of electric power
generated with heat. The source of the heat may be from fossil fuels, nuclear fission, or
geothermal. Fossil fuel power plants typically reuse water. They generate electricity by turning a
turbine using steam power. After the steam is used to turn the turbines, it is condensed back to

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water by cooling it. The condensed water is then routed back to the boiler, where the cycle
begins again.

WATER CYCLE/HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:

Precipitation is a vital component of how water moves through Earth’s water cycle, connecting
the ocean, land, and atmosphere. Knowing where it rains, how much it rains and the character of
the falling rain, snow or hail allows scientists to better understand precipitation’s impact on
streams, rivers, surface runoff and groundwater. Frequent and detailed measurements help
scientists make models of and determine changes in Earth’s water cycle. The water cycle
describes how water evaporates from the surface of the earth, rises into the atmosphere, cools
and condenses into rain or snow in clouds, and falls again to the surface as precipitation. The
water falling on land collects in rivers and lakes, soil, and porous layers of rock, and much of it
flows back into the oceans, where it will once more evaporate. The cycling of water in and out
of the atmosphere is a significant aspect of the weather patterns on Earth.

Fig. Hydrological cycle

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Impact of over-utilization of ground water and surface water:

Overuse of groundwater for drinking, irrigation and domestic purposes has resulted in rapid
depletion of groundwater in various regions leading to lowering of water table and drying of
wells. Pollution in groundwater aquifers has made many of these wells unfit for consumption.
Over-exploitation of ground water lowers water tables, which may damage wetlands, cause
ground subsidence, and induce salt-water intrusion in coastal aquifers.

Rivers and streams have long been used for discharging the waters. Most of the civilization have
grown and furnished on the banks of rivers but unfortunately, growth in turn, has been
responsible for pollution of the rivers.

Effect of excessive ground water usage:

Subsidence: When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the
aquifer get compacted, the phenomenon known as ground subsidence. Ground subsidence at the
surface can be regarded as ground movement which takes place due to the intensive abstraction
of groundwater. It is attributed to the consolidation of sedimentary deposits in which the
groundwater is present, consolidation occurring as a result of increasing effective stress. The
total overburden pressure in partially saturated or saturated deposits is borne by their granular
structure and the pore water. It occurs where excessive pumping of groundwater removes ground
support, particularly in areas of unconsolidated sediments and sedimentary rocks. Removal of
water causes sediment compaction. The weight of buildings can also cause compaction and
subsidence.

Lowering of Water Table: Lowering of water table occurs where groundwater is withdrawn
faster than it can be recharged. It can cause wells to dry up; for example: in some areas of the
mid-West, 2-10 times × more water is being withdrawn from the High Plains aquifer than is
being recharged, it is not advisable to do excessive mining as it would cause a sharp decline in
future agricultural production, due to lowering of water table.

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Waterlogging: Another problem associated with excessive irrigation on poorly drained soils is
waterlogging. This occurs (as is common for salinization) in poorly drained soils where water
can’t penetrate deeply. For example, there may be an impermeable clay layer below the soil. It
also occurs on areas that are topographically poorly drained. The irrigation water (and/or
seepage from canals) eventually raises the water table in the ground the upper level of the
groundwater from beneath. Growers don’t generally realize that water logging is happening until
it is too late tests for water in soil are apparently very expensive. The raised water table results in
the soils becoming waterlogged. When soils are water logged, air spaces in the soil are filled
with water, and plant roots essentially suffocate lack oxygen. Water logging also damages soil
structure. Worldwide, about 10% of all irrigated land suffers from water logging.

Saltwater Incursion: Saltwater incursion involves contamination of freshwater aquifers with

saltwater. Fresh water floats as a lens on denser salt water. If fresh water is removed in large
amount, a cone of depression is created in the fresh water lens. Lowering the water table by 1-
foot results in raising the level of salt water by 40 feet.

It can be counteracted by:

1. Reducing groundwater withdrawal

2. Re-injecting treated wastewater into recharge wells

3. Construction of recharge ponds

Pollution: Sewage is the most common source of groundwater pollution. Landfills, underground
storage tanks, and hazardous waste disposal sites are other sources of contamination. Surface
sources of pollution can affect groundwater where the ground is very permeable or where
conduits to the water table are present. Pollution spreads with the flow of groundwater. Clean-up
of contaminated groundwater is extremely difficult and expensive. High-level nuclear waste
disposal may threaten groundwater quality in the future

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Drought and Flood are a common feature and their co-existence poses a potent threat, which
cannot be eradicated but has to be managed. Transfer of the surplus monsoon water to areas of
water deficit is a potential possibility. This would also help create additional irrigational
potential, the generation of hydropower, as well as overcoming regional imbalances.

The recurrence of drought and famines during the second half of the 19th century necessitated
the development of irrigation to give protection against the failure of crops and to reduce large-
scale expenditure on famine relief

Floods can be divided into 4 types:

• Flash floods, due to heavy rainfall in a short period, i.e., a tropical cyclone causing very
high rainfall intensity
• Over-bank floods, due to continuous heavy rainfall in the watershed area for a long
period overloading the water course-the level of violence depends on the river size,
quantity of rain and duration (normally, hydrological floods prolong more than flash
floods)
• Flood tides, which occur at the river mouth connected to the sea; and
• Storm surges, which occur along the beach because of tropical cyclones in the sea.

Floods in India:
Floods are recurrent phenomena in India. Due to different climatic and rainfall patterns in
different regions, it has been the experience that, while some parts are suffering devastating
floods, another part is suffering drought at the same time. With the increase in population and
development activity, there has been a tendency to occupy the floodplains, which has resulted in
damage of a more serious nature over the years. Often, because of the varying rainfall
distribution, areas which are not traditionally prone to floods also experience severe inundation.
Thus, floods are the single most frequent disaster faced by the country.

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A drought is an arid period with less or even no rainfall occurring than is the usual case. It
occurs whenever the groundwater level and river flow decrease and a water shortage for human,
industry, service and agricultural uses occurs. It can be classified into 3 types: meteorological
drought, evaporation from the soil and plants is more than the annual rainfall; hydrological
drought, characterized by a meteorological phenomenal change with prolonged period with only
a small quantity of average rainfall intensity-groundwater and river water levels remain low
causing a lack of water during the dry season; and agriculture drought, the situation of water
shortage for agriculture which may occasionally occur in the early rainy season and widely
causes a destruction of agriculture.

CAUSES OF FLOOD AND DRAUGHT

Flooding is caused by the inadequate capacity within the banks of the rivers to contain the high
flows brought down from the upper catchments due to heavy rainfall. Flooding is accentuated by
erosion and silting of the river beds, resulting in a reduction of the carrying capacity of river
channels; earthquakes and landslides leading to changes in river courses and obstructions to
flow; synchronization of floods in the main and tributary rivers; retardation due to tidal effects;
encroachment of floodplains; and haphazard and unplanned growth of urban areas. Some parts
of the country, mainly coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal,
experience cyclones, which are often accompanied by heavy rainfall leads to flooding

Drought is a recurrent natural feature which results from the lack of precipitation over an
extended period of time (e.g. a season or several years). It is a temporary deviation of rainfall
and moisture conditions from the mean, thus differing from aridity and seasonal aridity. It is a
creeping phenomenon and, unlike other hazards, can last for months and, in severe cases, years.
Drought affects virtually all climatic regions and more than one-half of the Earth is susceptible
to droughts every year. Regions with higher variability of rainfall and runoff are more
vulnerable. Depending on the likely impact, the phenomenon of drought can be categorized in
several ways, such as meteorological, hydrological and agricultural. The spatial extent of
drought is much greater than for any other hazard and is not limited to basin or political
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boundaries. Long- lasting droughts lead to degradation of soil, plant and animal habitats and
social disruption.

During a severe drought in 1917/1918, the Jhelum River in Kashmir dried up completely. Out of
the 328 million ha geographical area of India, 107 million ha (nearly one-third), spread over
administrative districts in several states, is affected by drought. It includes about 39 per cent of
cultivable land and about 29 per cent of our population. India has experienced 22 major droughts
during the last 131 years. The 2002 drought, one of the severest in India, affected 56 per cent of
its geographical area, the livelihoods of 300 million people and 150 million cattle in 18 states.
The Government of India had to provide relief amounting to about US$ 4500 million.

Damage from floods

More significant than the loss of life and damage to property is the sense of insecurity and fear
in the minds of people living in the floodplains. The after-effects of flood, such as the suffering
of survivors, spread of disease, non-availability of essential commodities and medicines and loss
of dwellings, make floods the most feared of the natural disasters faced by humankind.

Damage from droughts

A drought occurs, if in an extended period of time levels of precipitation — whether it be rain,

snow or hail — are lower than usual. Because every organism relies on water to survive, periods
of drought can be catastrophic. Immediately, animals and plants might suffer from dehydration
and die, but with enough time, the effects of drought can develop into an extensive web of
ecological issues. As aquatic landscapes dry out, it forces their animal inhabitants into smaller
and smaller areas, making them susceptible to predation, disease and increased competition.
Terrestrial species face a similar dilemma, as droughts kill the vegetation they rely on for cover
and nesting. With so much vegetation dead and dry, large swaths of land can become
increasingly flammable and result in larger and more intense wildfires. Even the plants that
remain are not safe. For trees, drought-related stress reduces their ability to repel wood-boring

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insects, whose numbers will likely increase as the fungi that control these pests lack the water to
reproduce.

Many of these impacts will persist even after dry spells end. It takes animal and plant
populations time to recover. Reservoirs and other sources of water may require weeks to refill.
Burned forests may take decades to reach their past size and density.

Climate change — caused by the human production of greenhouse gases — has intensified
droughts in arid regions, where rising temperatures increase the rate that water evaporates.
Elsewhere, climate change has affected how air moves throughout the atmosphere, further
desiccating areas that were already dry.

Poor land management can also increase the likelihood of drought. Deforestation — as well as
any other activities that clear vegetation — kill the plants that would otherwise release water
into the air. Meanwhile, unsustainable agricultural practices can diminish the capacity of the
Earth to hold water, contributing to drought as soil dries faster and less water filters into
underground reservoirs.

Extensive water use in farmland or highly populated residential areas can deplete a region’s
natural water supply, leading to long-term decreases in availability. In the case of rivers, water
consumption upstream can affect water’s availability downstream.

The acceleration of climate change means that droughts are becoming a greater issue in arid
regions. In western portions of the contiguous U.S., intense and long-lasting droughts are now a
common occurrence, decimating crops and aggravating severe wildfires that break records year
after year.

Means to lessen the impact of future droughts

While it is impossible to completely control the weather, humans can prepare for or lessen the
impact of future droughts. Conserving water and making sure to use it efficiently is a good start.
Cities can fix worn-down infrastructure to prevent leaks, require the use of water-efficient

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technologies or even use landscape designs that rely on drought-tolerant plants. Cities could also
capture stormwater to bolster water supplies by using plants, permeable pavement and even
water containers. Implementing more efficient irrigation techniques, growing crops that require
less water and using farming practices that preserve soil quality could save upward of 1 trillion
gallons annually in the U.S. But to protect the wildlife and people that will suffer from more
frequent and severe droughts, we must address climate change. Shifting away from fossil fuels
to cleaner renewable energy sources will help, but increasing the efficiency and reducing the
consumption of energy in general is also necessary to fully resolve the issue.

Inter-State River Water Disputes in India

The Inter-State River Water Disputes are one of the most contiguous issues in the Indian
federalism today. In extreme cases, it may hamper the relationship between the different states.
The recent cases of the Cauvery Water Dispute and the Satluj Yamuna Link Canal case are
examples.

Various Inter-State Water Disputes Tribunals have been constituted so far, but it had its own
problems.

Water in the Constitution of India

Water is a State subject as per entry 17 of State List and thus states are empowered to enact
legislation on water.

1. Entry 17 of State List deals with water i.e. water supply, irrigation, canal, drainage,
embankments, water storage and water power.

2. Entry 56 of Union List gives power to the Union Government for the regulation and
development of inter-state rivers and river valleys to the extent declared by Parliament to
be expedient in the public interest.

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Article 262 of the Indian Constitution:

Constituent Assembly anticipated the emergence of water disputes in future. A specific

provision of Article 262 is mentioned in the constitution itself due to the sensitivity of such
disputes.

In the case of disputes relating to waters, Article 262 provides:

• Parliament may by law provide for the adjudication of any dispute or complaint with
respect to the use, distribution or control of the waters of, or in, any inter-State River or
river valley.

• Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution, Parliament may, by law provide that

neither the Supreme Court nor any other court shall exercise jurisdiction in respect of any
such dispute or complaint.

Parliament has enacted two laws according to Article 262:

1) River Board Act, 1956

The purpose of this Act was to enable the Union Government to create Boards for
Interstate Rivers and river valleys in consultation with State Governments. The
objective of Boards is to advise on the inter-state basin to prepare development
scheme and to prevent the emergence of conflicts.

2) Inter-State Water Dispute Act, 1956

Provisions of the Act: In case, if a particular state or states approach to Union Government for
the constitution of the tribunal:

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1. Central Government should try to resolve the matter by consultation among the
aggrieved states.

2. In case, if it does not work, then it may constitute the tribunal.

The composition of the River Water Tribunal: Tribunal is constituted by the Chief Justice of
India and it consists of the sitting judge of Supreme Court and the other two judges who can be
from Supreme Court or High Court.

Inter-State river water disputes under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (ISRWD), 1956

Rivers States

Krishna Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka

Godavari Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,

Madhya Pradesh and Odisha

Narmada Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,

Maharashtra

Cauvery Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Union

Territory of Pondicherry

Krishna Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and

Maharashtra

Model/ Mandovi/Mahadayi/ Goa, Karnataka and Mahasrashtra

Vansadhara Andhra Pradesh & Odisha

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The Case Studies of recent Inter-State River Water Disputes in the news:

1) Cauvery Water Dispute

Cauvery is an inter‐State basin having its origin Karnataka and flowing through Tamil Nadu and
Puducherry before out falling in the Bay of Bengal. The states concerned are Kerala, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu and Puducherry (UT).

• In 1892, there was an agreement between the princely state of Mysore and British
province of Madras.

• In 1924, a new agreement for 50 years i.e. till 1974.

• In 1970, Tamil Nadu Government approached to Central Government to constitute

the tribunal and also in the same year Tamil Nadu Farmers Association filed a civil
suit in Supreme Court.

• In 1986, Tamil Nadu again made a formal request to constitute the tribunal.

• In 1990, the tribunal was set up on the directions of Supreme Court.

• The Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal passed an Interim order in 1991 directing the
State of Karnataka to release Water from its reservoirs in Karnataka so as to ensure 205
Thousand Million Cubic Feet (TMC) of water into Mettur reservoir of Tamil Nadu in a
water year (1st June to 31st May) with monthly and weekly stipulations. Karnataka
government refused to obey the interim award.

• After 16 years of hearing and an interim order, the Tribunal announced its final order in
2007 allocating 419 tmcft water to Tamil Nadu and 270 tmcft to Karnataka. Kerala was
given 30 tmcft and Puducherry got 7 tmc ft. Both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu filed
review petitions in Supreme Court.

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• Karnataka has not accepted the order and refused to release the water to Tamil Nadu. In
2013, Contempt of Court was issued against Karnataka.

• In 2016, a petition was filed in Supreme Court to seeking the release of water by
Karnataka as per the guidelines of the tribunal. When Supreme Court ordered Karnataka
to release water, Kannada people protested the decision saying they do not have enough
water.

• The matter is still sub judice (under judicial consideration).

2) Satluj Yamuna Link Canal Issue

• The issue links to the dispute between Punjab and Haryana after the formation of
the Haryana in 1966. The parties involved are Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.

• To enable Haryana to use its share of the waters of the Satluj and Beas, a canal
linking the Satluj with the Yamuna was planned and in 1982 its construction was
started.

• Due to the protest by Punjab, the tribunal was set up in 1986 which gave an award
in 1987 recommending Punjab’s share as 5 Million Acre Feet (MAF) of water and
Haryana’s as 3.83 MAF.

• Punjab contested the award and held that the tribunal overestimated the availability of
the water. Haryana approached Supreme Court for the construction of the SYL canal in
2002. Supreme Court directed Punjab to complete the construction of canal within 12
months.

• In July 2004, Punjab Assembly passed Punjab Termination of Agreements Act scrapping
water-sharing agreements with other states and thus jeopardizing the construction of the
canal. This Act has been declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 2016 under
President Advice (Article 143). In response, Punjab Assembly passed the Act according
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to which the land acquired for the canal would be denotified and returned to the original
owners.

• Supreme Court has directed both Punjab and Haryana to maintain status quo in the Sutlej
Yamuna Link canal controversy.

• In the recent hearing, Centre has offered as a mediator to both Punjab and Haryana.

Conclusion

India has 2.4% of the World’s land, 18% of the world population but only 4% of the renewable
water resource. If sufficient steps are not taken, the uneven water distribution will increase the
possibility of water conflicts. Inter-state river water disputes hinder the cooperative federalism
of our nation and provide parochial mindset making regional issues superior to national issues.
One should realise that our nation is a family in which all states are its members. So disputes
must be resolved by dialogue and talks and the political opportunism must be avoided. The issue
can be resolved by discussing the dispute in Inter-State Council which can be beneficial in
providing a platform for the talks. Such disputes must be resolved as early as possible to ensure
greater cooperation between the states.

Case-studies of international river water conflicts

China-India: The Brahmaputra River

The Brahmaputra River is a 2,900 km river that originates in Tibet and flows through India’s
Arunachal Pradesh state before merging with the Ganges and draining into the Bay of Bengal in
Bangladesh. It is considered an important resource in all three countries that it flows through: for
energy-hungry China, it provides hydroelectricity; and for India and Bangladesh, a key
agricultural lifeline in otherwise overpopulated and arid region.

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The Brahmaputra River is particularly important to the agricultural industry in India’s Assam
plains, and worries have arisen recently regarding a series of hydroelectric plants that China is in
various stages of construction on its Tibetan plateau. Some experts believe that these projects
will reduce the flow of the Brahmaputra in India, compounding an already tenuous water
situation in the affected areas.

While there is no comprehensive bilateral treaty in place for the sustainable management of the
Brahmaputra River, some steps have been taken recently by the Modi and Xi Jinping
governments, mainly in the form of an information sharing agreement for hydrological data. But
until cooperation becomes more entrenched, the Brahmaputra River remains a potential source
of friction between two of the world’s preeminent rising power

Ethiopia-Egypt: Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and the Nile River

In 2011, the Ethiopian government announced plans to build the ‘Grand Ethiopian Renaissance
Dam’ – a $4.1 bn, 6,000MW-capacity hydroelectric dam on the Blue Nile near the border with
Sudan. The dam is meant to capitalize on Ethiopia’s considerable hydroelectric potential and
provide electricity for not just Ethiopians but regional populations as well. However, some fear
that this dam will trade one problem for another. And by shoring up its energy supply, Ethiopia
might be jeopardizing its water security by increasing the volatility of a river that already has a
long history of being difficult to predict.

The potential impact on water supplies, particularly downriver, is a grave concern in Egypt;
which, unlike neighboring Sudan, has consistently opposed the construction of the Grand
Ethiopian Renaissance Dam from the start. Cairo’s legal argument defers to treaties from 1929
and 1959 that guarantee Egypt two-thirds of the Nile’s waters along with the right to veto any
upstream projects – a right that was ignored when Ethiopia unilaterally went ahead with
construction.

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Efforts to foster a multilateral approach to developing the Nile basin have so far failed, as
evidenced in the 2010 Cooperative Framework Agreement that saw upriver countries join
together against the downriver countries (Egypt, Sudan) who refuse to give up their historical
rights despite changing economic power dynamics in the region.

The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam is expected to be completed sometime in 2017

Turkey-Iraq: Ilisu Dam and the Tigris River

Turkey’s newly re-elected Erdogan government has been keen to push through the final part of
its long-running Southeastern Anatolian Project: the Ilisu Dam on the Tigris River near the
border of Syria. The Ilisu Dam is the most recent in a long line of Turkish projects meant to tap
into the hydroelectric potential of both the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and once completed the
Ilisu Dam will generate 1,200 MW, or roughly 2% of Turkey’s energy needs.

The Southeastern Anatolian Project entailed the construction of some 22 dams and 19
hydroelectric plants in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, so this is an international water conflict that
has existed for quite some time. The big loser in Turkey’s upstream activities is Iraq and, to a
lesser degree, Syria. Iraq has historically enjoyed the lion’s share of these rivers’ waters, which
have historically supplied the seasonal marshlands needed to grow food. But these waters have
been receding over the past decade, even well before the Ilisu Dam’s completion. In fact,
northern Iraq and Syria are currently experiencing droughts so protracted that some analysts are
questioning whether or not they have contributed to the rise of ISIS in the region. Some of the
more extreme projections hold that, owing to a combination of climate change and upstream
dam activity, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers won’t have sufficient flow to reach the sea by as
early as 2040.

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ENERGY RESOURCES

The term energy resources describe the potential an area has for various ways of generating
electricity. Energy resources are all forms of fuels used in the modern world, either for heating,
generation of electrical energy, or for other forms of energy conversion processes.

• Energy sources could be classified as Renewable and Non-renewable

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly such as
solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen.

Solar Energy

Solar energy or Green Power is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a
range of technologies such as solar power to generate electricity. Sun is the primary source of
solar energy. It is a sustainable resource, meaning it doesn't run out, but can be maintained
because the sun shines almost every day.

Advantages

• It is a perennial, natural source and free

• It is available in plenty

• It is non-polluting

• It does not emit any green-house gases

• Solar energy offers decentralization in most (sunny) locations, meaning self-reliant

societies.

• One of the biggest advantages of solar energy is the ability to avoid the politics and price
volatility that is increasingly characterizing fossil fuel markets.

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• It doesn’t result in the destruction of forests and eco-systems that occurs with most fossil
fuel operations.

Disadvantages

• Dependent on change in seasons / weather – hence they may not be used always

• Requires high initial investments for productive use

• Solar system doesn’t work at night directly but the battery bank, which stores energy
during day-time can be used during night.

• Solar electricity storage technology has not reached its potential yet.

• Solar panels are bulky. This is particularly true of the higher-efficiency, traditional
silicon crystalline wafer solar modules.

Technologies for productive use of solar energy

Solar energy can be used to generate electricity. Through Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) cells, solar
radiation gets converted into DC electricity directly. The generated electricity can either be used
as it is or can be stored in the battery. The stored electrical energy can be used when solar energy
is not available. SPV is nowadays successfully used for home and street lighting and water
pumping in villages. In hilly areas, solar water heating is also being used.

Wind Energy

Wind is the natural movement of air across the land or sea. Wind power or wind
energy describes the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or
electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This
mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water), or
can be converted into electricity by a generator. India now has the 4th largest wind power
installed capacity in the world which has reached 39990.10 MW (as on Oct, 2021). Private
agencies own 95 % of the wind farms in India.

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Advantages

• It is environment friendly

• Its freely and abundantly available

Disadvantages

• High investment requirement

• Wind speed is not uniform all the time which affects power generated

Biomass and Biofuels

What is biomass?

Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Biomass contains
stored chemical energy from the sun. Plants produce biomass through photosynthesis. Biomass
can be burned directly for heat or converted to renewable liquid and gaseous fuels through
various processes. The use of biomass fuels for transportation and for electricity generation is
increasing in many developed countries as a means of avoiding carbon dioxide emissions from
fossil fuel use.

Biomass sources for energy include:

• Wood and wood processing wastes—firewood, wood pellets, and wood chips, lumber
and furniture mill sawdust and waste, and black liquor from pulp and paper mills

• Agricultural crops and waste materials—corn, soybeans, sugar cane, switchgrass, woody
plants, and algae, and crop and food processing residues

• Biogenic materials in municipal solid waste—paper, cotton, and wool products, and
food, yard, and wood wastes

• Animal manure and human sewage

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Direct combustion is the most common method for converting biomass to useful energy. All
biomass can be burned directly for heating buildings and water, for industrial process heat, and
for generating electricity in steam turbines.

Thermochemical conversion of biomass includes pyrolysis and gasification. Both are thermal
decomposition processes in which biomass feedstock materials are heated in closed, pressurized
vessels called gassifiers at high temperatures. They mainly differ in the process temperatures
and amount of oxygen present during the conversion process.

• Pyrolysis entails heating organic materials to 800–900oF (400–500 oC) in the near
complete absence of free oxygen. Biomass pyrolysis produces fuels such as charcoal,
bio-oil, renewable diesel, methane, and hydrogen.

• Gasification entails heating organic materials to 1,400–1700oF (800–900oC) with

injections of controlled amounts of free oxygen and/or steam into the vessel to produce a
carbon monoxide and hydrogen rich gas called synthesis gas or syngas. Syngas can be
used as a fuel for diesel engines, for heating, and for generating electricity in gas
turbines. It can also be treated to separate the hydrogen from the gas, and the hydrogen
can be burned or used in fuel cells. The syngas can be further processed to produce liquid
fuels using the Fischer–Tropsch process.

A chemical conversion process known as transesterification is used for converting vegetable

oils, animal fats, and greases into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), which are used to
produce biodiesel.

Biological conversion includes fermentation to convert biomass into ethanol and anaerobic
digestion to produce renewable natural gas. Ethanol is used as a vehicle fuel. Renewable natural
gas—also called biogas or biomethane—is produced in anaerobic digesters at sewage treatment
plants and at dairy and livestock operations. It also forms in and may be captured from solid
waste landfills. Properly treated renewable natural gas has the same uses as fossil fuel natural
gas.

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Advantages of using Biomass as an energy substituent

• Available locally and to some extent abundantly

• It is a relatively clean fuel when compared to fossil fuels. In a way biomass also cleans
our environment by trapping carbon- di-oxide

Disadvantages of using Biomass as an energy substituent

• Drudgery involved in collection of fuel

• During indoor cooking and in the absence of sufficient ventilation fuels such as dung
cause air pollution which is a serious health hazard

• Unsustainable and inefficient use of biomass often leads to destruction of vegetation and
hence environmental degradation.

Water and Geothermal:

Water

The flowing water and the tides in the sea are sources of energy. India is endowed with large
hydropower potential of 1,45,320 MW. Heavy investments are made on large projects. In recent
years, hydel energy (through mini and small hydel power plants) is also used to reach power to
remote villages which are unelectrified. The estimated potential of Small Hydro Power is about
15,000 MW in the country. As on Oct. 2021, the installed capacity of Small hydro projects (upto
3MW) amounts to 4821.81 MW.

Advantages of Small Hydro Power as an energy source

• Reliable, eco-friendly, mature and proven technology.

• More suited for the sensitive mountain ecology.

• Can be exploited wherever sufficient water flows -along small streams, medium to small
rivers and also harness abundant sun-shine, wind-energy and other bio-energy sources.

• Does not involve setting up of large dams or problems of deforestation, submergence or

rehabilitation.

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• Non-polluting, entails no waste or production of toxic gases, environment friendly.

• Small capital investment and short gestation period.

• Minimal transmission losses.

• With careful planning and adoption of simplified and standardized designs, SHP
installations are becoming increasingly competitive with thermal, diesel or gas based
power generation.

Ocean energy

Oceans cover 70 percent of the earth’s surface and represent an enormous amount of energy.
Although currently under-utilised, Ocean energy is mostly exploited by just a few technologies:
Wave, Tidal, Current Energy and Ocean Thermal Energy.

1. Tidal Energy: The tidal cycle occurs every 12 hours due to the gravitational force of the
moon. The difference in water height from low tide and high tide is potential energy.
Similar to traditional hydropower generated from dams, tidal water can be captured in a
barrage across an estuary during high tide and forced through a hydro-turbine during low
tide. The capital cost for tidal energy power plants is very high due to high civil
construction and high-power purchase tariff. To capture sufficient power from the tidal
energy potential, the height of high tide must be at least five meters (16 feet) greater than
low tide. Total identified potential of Tidal Energy is about 12455 MW, with potential
locations identified at Khambat & Kutch regions, and large backwaters, where barrage
technology could be used.

2. Wave Energy: Wave energy is generated by the movement of a device either floating on
the surface of the ocean or moored to the ocean floor. Many different techniques for
converting wave energy to electric power have been studied. Wave conversion devices
that float on the surface have joints hinged together that bend with the waves. This
kinetic energy pumps fluid through turbines and creates electric power. Stationary wave
energy conversion devices use pressure fluctuations produced in long tubes from the
waves swelling up and down. This bobbing motion drives a turbine when critical
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pressure is reached. Other stationary platforms capture water from waves on their
platforms. This water is allowed to runoff through narrow pipes that flow through a
typical hydraulic turbine. The total theoretical potential of wave energy in India along the
country’s coast is estimated to be about 40,000 MW – these are preliminary estimates.
This energy is however less intensive than what is available in more northern and
southern latitudes.

3. Current Energy: Marine current is ocean water moving in one direction. This ocean
current is known as the Gulf Stream. Tides also create currents that flow in two
directions. Kinetic energy can be captured from the Gulf Stream and other tidal currents
with submerged turbines that are very similar in appearance to miniature wind turbines.
Similar to wind turbines, the movement of the marine current moves the rotor blades to
generate electric power.

4. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): Ocean thermal energy conversion, or

OTEC, uses ocean temperature differences from the surface to depths lower than 1,000
meters, to extract energy. A temperature difference of only 20°C can yield usable energy.
Research focuses on two types of OTEC technologies to extract thermal energy and
convert it to electric power: closed cycle and open cycle. In the closed cycle method, a
working fluid, such as ammonia, is pumped through a heat exchanger and vaporized.
This vaporized steam runs a turbine. The cold water found at the depths of the ocean
condenses the vapor back to a fluid where it returns to the heat exchanger. In the open
cycle system, the warm surface water is pressurized in a vacuum chamber and converted
to steam to run the turbine. The steam is then condensed using cold ocean water from
lower depths. OTEC has a theoretical potential of 180,000 MW in India subject to
suitable technological evolution.

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Geothermal Energy

Geothermal Energy is heat stored in earth crust and being used for electric generation and also
for direct heat application. Geothermal literally means heat generated by earth. Various resource
assessment carried out by agencies established the potential 10600 MWt /1000MWe spread over
340 hot springs across seven Geothermal provinces/11 states. [MWt= Megawatt thermal input,
MWe= Megawatt electric output]

The availability of geothermal power is most environment-friendly power, round the year 24x7
basis, not affected by the severity of climate during 6 to 7 winter months like hydro and like
dependence on sun in solar PV.

Non-Renewable Energy:

Coal, Oil and Natural gas are the non-renewable sources of energy. They are also called fossil
fuels as they are products of plants that lived thousands of years ago. Fossil fuels are the
predominantly used energy sources today. India is one of the largest producer and consumer of
coal in the world, with estimated reserves of around 344.02 billion tonnes (as of 2020). Coal
supplies about 51.9 % of the country's total production of energy by commercial sources. The
estimated reserves of crude oil in India in 2020 stood at 603.37 million tonnes. India consumes
about 254 MT of crude oil annually, and more than 70% of it is imported. Burning fossil fuels
cause great amount of environmental pollution.

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GLOBAL ENERGY DEMAND

Global energy demand is increasing to fulfil the growing human population needs, with fossil
fuels being the most dominating source. One of the most significant environmental problems
associated with fossil fuel use is the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), leading to global
warming and creating problems related to climate change. Increasing the supply of renewable
energy sources would replace fossil sources and significantly limit the dominating carbon-
intensive fossil fuels in the future energy system. Therefore, the development and utilization of
renewable energy sources such as solar, bioenergy, wind, hydro, and geothermal are essential to
mitigate the environmental problems associated with GHG emissions. Bioenergy, where
biomass produced via photosynthesis can be converted to biofuel (biogas), heat, and electricity,
is the most widely used form of renewable energy.

2022-23 Prepared by: Department of Chemistry ( Brainware University, Barasat)