UNIT 2

Partially Ordered Sets

Consider a relation R on a set S satisfying the following properties:

1. R is reflexive, i.e., xRx for every x ∈ S.

2. R is antisymmetric, i.e., if xRy and yRx, then x = y.

3. R is transitive, i.e., xRy and yRz, then xRz.

Then R is called a partial order relation, and the set S together with partial order is
called a partially order set or POSET and is denoted by (S, ≤).

Example:

1. The set N of natural numbers form a poset under the relation '≤' because
firstly x ≤ x, secondly, if x ≤ y and y ≤ x, then we have x = y and lastly if x ≤
y and y ≤ z, it implies x ≤ z for all x, y, z ∈ N.

2. The set N of natural numbers under divisibility i.e., 'x divides y' forms a poset
because x/x for every x ∈ N. Also if x/y and y/x, we have x = y. Again if x/y,
y/z we have x/z, for every x, y, z ∈ N.

3. Consider a set S = {1, 2} and power set of S is P(S). The relation of set
inclusion ⊆ is a partial order. Since, for any sets A, B, C in P (S), firstly we
have A ⊆ A, secondly, if A ⊆B and B⊆A, then we have A = B. Lastly, if A ⊆B
and B ⊆C,then A⊆C. Hence, (P(S), ⊆) is a poset.

Elements of POSET:
1. Maximal Element: An element a ∈ A is called a maximal element of A if
there is no element in c in A such that a ≤ c.

2. Minimal Element: An element b ∈ A is called a minimal element of A if there

is no element in c in A such that c ≤ b.
Note: There can be more than one maximal or more than one minimal element.

Example: Determine all the maximal and minimal elements of the poset whose
Hasse diagram is shown in fig:

Solution: The maximal elements are b and f.

The minimal elements are d and e.

Comparable Elements:
Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called comparable if

a≤b or b≤a
R R

Non-Comparable Elements:
Consider an ordered set A. Two elements a and b of set A are called non-comparable
if neither a ≤ b nor b ≤ a.

Example: Consider A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} is ordered by divisibility.

Determine all the comparable and non-comparable pairs of elements of A.

Solution: The comparable pairs of elements of A are:

{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 5}, {1, 6}, {1, 10}, {1, 15}, {1, 30}
{2, 6}, {2, 10}, {2, 30}
{3, 6}, {3, 15}, {3, 30}
{5, 10}, {5, 15}, {5, 30}
{6, 30}, {10, 30}, {15, 30}

The non-comparable pair of elements of A are:

{2, 3}, {2, 5}, {2, 15}
{3, 5}, {3, 10}, {5, 6}, {6, 10}, {6, 15}, {10, 15}

Linearly Ordered Set:

Consider an ordered set A. The set A is called linearly ordered set or totally ordered
set, if every pair of elements in A is comparable.

Example: The set of positive integers I+ with the usual order ≤ is a linearly ordered
set.

Hasse Diagrams
It is a useful tool, which completely describes the associated partial order.
Therefore, it is also called an ordering diagram. It is very easy to convert a directed
graph of a relation on a set A to an equivalent Hasse diagram. Therefore, while
drawing a Hasse diagram following points must be remembered.

1. The vertices in the Hasse diagram are denoted by points rather than by
circles.

2. Since a partial order is reflexive, hence each vertex of A must be related to

itself, so the edges from a vertex to itself are deleted in Hasse diagram.

3. Since a partial order is transitive, hence whenever aRb, bRc, we have aRc.
Eliminate all edges that are implied by the transitive property in Hasse
diagram, i.e., Delete edge from a to c but retain the other two edges.

4. If a vertex 'a' is connected to vertex 'b' by an edge, i.e., aRb, then the vertex
'b' appears above vertex 'a'. Therefore, the arrow may be omitted from the
edges in the Hasse diagram.

The Hasse diagram is much simpler than the directed graph of the partial order.

Example: Consider the set A = {4, 5, 6, 7}. Let R be the relation ≤ on A. Draw the
directed graph and the Hasse diagram of R.

Solution: The relation ≤ on the set A is given by

R = {{4, 5}, {4, 6}, {4, 7}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {6, 7}, {4, 4}, {5, 5}, {6, 6},
{7, 7}}

The directed graph of the relation R is as shown in fig:

To draw the Hasse diagram of partial order, apply the following points:

1. Delete all edges implied by reflexive property i.e.

(4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6), (7, 7)

2. Delete all edges implied by transitive property i.e.

(4, 7), (5, 7), (4, 6)

3. Replace the circles representing the vertices by dots.

4. Omit the arrows.

The Hasse diagram is as shown in fig:

Upper Bound: Consider B be a subset of a partially ordered set A. An element x ∈ A

is called an upper bound of B if y ≤ x for every y ∈ B.

Lower Bound: Consider B be a subset of a partially ordered set A. An element z ∈ A

is called a lower bound of B if z ≤ x for every x ∈ B.
Example: Consider the poset A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} be ordered shown in fig. Also
let B = {c, d, e}. Determine the upper and lower bound of B.

Solution: The upper bound of B is e, f, and g because every element of B is '≤' e, f,

and g.

The lower bounds of B are a and b because a and b are '≤' every elements of B.

Least Upper Bound (SUPREMUM):

Let A be a subset of a partially ordered set S. An element M in S is called an upper
bound of A if M succeeds every element of A, i.e. if, for every x in A, we have x <=M

If an upper bound of A precedes every other upper bound of A, then it is called the
supremum of A and is denoted by Sup (A)

Greatest Lower Bound (INFIMUM):

An element m in a poset S is called a lower bound of a subset A of S if m precedes
every element of A, i.e. if, for every y in A, we have m <=y

If a lower bound of A succeeds every other lower bound of A, then it is called the
infimum of A and is denoted by Inf (A)

Example: Determine the least upper bound and greatest lower bound of B = {a, b,
c} if they exist, of the poset whose Hasse diagram is shown in fig:
Solution: The least upper bound is c.

The greatest lower bound is k.

Lattices:
Let L be a non-empty set closed under two binary operations called meet and join,
denoted by ∧ and ∨. Then L is called a lattice if the following axioms hold where a, b,
c are elements in L:

1) Commutative Law: -
(a) a ∧ b = b ∧ a (b) a ∨ b = b ∨ a

2) Associative Law:-
(a) (a ∧ b)∧ c = a ∧(b∧ c) (b) (a ∨ b) ∨ c = a ∨ (b ∨ c)

3) Absorption Law: -
(a) a ∧ ( a ∨ b) = a (b) a ∨ ( a ∧ b) = a

Duality:
The dual of any statement in a lattice (L,∧ ,∨ ) is defined to be a statement that is
obtained by interchanging ∧ an ∨.

For example, the dual of a ∧ (b ∨ a) = a ∨ a is a ∨ (b ∧ a )= a ∧ a

Bounded Lattices:
A lattice L is called a bounded lattice if it has greatest element 1 and a least element
0.
Example:

1. The power set P(S) of the set S under the operations of intersection and
union is a bounded lattice since ∅ is the least element of P(S) and the set S is
the greatest element of P(S).

2. The set of +ve integer I+ under the usual order of ≤ is not a bounded lattice
since it has a least element 1 but the greatest element does not exist.

Properties of Bounded Lattices:

If L is a bounded lattice, then for any element a ∈ L, we have the following
identities:

1. a ∨ 1 = 1

2. a ∧1= a

3. a ∨0=a

4. a ∧0=0

Theorem: Prove that every finite lattice L = {a1,a2,a3....an} is bounded.

Proof: We have given the finite lattice:

L = {a1,a2,a3....an}

Thus, the greatest element of Lattices L is a 1∨ a2∨ a3∨....∨an.

Also, the least element of lattice L is a1∧ a2∧a3∧....∧an.

Since, the greatest and least elements exist for every finite lattice. Hence, L is
bounded.

Sub-Lattices:
Consider a non-empty subset L1 of a lattice L. Then L1 is called a sub-lattice of L if
L1 itself is a lattice i.e., the operation of L i.e., a ∨ b ∈ L1 and a ∧ b ∈ L1 whenever a ∈
L1 and b ∈ L1.

Example: Consider the lattice of all +ve integers I+ under the operation of
divisibility. The lattice Dn of all divisors of n > 1 is a sub-lattice of I+.

Determine all the sub-lattices of D30 that contain at least four elements,
D30={1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}.

Solution: The sub-lattices of D30 that contain at least four elements are as follows:
1. {1, 2, 6, 30} 2. {1, 2, 3, 30}
3. {1, 5, 15, 30} 4. {1, 3, 6, 30}
5. {1, 5, 10, 30} 6. {1, 3, 15, 30}
7. {2, 6, 10, 30}

Isomorphic Lattices:
Two lattices L1 and L2 are called isomorphic lattices if there is a bijection from L 1 to
L2 i.e., f: L1⟶ L2, such that f (a ∧ b) =f(a)∧ f(b) and f (a ∨ b) = f (a) ∨ f (b)

Example: Determine whether the lattices shown in fig are isomorphic.

Solution: The lattices shown in fig are isomorphic. Consider the mapping f = {(a,
1), (b, 2), (c, 3), (d, 4)}.For example f (b ∧ c) = f (a) = 1. Also, we have f (b) ∧ f(c)
=2∧3=1

Distributive Lattice:
A lattice L is called distributive lattice if for any elements a, b and c of L,it satisfies
following distributive properties:

1. a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)

2. a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)

If the lattice L does not satisfies the above properties, it is called a non-distributive
lattice.

Example:

1. The power set P (S) of the set S under the operation of intersection and union
is a distributive function. Since,
a ∩ (b ∪ c) = (a ∩ b) ∪ (a ∩ c)
and, also a ∪ (b ∩ c) = (a ∪ b) ∩ (a ∪c) for any sets a, b and c of P(S).

2. The lattice shown in fig II is a distributive. Since, it satisfies the distributive

properties for all ordered triples which are taken from 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Complements and complemented lattices:
Let L be a bounded lattice with lower bound o and upper bound I. Let a be an
element if L. An element x in L is called a complement of a if a ∨ x = I and a ∧ x = 0

A lattice L is said to be complemented if L is bounded and every element in L has a

complement.

Example: Determine the complement of a and c in fig:

Solution: The complement of a is d. Since, a ∨ d = 1 and a ∧ d = 0

The complement of c does not exist. Since, there does not exist any element c such
that c ∨ c'=1 and c ∧ c'= 0.

Modular Lattice:
A lattice (L, ∧,∨) is called a modular lattice if a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ c whenever a ≤
c.

Direct Product of Lattices:

Let (L1 ∨1 ∧1)and (L2 ∨2 ∧2) be two lattices. Then (L, ∧,∨) is the direct product of
lattices, where L = L1 x L2 in which the binary operation ∨(join) and ∧(meet) on L are
such that for any (a1,b1)and (a2,b2) in L.
 (a1,b1)∨( a2,b2 )=(a1 ∨1 a2,b1 ∨2 b2)
and (a1,b1) ∧ ( a2,b2 )=(a1 ∧1 a2,b1 ∧2 b2).

Example: Consider a lattice (L, ≤) as shown in fig. where L = {1, 2}. Determine the
lattices (L2, ≤), where L2=L x L.

Solution: The lattice (L2, ≤) is shown in fig: