MM1201: Material Science (3-0-0)

Dr. Anushree Dutta, Assistant Professor

Dept. of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
Email Id: [email protected]

UNIT-V

NIT Jamshedpur
1
 Selection of Engineering materials
Factors affecting the selection of materials:
(i) Component shape
(ii) Dimensional tolerance
(iii) Mechanical properties
(iv) Fabrication (Manufacturing) requirements
(v) Service requirements
(vi) Cost
(vii) Availability of the material

Procedure for materials selection:

The selection of an appropriate material and its subsequent conversion into a useful product with
desired shape and properties can be a rather complex process. Nearly every engineered item goes
through a sequence of activities that includes: design material, selection process, selection production
evaluation and possible redesign or modification
 Common Engineering Metals and Alloys

• Ferrous Alloys. Carbon Steel. Low-Alloy Steel. Tool Steel.

Stainless Steel. Cast Iron.
• Aluminum Alloys.
• Nickel Alloys.
• Copper Alloys.
• Titanium Alloys
 Classification of Metals
• Ferrous - those based on iron
– Steel: Alloys of Fe and C (containing 0.02 to 1.4wt.% carbon), and may contain appreciable concentrations of
other alloying elements; Steel can be low carbon steel (below<0.25 wt.% % C), medium carbon steel(0.25-0.6
wt.% % C) and high carbon steel (0.6-1.4 wt.% C)
– Cast iron: Alloys of Fe and C (2.1 to 4.0 wt.% carbon) used in casting
– Low-alloy steel: contain less than about 8% total alloying ingredients. Low-alloy steels are typically stronger
than carbon steels and have better corrosion resistance. Some low-alloy steels are designated as high-strength
low-alloy (HSLA) steels.
– Tool steel: Alloying elements are typically chosen to optimize hardness, wear resistance, and toughness
– Stainless steel: good corrosion resistance, mostly due to the addition of chromium as an alloying ingredient.
Stainless steels have a chromium composition of at least 11%. Passivation occurs with chromium content at or
above 12%, in which case a protective inert film of chromic oxide forms over the material and prevents
oxidation. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is a result of this passivation
• Nonferrous - all other metals
– Aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, zinc, lead, tin, molybdenum, tungsten, gold, silver, platinum,
and others
• Superalloys
 Copper and its alloys
• Copper and copper-based alloys, possessing a desirable combination of physical properties.
• Unalloyed copper is so soft and ductile that it is difficult to machine; also, it has an almost unlimited
capacity to be cold worked. Furthermore, it is highly resistant to corrosion in diverse environments
including the ambient atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial chemicals.
• The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of copper may be improved by alloying.
• The most common copper alloys are the brasses, for which zinc, as a substitutional impurity, is the
predominant alloying element.
• In copper–zinc alloy, α-phase is stable for concentrations up to approximately 35 wt% Zn. This phase
has an FCC crystal structure, and α-brasses are relatively soft, ductile, and easily cold worked.
• Brass alloys having a higher zinc content contain both α and β phases at room temperature. The β
phase has an ordered BCC crystal structure and is harder and stronger than the α phase.
• Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval, and cartridge brass; muntz metal; and gilding metal.
• The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin, aluminum, silicon, and
nickel.These alloys are somewhat stronger than the brasses, yet they still have a high degree of
corrosion resistance
• Generally, bronzes are utilized when, in addition to corrosion resistance, good tensile properties are
required
 Aluminium and its alloys
• Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2.7 g/cm 3 as compared to 7.9
g/cm3 for steel), high electrical and thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some
common environments, including the ambient atmosphere.
• Many of these alloys are easily formed by virtue of high ductility; this is evidenced by the thin
aluminum foil sheet into which the relatively pure material may be rolled.
• Because aluminum has an FCC crystal structure, its ductility is retained even at very low
temperatures. The chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature [660°C], which restricts
the maximum temperature at which it can be used.
• The mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by cold work and by alloying; however, both
processes tend to diminish resistance to corrosion. Principal alloying elements include Cu, Mg, Si,
Mn, and Zn.
• Recent attention has been given to alloys of aluminum and other low-density metals (e.g., Mg and Ti)
as engineering materials for transportation, to effect reductions in fuel consumption. An important
characteristic of these materials is specific strength, which is quantified by the tensile strength–
specific gravity ratio.
• Duralumin, strong, hard, lightweight alloy of aluminium, widely used in aircraft construction
• A generation of new aluminum–lithium alloys have been developed recently for use by the aircraft
and aerospace industries. These materials have relatively low densities (between about 2.5 and 2.6
g/cm3), high specific moduli (elastic modulus–specific gravity ratios), and excellent fatigue and low-
temperature toughness properties. Furthermore, some of them may be precipitation hardened.
 Polymers
What is a polymer?
Poly = many; Mer = unit -> Polymer = many units.
 Polymers are long chain molecules produced by linking small repeat (monomers) together. In each
polymer molecule, the atoms are bound together by covalent bonds.
 Polymers usually consists of carbon plus one or more other elements such as H, O, and Cl
 There are many ways to link different types of monomers to form
 Polymers exhibits very different physical properties compared to the monomers, dependent on the
length of the chain repeat repeat
repeat
unit (mer) unit (mer) unit (mer)

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H Cl H Cl H Cl H CH3 H CH3 H CH3
Polyethylene (PE) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polypropylene (PP)

•Polymer: large molecules made up of many monomers The process of interconnecting monomers through covalent
•Monomer: simpler substance of which polymer is made bonds and forming polymer is called polymerization
 Degree of polymerization (DP)

• The total number (n) of single monomer units combined together to form a
polymer is known as degree of polymerization (DP). DP affect physical
properties of polymers.
• On the basis of this physical property, the polymers with high degree of
polymerization are known as high polymers while those having comparatively low
degree of polymerization are known as oligopolymers.
• Polymer molecular weight (MW) is the molecular mass of a polymer chain.
• Compound with very high molecular weight (generally varies 103-107 g/mol)
 Physical Properties of Polymers

Composed of very large molecules

Low modulus of elasticity (low stiffness)
Low tensile and compressive strengths
Can be crystalline or semi-crystalline structure
Deformation is very sensitive to temperature
Low thermal and electrical conductivity(good insulator)
Some polymers Creep at room temperatures
Low temperatures make plastics brittle
Plastic deformation
 Classification of polymers by Chain structure

Increase in Strength
Linear Polymers: Have long and single chains. Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate (plexiglass), nylon, fluorocarbons (teflon)
Branched Polymers: Have side-branch chains connected to the main ones. Many elastomers
or polymeric rubbers
Cross-linked Polymers: Adjacent linear chains joined one to another at various position by
covalent bonds. Many elastomers or polymeric rubbers are cross-linked (vulcanization
process); most thermosetting polymers
Network Polymers: Multifunctional monomers forming three or more active covalent bonds
make three dimensional networks. Epoxies, phenol-formaldehydes.
 Classification of Polymers by molecular forces
 Elastomers: intermolecular forces of attraction
between the polymer chain are the weakest (Vander
Waals Forces). Exhibits significant elastic behavior.
Example: vulcanized rubber, natural rubber
POLYMERS
 Fibre: intermolecular forces of attraction are the
PLASTICS ELASTOMERS FIBRE strongest which are either H-bonds or dipole-dipole
interactions. Example: Orlon, polyesters
THERMOPLASTICS

THERMOSETS  Plastics: intermolecular forces of attraction are

intermediate to those of Elastomers and Fibres.

Classification based on - Thermoplastics polymers Example:

behavior with rising polypropylene, polythene
temperature
- Thermosetting polymers Example: Bakelite,
phenol-formaldehyde resin
 Ceramics
• The word "ceramics" comes from the Greek word "Keramos" meaning "Pottery," "Potter's
Clay," or "a Potter." This Greek word is related to an old Sanskrit root meaning "to burn" but
was primarily used to mean "burnt stuff."
• Ceramics are defined as products made from inorganic materials having non-metallic
properties, usually processed at a high temperature at some time during their manufacture.

Clay (abundantly available, consisting of fine particles of hydrous aluminium silicates

and other minerals used in making bricks, tile, and pottery)
Silica (the basis for nearly all glass products)
Alumina and silicon carbide (two abrasive materials used in grinding)
Carbides – metal carbides such as tungsten carbide and titanium carbide
Nitrides – metal and semimetal nitrides such as titanium nitride and boron nitride

Examples: bathtubs, washbowls, sinks, electrical insulating devices, water and sewerage pipes,
bricks, hollow tile, glazed building tile, floor and wall tile, earthenware, porcelain enamel and glass.
 Ceramics properties
• Ceramic products have number of outstanding properties which determine their usefulness. One of
the most unusual of these is their great durability. This durability can be divided into three types:
chemical, mechanical and thermal.

• Chemical Durability - The high chemical durability of the great majority of ceramic products makes
them resistant to almost all acids, alkalis, and organic solvents.

• Of further importance is the fact that ceramic materials are not affected by oxygen. The materials
generally contained in the ceramic products have already combined with all of the oxygen for which
they have an affinity, and therefore, are not affected further by the presence of oxygen in their
environment.

• Mechanical Durability: The mechanical durability of ceramics is evidenced by their strength and
hardness. The compressive strengths of ceramic materials are extremely high. The hardness makes
ceramic materials very resistant to abrasion. It is this property which makes them useful for floors,
and for the grinding of metals and other materials.

• Thermal Durability Most ceramics have the ability to withstand high temperatures. This is why they
are useful in the production of all types of heat-containing equipment such as kilns for the ceramic
industry, and such products as the inner linings of fireplaces and home heating furnaces.
 Classification

• Technical Ceramics can also be classified into two distinct material categories:
• Oxides-based: Silicate and non-silicate oxide ceramics (alumina, zirconia, etc)
• Non-oxides: Carbides, borides, nitrides, silicides
 Composites
• A judicious combination of two or more materials that produces a synergistic effect. A material
system composed of two or more physically distinct phases whose combination produces
aggregate properties that are different from those of its constituents.
• To obtain a more desirable combination of properties e.g., low density and high strength.
• Used for buildings, bridges, and structures such as boat hulls, swimming pool panels, bathtubs,
storage tanks, etc.
• Most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding
environments
• Material in selecting a composite material, an optimum combination of properties is usually
sought, rather than one particular property. Fuselage and wings of an aircraft must be
lightweight and be strong, stiff, and tough
• Several fiber reinforced polymers possess this combination of properties Example: natural
rubber alone is relatively weak; adding significant amounts of carbon block to natural rubber
increases its strength dramatically.
Composite Materials
 Classification of composites

Composites could be natural or synthetic.

Natural composites - composite materials that occur in nature or have been

produced by civilizations for many years Examples: wood, concrete, asphalt

Synthetic composites - modern material systems normally associated with the

manufacturing industries, in which the components are first produced separately and
then combined in a controlled way to achieve the desired structure, properties, and
part geometry
 Synthetic composites example

Example from Early Composites:

Mixing mud and straw together: mud building bricks used since ancient times,
which is formed by combining mud bricks and straws. This allowed the composite
to have the strength and resistance of mud bricks and the tensile strength of straw.

Reinforced concrete: In recent past, it observed that adding metals rods or wires to
the concrete can increase tensile (bending) strength. Concrete containing such rods
or wires is called reinforced concrete
 Importance of composites

• Composites can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight
• The ratios of strength to weight and stiffness to weight are several times
greater than steel or aluminum.
• Strengthen of parts
• Net shape or Near net shape Manufacturing
• Fatigue properties are generally better than for common engineering metals.
• Toughness is often greater too.
• Composites can be designed that do not corrode like steel
• Possible to achieve combinations of properties not attainable with metals,
ceramics, or polymers
 Classification

• Composites can be classified by their matrix material which include:

-Metal matrix composites (MMC’s)
-Ceramic matrix composites (CMC’s)
-Polymer matrix composites (PMC’s)

Matrix Rule: Role of the matrix is to bind the reinforcement

together so that the applied stress is distributed among the
reinforcement and to protect the surface of the reinforcement
from being damaged.

Reinforcement Rule: The reinforcements impart their

special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the
matrix properties
 Classification

1) Polymer-Matrix Composites (PMCs): consists of a polymer resin as matrix with

fibres (glass, carbon, and aramid) a reinforcement medium. Used in the greatest diversity
and largest quantity of the composite materials

2) Metal-Matrix Composites (MMCs): composed of a ductile metallic matrix

(aluminum, magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) with fibres (boron; carbon, graphite, SiC,
alumina, etc.) as a reinforcement .

3) Ceramic-Matrix Composites (CMCs): composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded

fibers of other ceramic material (SiC; alumina; Silicon Nitride) ) (dispersed phase).
 Reinforcements Types
• Reinforcing phase, is in the form of:
• fibers,
• Whiskers,
• Sheets &
• particles
• and is embedded in the other materials (the matrix phase).

b
a
Composites According to Type of
Reinforcement a: particles, b: whiskers,
c: continuous fibers, d: sheet laminate
C d
 Why are composites not used more in engineering?

• High cost of raw materials

• Lack of design standards
• Few ‘mass production’ processes available
• Properties of laminated composites:
- low through-thickness strength
- low interlaminar shear strength
• No ‘off the shelf’ properties - performance depends on quality of manufacture
Building Materials
 Building Materials
For any type of building projects like commercial, residential, hospital, industrial & townships
constructions building materials are required.

• Natural materials - The materials which are obtained from natural sources like earth,
plants, and animals are called natural materials. Eg. Stone, timber, bitumen, lime, soil etc

• Artificial materials – The materials which are produced in the industries by chemical or
mechanical processes are called artificial materials. Eg. Bricks, tiles, cement, precast
concrete, plywood, glass, plastic etc

• Finishing materials – The materials which are produces for the use of finishing purposes
of building constructions are called finishing materials. Eg. Lime mortar, cement mortar,
special mortar, Plaster Of Paris, paint, distemper, varnishes, cladding materials, etc

• Recycled construction materials – The materials which are recycled from the waste
construction or destruction are called recycled materials. Eg. Rich husk, baggage, coir fiber,
straw, coconut tree trunk, plastic waste, polymer waste, rubber waste, coconut leaves, fly-
ash, blast furnace, slag, granite, marbles, polishing wastes
 Transformer Materials
• An Iron–Silicon Alloy That Is used in Transformer Cores

• The most traditional transformers include windings that are classified as primary, secondary and
tertiary and the current that flows between these windings. The passage of current through these
wires is guided by the influence of magnetic cores. The core has high magnetic permeability and it
serves as a permanent magnet with a substantial amount of ferromagnetic field present. Magnetic
cores are made of such different materials. Few examples are
- Hard Iron
- Silicon Steel
- Carbonyl Iron
- Amorphous Steel
- Amorphous Metals
- Ferrite Ceramics
- Laminated Magnetic Cores